CE 331 Notes

CE 331 – Hydraulic Engineering
Spring 2019
Magdeburg Bridge, Germany
$500 million
Hydraulic Engineering
• Analysis and design of systems that control the flow
of water:
– Quantity
– Timing
– Distribution
• Water in:
– Pipes: Pressurized pipes & gravity flow
– Channels
– Reservoirs
• Related to: legal, economic, financial,
political, and social topics
What does a hydraulic engineer do?
What is the design process?
Flow Resistance
is a function of…
• Fluid viscosity
• Flow conditions
– Velocity
– Depth
– Uniformity of conduit
– Degree of turbulence
• Flow cross section geometry & boundary roughness
• Laminar flow (Re < 2000): energy loss due to shear stress,
slippage of laminar layers
• Turbulent flow (Re > 4000): energy loss due to vortex
generation
Moody Diagram
The different “degrees” of turbulence…
Example:
Water flows 30 meters
per minute through a
0.25 m diameter pipe,
ks = 0.26 mm.
What is f?
Note: ks = ε
Forces Acting on Steady Uniform Flow

Circ. Pipe, flowing full Equilibrium of forces acting on the control volume in the direction of flow.
p1 A p2 A JLA sin D W 0 PL 0
'p A
…where
hf …and
R
W0L J P
hf
JR
(Circ. Pipe, flowing full)
α = angle the pipe makes with horizontal 4W 0 L

p1 = average pressure over control surface 1 (N/m2) hf
p2 = average pressure over control surface 2 (N/m2) Jd Open Channel Flow
A = cross sectional area of control surface (m2)

L = distance between control surface 1 and control surface 2 (m)
τ0 = boundary shear stress (N/m2)
P = perimeter of the pipe (m)
γ = specific weight of water (N/m3)
Sf = slope of the energy grade line (m/m)
S0 = pipe slope relative to horizontal (m/m)
Note: Sf = hf/L, so: W0 JRS f
Example: Shear Stress

• A 150-mm inclined pipe has a slope of 0.1 m/m. If the
observed shear stress on the pipe is 45 N/m2:
a) What is the slope of the energy grade line?
b) What is pressure change over 100 m of pipe length?
W0 JRS f
A
R
Pw
Piezometer
• A device for measuring
hf
the location of the L
hydraulic grade line

p1
HGL z1
J
For closed-conduit flow, the pipe

– Decrease in HGL occurs as slope (so) is independent of the
slope of the energy grade line
a result of pipe friction (Sf = hf /L)
§p · L V2 L V2
'¨¨ z1 ¸¸ f hf f
©J ¹ D 2g D 2g
Shear Velocity, v*
A fun way to express shear stress with units of velocity.
W0L L V2 8W 0
hf + hf f fV 2
JR D 2g U
Friction factor is directly

proportional to the boundary
shear stress
W0 kg m m 3
U
N m3
[ ] 2
m kg

s 2 m 2 kg
m2
s2
[ ] v* 2
W0 V 8
v*
U v* f
Relates shear velocity (and thus, wall
shear stress) with Darcy friction factor
Flow Resistance in Open Channels

B=T W 0 JRS f
y
V A
R
b H
1 Pw
t
• The same flow resistance / flow rate relationships

that exist in pipe flow apply in open channel flow.
For steady, uniform flow in an open channel,

the channel bed slope (so) is equal to the
slope of the energy grade line (sf = hf/L)
Example: What is R for a trapezoidal

channel, in terms of b and y?
Chezy equation
• Velocity and depth depend on balance with friction and
gravitational forces
V C RS f
– Chezy roughness coefficient, C [=] L0.5/T From Pg 201

– C describes boundary roughness characteristics 8g
C
– English units: very rough: 10 → 140 :very smooth f
– SI units: very rough: 5 → 77 :very smooth
• Manning later improved on the Chezy equation
Velocity Distribution
• Laminar flow
throughout pipe
– velocity distribution
parabolic
• Fully turbulent flow in

pipe
– Velocity distribution
logarithmic
– There is a region, close
to the pipe wall, where
conditions are laminar
Shear Stress Distribution: Turbulent Flow
δ = thickness of the
boundary layer
τ = shear stress
y0 = hydraulic depth
(normal depth for open
channels, radius for pipe)
• Boundary layer (laminar sublayer) thickness

depends on flow turbulence (Re) and roughness of
the boundary
– Fast flow velocity → small laminar boundary layer δ
– Slow flow velocity → big laminar boundary layer δ
Equivalent Roughness, ε
Material ε (mm) ε (ft)
Glass, drawn tubing (copper, brass) 0.0015 0.000005
Wrought iron, steel (new) 0.045 0.00015

Galvanized iron (new) 0.15 0.0005
Cast iron (new) 0.26 0.00085
Wood stave (smooth) 0.18 0.0006
Wood stave (rough) 0.9 0.003
Concrete (smooth) 0.3 0.001
Concrete (rough) 3.0 0.01
Riveted Steel (few rivets) 0.9 0.003
Riveted Steel (many rivets) 9 0.03
Corrugated metal 45 0.15
Calculating Boundary Layer Thickness, δ

• Morris and Wiggert:
11.6v W0
G
v = kinematic viscosity v*
v* = shear velocity U
v*
• If δ > 1.7ε, laminar sublayer dominates:
hydraulically smooth surface Turbulent zone
– Roughness projections are submerged Laminar zone
by the smooth laminar layer
• If δ < 0.08ε, roughness elements dominate:

hydraulically rough surface
– Roughness projections protrude out Turbulent zone
of the laminar sublayer Laminar zone
Example: Energy Loss

due to Pipe Friction
L V2
hf f
D 2g
Q = 12,000 L/min, with a required pressure of 350 kPa (at the office
building’s ground floor). The pipe is 250 m long and 250 mm diameter.
Friction loss is 16.4 m (neglect local losses).
• What must be the Water Surface Elevation in the water storage tank?
• What is the Darcy Friction factor, f ?
• What is the thickness of the boundary layer according to the Morris &
Wiggert Criteria? 2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
z1 z2 hL
J 2g J 2g
Moody Diagram, pg. 227
Finding Friction Factor f

• When Re ≤ 2000, then f = 64/Re
• Otherwise, Colebrook equation:
An iterative procedure, since it is an
1 § ks 2.51 · implicit equation. (Best solved with a
2 log¨ ¸
f ¨ 3.7 D Re f ¸ good calculator, or on the computer.)
© ¹
ks is equivalent sand roughness,

and is sometimes also assigned
the variable ε
Example: Using Colebrook

Microsoft Excel – Trial & Error; Goal Seek / Solver
1 § ks 2.51 ·
2 log¨ ¸
f ¨ 3.7 D Re f ¸
© ¹
• Find the friction factor for a 136 mm diameter galvanized iron

pipe (ks = 0.15 mm) when 200 L/s of water is flowing through.
VD
Re v = 1 x 10-6 m2/s at 20°C
v
Solving the Colebrook Equation with HP 50g calculator
1 § ks 2.51 ·
2 log¨ ¸
f ¨ 3.7 D Re f ¸
© ¹
Find the friction factor for a 136 mm diameter galvanized iron pipe
(ks = 0.15 mm) where Reynolds number is 1,872,413.
D = 136 mm
ks = 0.15 mm
Re = 1,872,413
Finding friction factor f

• Since the Colebrook equation is implicit, it is more
convenient to use The Jain Equation:
1.325
f 2
ª § ks 5.74 ·º
«ln ¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
The Jain Equation is only an estimate of f and is valid between

the ranges of 10-6 ≤ ks/D ≤ 10-2 or 5,000 ≤ Re ≤ 108
Example: Using Jain

What is f based on the Jain Equation?
1.325
f 2
ª § ks 5.74 ·º
«ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
• From the previous example
– ks = 0.15 mm This semester you may use the
– D = 136 mm Jain equation unless specifically
– Re= 1,872,000 instructed to utilize Colebrook in
the problem statement.
Blasius Equation
• For Reynolds Number up to 100,000
0.316
f
Re 0.25
Example: What is the Blasius-derived DOESN’T APPLY – outside

f value for previous case? of Re range!
??? Pipe Sizing
• Sometimes you know the expected headloss

§ p1 · §p · Velocity head is sometimes omitted from
hf ¨¨ z1 ¸¸ ¨¨ 2 z2 ¸¸
©J ¹ © J ¹ calculations because it is relatively small
compared to pressure and elevation heads.
• You know the flow rate needed
– By demand estimates, population estimates, etc.
• The pipe diameter (and material type) must be designed to match

these conditions
– What’s the difference between design and analysis?
Using Darcy Weisbach Equation in Pipes of

Unknown Diameter
1/ 5
fLV 2 § 8 LQ 2 ·
hf becomes
D ¨ f¸
D2g ¨ h gS 2 ¸
© f ¹
… but f is not a constant, since it depends on the flow

rate and the relative roughness…
Diameter needed for a given flowrate,
pipe length, and headloss.
The accurate, difficult approach… (implicit)
• Assume an f value
– Range is 0.008 – 0.038
1/ 5
• Find the diameter for this f § 8 LQ 2 ·
D ¨ f¸ What size is needed?
¨ h gS 2 ¸
© f ¹
• Calculate Re for these conditions

• Find ks/D (ks depends on pipe material)
• Use Re and ks/D to find a new f (use Colebrook or Jain)
• Use the new f to repeat the process until the new f agrees with
the assumed f
Example: Pipe Diameter Required (excel)

• For a length of 40 meters, what diameter of cast iron pipe
(0.26 mm) is required to achieve 300 L/s?
1/ 5
§ 8 LQ 2 ·
D = ?? With assumed f D ¨ f¸
Q = 300 L/s ¨ h gS 2 ¸
© f ¹
hf = 45 m
Calculate Re and Ks/D
1.325
f
Use Re and Ks/D to 1 § ks 2.51 ·¸ or ª § ks 5.74 · º
2
2 log ¨ 0.9 ¸ »
find new f f ¨ 3.7 D Re f ¸ «ln ¨
© ¹ ¬ © 3.7 D Re ¹ ¼
Repeat starting with new f, and repeat until the difference between input and output f is very small
Diameter needed for a given flowrate and headloss.
The “easy”, less accurate approach… (explicit)
0.04
ª 4.75 5.2
º
1.25 § LQ · § ·
2
What size is needed?
D 0.66«k s ¨ ¸ vQ 9.4 ¨ L ¸ »
« ¨ gh ¸ ¨ gh ¸ »
¬ © f ¹ © f ¹ ¼
3000 ≤ Re ≤ 3 x 108 10-6 ≤ ks/D ≤ 2 x 10-2

*** Results are usually within 5% of the iterative approach***
Note: ks, hf, and L in units of meters; Q in units of m3/s

Frictional Losses in Pipelines
• Darcy-Weisbach equation: fL V 2
– Most accurate hf
– Most flexible (you can use it for any liquid)
D 2g
– But requires you to find f – which depends on flow conditions
• Hazen Williams equation

– Limited conditions (water only, pipe diameter 50 mm to 1850 mm, T at 16 °C, V = 3 m/s or less)
– Is easier to use (roughness factor is a constant)
V = Average pipe flow velocity

SI Units British Gravitational (BG) Units CH = Hazen-Williams .
roughness coefficient
0.63 0.54 0.63 0.54
V 0.849C H Rh Sf V 1.318CH Rh Sf Sf = Slope of the energy .
grade line = hf/L
1.85 1.85 Rh = Hydraulic Radius = A/Pw
L § V · L § V ·
hf 6.82 ¨ ¸¸ hf 3.02 ¨ ¸¸ L = pipe length
D1.17 ¨© C H ¹ D1.17 ¨© C H ¹ D = pipe diameter
Hazen-Williams Example: Find Pressure

• A spigot receives water (γ = 9790 N/m3) through 760 m of cast
iron pipe (CH = 130). What is the water pressure at the pipe:spigot
junction when the flow rate is 11.0 L/s?
1.85 WSE = 103.5 m

L § V ·
hf 6.82 ¨ ¸¸
D1.17 ¨© C H ¹ Flow
2 2
Pipe diameter: p1 V1 p2 V2
Elev = 55 m z1 hp z2 hf
100 mm
J 2g J 2g
Hazen-Williams Example: Find Flow Rate

• A spigot receives water (γ = 9790 N/m3) through 760 m of cast
iron pipe (CH = 130). What is the maximum flow rate that can be
achieved (i.e., “free flow”)?
0.63 0.54
V 0.849C H Rh Sf WSE = 103.5 m
Flow
2 2
Pipe diameter: p1 V1 p2 V2
Elev = 55 m z1 hp z2 hf
100 mm
J 2g J 2g
Frictional loss equations, cont.
• Manning’s Equation
– Also easy to calculate
– Depends on a roughness coefficient “n”
– Can be used in closed-conduit pipe flow, most common in open-channel
flow calculations
B
y
1
b t=1
SI Units British Gravitational (BG) Units
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 1.485 2 / 3 1/ 2 hf
V Rh S f V Rh S f Sf
n n L
Hazen-Williams & Manning

Pipe Roughness Coefficients
Headloss Method Comparison

• Water flows at a velocity of 1 m/s in a 150 mm new ductile iron pipe. Estimate
the head loss over 500 m using
– (a) Hazen Williams (use CH = 130)
– (b) Manning (use n = 0.013)
– (c) Darcy-Weisbach (assume ks = 0.26 mm from Table 3.1)
1.85
L § V ·
hf 6.82 ¨ ¸¸
D1.17 ¨© C H ¹
n 2 LV 2
hf 6.35
D4/3
1.325
fL V 2 f 2
hf ª § ks 5.74 ·º
D 2g «ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
Example with pump– Iterative Pipe Diameter
• In the diagram below, a 10 horsepower pump is installed to
deliver water 800 ft away through a cast iron (ϵ = 0.00085 ft)
pipe. For Q = 1.5 ft3/s, what pipe diameter is needed?
1/ 5
§ 8LQ 2 ·
35 ft
800 ft
D ¨ f¸
¨ h gS 2 ¸
© f ¹
2 2 1.325 ν = 1.22 x 10-5 ft2/s

p1 V1 p2 V2 f
z1 hp z2 hf ª § ks 5.74 ·º
2
J 2g J 2g «ln ¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»

JQh p
¬ © ¹¼ HP
550
The Three Reservoir Problem…

• Water flows
B • Out of highest reservoir
QB-D A
• Into lowest reservoir
?
D QA-D • Middle reservoir...?

QD-C
• Flow rate depends on
C headloss through each pipe
fLV 2
hf
D2g
• But V is unknown, and f is a
function of V
• The problem is:
• We will use continuity: check
– What direction is the water flowing? flow in to D = flow out of D
– How much flow through each pipe?
The Three Reservoir Problem – Iterative Solution Method

1. Guess some value for the total head at D (hD).
A
2. Find equations for headloss in terms of f and V.
3. Assume values for f (or use most recently calculated value).
QA-D B
4. Find the corresponding V values.
5. Compute the Re for these V values.
QB-D
D 6. Calculate new f and a new V.
7. Calculate the Q through each pipe (Q=VA).
QD-C
C
8. Check continuity equation at junction D:
VD • If QOUT > QIN then lower the guess of hD
Re
v • If QOUT < QIN then raise the guess of hD
• If QOUT = QIN then done
hD hA h f hD hC h f
Governing
Equations: p V2 fLV 2
head Z hf
J 2g D2 g
Example: Three Reservoirs Find:
120 ft • Flow through each pipe
B
• Pressure at D.
110 ft
1. Guess some value for the total head at D (hD).

QB-D
1000 ft, 12-in,
QA-D
??
A 2. Find equations for headloss in terms of f and V.
cast iron 3. Assume values for f (or use most recently calculated value).
750 ft, 8-in, cast iron 4. Find the corresponding V values.
D
70 ft QD-C 5. Compute the Re for these V values.

6. Calculate new f and a new V.
500 ft, 8-in,
galvanized iron
7. Calculate the Q through each pipe (Q=VA).
C
8. Check continuity equation at junction D:
• If QOUT > QIN then lower the guess of hD
• If QOUT < QIN then raise the guess of hD
Kinematic visc.: • If QOUT = QIN then done
0.00001138 ft2/s
ZD = 85 ft fLV 2
p V2
hD hB h f hD hC h f head Z hf
J 2g D2 g
What is the flow through each pipe?

120 ft
B 110 ft
QB-D
QA-D
A
1000 ft, 12-in,
cast iron
750 ft, 8-in, cast iron
D
70 ft QD-C Method Summary

500 ft, 8-in, • Assume hD
galvanized iron
C • Find corresponding f and V values
• Check continuity: IN = OUT?
Numerical method solution criteria:

Convergence: (1) “guess” f matches calculated f within 2% and (2) flow IN=OUT
Non-circular Conduits
• Closed-conduit flow is sometimes through
non-circular pipelines
In this case, we can no longer substitute diameter into flow equations.

Non-circular conduits: Terms
• Hydraulic Radius: A
Rh
– Pw: wetted perimeter Pw
f L V 2
• Darcy-Weisbach becomes: hf
4 Rh 2 g
UV (4 Rh )
• Reynolds Number is: Re
P
H
• And relative roughness is:
4 Rh
Example: Non-circular pipe

• Water flows through a 12 m long concrete (ks =
1.6 mm) box culvert (1.25 m x 1.25 m) at a flow
rate of 0.4 m3/s.
– Assuming it is flowing full, what is the headloss?
A UV (4 Rh ) f
1.325
Rh Re 2
Pw P ª § ks / 4 Rh 5.74 ·º
«ln¨ 3.7 Re 0.9 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
f L V 2
hf
4 Rh 2 g
Local (Minor) Energy Losses, ho

hL ho h f
ho Kl
V2
ho Ke
V1 V2 2
2g 2g
• Loss of energy at a single point

• Is usually less severe than energy loss due to pipe friction
– Sometimes called “minor losses”
• Can include features such as:
– Pipe entrances
– Pipe contractions & expansions
– Bends (sharp, vaned, smooth)
– Fittings: valves, Tees, elbows
r/d 1 2 4 6 10 16 20
kb 0.35 0.19 0.17 0.22 0.32 0.38 0.42
Loss Coefficients, cont…
K values http://www.metropumps.com/ResourcesFrictionLossData.pdf
Globe Valve
Ball Valve
Example: Hazen-Williams and Local Loss
Water flows through the 350 mm diameter pipe (CH = 120)
shown below at a velocity of 4.0 m/s. Location A and B are 1 km
apart, and B is 12.5 m higher than A. What is the pressure in
the pipe at location B?
Pipe Bend,
K = 0.15 Pb = ??? kPa
V2
Pa = 650 kPa ho ¦ K 2g
Globe Valve, 1.85
K = 10.0 L § V ·
hf 6.82 ¨ ¸
Pipe Bend, D1.17 ¨© C H ¸¹
K = 0.25
“Fully Turbulent” Flow

• How do you find f if you
assume fully turbulent flow?
1.325 If fully 1.325

f 2 turbulent f 2
ª § ks 5.74 ·º ª § ks · º
«ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸» «ln¨ 3.7 D ¸»
¬ © ¹¼ ¬ © ¹¼
If fully
1 § ks 2.51 ·
2 log ¨ ¸ turbulent 1 § ks ·
¨ 3.7 D Re f ¸ 2 log ¨ ¸
f © ¹ f © 3.7 D ¹
Multiple Pipelines: Nodal Method

• Basic Principle:
– Apply the continuity equation at points.
– Put another way, “what goes in to a junction must go out of a junction.”
QX
QZ QZ = QX + QY
QY
QB = ??
• Application: QA= known QA= known
QC = ??
QB = QA – QC & QC = QA – QB
QB = ??
QA= known
QA= known
fLV 2
hf
QC = ?? D2g
Pipe B and Pipe C. What if:

• Same L, same D, same material type (i.e., same f ). Flows?
• Same D, same L, Pipe B is more “rough” than Pipe C. Flows?
• DC>DB, same L, same material type. Flows?
• DB>DC, LB>LC, Pipe C is more “rough”. Flows?
What we f B LBVB
2
f C LCVC
2
know: h f ( B) h f (C ) so The headloss through

DB 2 g DC 2 g each flow path is equal.
QB = ??
QA= known
QA= known
2 fLV 2
1
hf
Top view
QC = ??
D2 g
It doesn’t matter how you get from 1 to 2 – through the

top pipe or the bottom pipe –
• Total headloss between the two points is the same
regardless of the route
What is the energy equation…?
Multiple Pipelines and Energy (Head): Nodal Method

§ fL · QQ Q
h2 h1 ¨ 6ko ¸ 2
hp
©D ¹ 2 gA Q
h1 = Head at the upstream end of the pipe [=] m
h2 = Head at the downstream end of the pipe [=] m
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
L = Length of pipe section [=] m
D = Pipe diameter [=] m
Σko = Sum of local losses
Q and |Q| = Flowrate (and absolute value of the flowrate) [=] m3/s
A = Area of the pipe connecting 1 and 2 [=] m2
g = Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
hp = Head added by pumps in the pipeline [=] m
• Definition of positive flow is from 1 to 2 1 2

Nodal Method
To find flow rates, and h2.
§ fL · QQ Q
h2 h1 ¨ 6k m ¸ 2
hp
©D ¹ 2 gA Q
• Compute total head at 1 (pressure, elevation, velocity)
• Find head at 2 in terms of QB (through pipe B)
• Find head at 2 in terms of QC (through pipe C)
• Equate QB in terms of QC QB = ??
QA= 3 m3/s
• Use continuity: QA= 3 m3/s
2
1
– QB + QC = 3 m3/s (at the junction)
QC = ??
• h2 = h1 – losses (friction + local) + gains (pump)
Nodal Method Example: Find flows through 2 and 3.

2 2
f 2 L2V2 f 3 L3V3
D2 2 g D3 2 g
3 m3/s
1.325
f 2
ª § H ·º
Galvanized iron pipe, ϵ =0.15 mm «ln ¨ 3.7 D ¸ »
¬ © ¹¼
1.325
Assume fully turbulent flow, and neglect local losses. f 2
ª § ks 5.74 ·º
«ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»
Dia. Length Area ¬ © ¹¼
Pipe Pipe V (m/s) f
(mm) (m) (m2)
What to do to find pD?
1 850 600 1 0.5674 5.287 0.0134
2 500 500 2 0.1963 ? 0.0149
§ fL · QQ Q
3 400 550 3 0.1257 ? 0.0157 h2 h1 ¨ 6k o ¸ 2
hp
4 750 520 4 0.4418 6.790 0.0137 ©D ¹ 2 gA Q
Multiple Parallel Pipes: (handout)
Step 5
Calculate Reynolds number, and find updated f values for each pipe. If “old” f
is within 1% of “new” f, and if the individual flow rates equal the known total
flow, then end.
Step 1 Step 6
Find an initial “guess” value of f for each pipe, based on the assumption of fully Write an equation relating V1 and V2 (i.e., V2 in terms of V1).
turbulent flow.
Step 7
Step 2 Write an equation relating V1 and V3 (i.e., V3 in terms of V1).
Using the concept that the headloss through each pipe is equal, write an
equation relating V1 and V2 (i.e., V2 in terms of V1). Step 8
2 2 Q = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3
f1 L1V1 f 2 L2V2
D1 2 g D2 2 g
Substitute in values of V2 and V3 in terms of V1, and solve for V1.
Step 3 Step 9
Write an equation relating V1 and V3 (i.e., V3 in terms of V1). Calculate Reynolds number, and find updated f values for each pipe. Check: is
“old” f is within 1% of “new” f ? Does the sum of individual pipe flows equal
Step 4 the total known flow?
Q = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3
Substitute in values of V2 and V3 in terms of V1, and solve for V1.
Homework Tip
Use Nodal Method
h2 h1 rQ 2
Water flows from 1 towards 2
• Must assume flow direction in each pipe fL

• Continuity must be satisfied r
• Consider: where is the head known? Then…
2 gA2 D
– Head decreases in the direction of flow
– Head increases against the direction of flow
– Flow direction is validated if the solution you find is real and positive
– Otherwise, adjust flow direction assumption
• Use F-T assumption, check, iterate
Loop (Hardy Cross) Method

• Is used for more complex water systems than the Nodal
Method
How much water goes
through each pipe?
• Requires an initial flow rate guess and many iterations to balance flows &
compute resulting headlosses
– By hand (very time consuming)
– By spreadsheet (takes some time to set up – but iterations are easy)
– By computer (integrated into design packages: powerful, but takes time to
learn the software)
– The “Hardy-Cross” method is the basis for today’s hydraulic design

packages: it ensures energy ‘balance’ for each route the water can take
Hardy Cross Method: Preliminary Calcs.

• Assumes that headloss, hL, in each pipe is proportional to the
discharge, Q, raised to some power n (for Darcy-Weisbach, n =2):
hL rQ n
• You must calculate r for every pipe in the system
• Different formulas for r depending on (1) which head loss equation is

used, and (2) type of head losses
– If all head loss is due to pipe friction (that’s what we’ll usually
assume), then:
fL
r
2 gA 2 D
Calculating r: Example
• 400 L/s is flowing through a 750-mm concrete (ϵ = 1.6 mm)
pipe segment that is 85 m long.
– Find r
fL
r
2 gA2 D
1.325
f 2
ª § H 5.74 ·º
«ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»
¬ © ¹¼
r has units of s2/m5
Hardy-Cross Procedure
Handout
¦ rQ Q
1) How many loops are there?
2) What is n?
'Q
¦ nr Q
3) Define direction
4) Label pipes and loops
5) Assign “guess” flow rates
6) Find r for all pipes
7) Find rQ|Q| and nr|Q| for every pipe in a loop
8) Sum rQ|Q| and nr|Q| for each loop (sum them per loop, not all loops)
9) Find ΔQ for each loop
10) Apply correction factor to each pipe in the loop Example
¦ rQ Q
1 2
Loop 2
'Q
Loop 1
3
¦ nr Q
4
Hardy-Cross Example #2
• Manually identify initial flow direction & flow rate guess.
– Satisfy continuity at each junction. Write guess on the paper.
• Create the following column headings in spreadsheet
Abs V Q%
Iteration Loop Pipe ϵ (m) D (m) A (m2) L (m) f r n Q rQ|Q| nr|Q| ΔQ Corr. Q Re
(m/s) change
• Use ‘fully turbulent flow’ for first f values

• Use Jain equation for second iteration f values
• When converged, find hf through each pipe
• Starting at “A”, find head at each junction, use that to find pressure
Example:
1. Find the flow rate in each pipe.
All pipes, ϵ = 0.3 mm 2. Find the pressure at each node. (Assume level terrain.)
1.325
f 2
ª § ks 5.74 ·º PA = 600 kPa
«ln ¨ 3.7 D Re0.9 ¸» A
¬ © ¹¼ 1 m3/s 220 m; 500 mm
B
hL rQ n 0.6 m3/s
fL 100 m; 650 mm
r 180 m; 400 mm 1.6 m3/s
2 gA2 D
150 m; 600 mm
C
80 m; 700 mm E
80 m; 850 mm
1.2 m3/s
F 200 m; 500 mm D
Example 2 Solution
Hazen Williams Equation
1. Water (9810 N/m3) flows through a horizontal ductile iron pipe that
has a diameter of 250 mm. Pressure is measured 75 m apart, and the
two measurements are 700 kPa and 685 kPa. What is the flowrate
(L/s)?
2. Water (62.4 lb/ft3) is flowing through a 20 year old cast iron pipe,
which has a diameter of 4 in, at a velocity of 3.50 ft/s. What is the
water pressure at the downstream location, which is 1800 ft away?
P = 72.50 psi
Elev. = 145.50 ft P = ???
Elev. = 127.85 ft
“What’s the most Expensive mistake you ever made?”
Water Hammer
Kitchen Sink - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPlRI_pqL54
Washing Machine - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7tBP-0mI7c#t=70
Armstrong International - https://youtu.be/5WTVQtvavmY?t=117

Water is flowing freely
Valve is suddenly closed

– The water near the valve stops
– Because of momentum force
(and convective acceleration),
pressure builds up
¦F UQVout Vin
– Pressure wave propagates back
The water is somewhat compressible, and the
towards reservoir (at the speed
pipe is somewhat elastic, so the water is
compressed and the pipe walls expand of celerity)
• The wave reaches the reservoir

– The water velocity is zero everywhere in
the pipe
– The entire pipe has expanded
– More energy in the pipe than reservoir
(because of pipe expansion)
• Water flows from pipe into the

reservoir
wave reflection – Wave of decreased pressure heads back
toward the valve
• Water Compressibility: (Δvolume / Δpressure)
London South Bank Univ.: http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, Ev
• Characterizes how compressible a fluid is
െ‫ݒ‬ v = specific volume (volume occupied by a unit of mass)

‫ܧ‬௩ ൌ ȉ ݀‫݌‬ p = pressure
݀‫ݒ‬
Times! (error in textbook)

x
Bulk modulus of elasticity (Ev) for water – lb/in2
Celerity
• Velocity of a pressure wave
• Theoretical wave celerity, c’ [L/T]
Ev
c' How fast the shock wave would travel through a fluid of
U
infinite extent. (Typical value about 4720 ft/s = 1440 m/s)
• Celerity of a pressure wave in a confined (elastic) pipe
c '2
c
Ed d = pipe diameter
1 v ε = thickness of pipe walls
HE p
Travel Time of Pressure Wave
L 2L
tL
c
Pressure Increase (maximum surge)

'p UcV0
Worst case scenario: the valve is closed
Where V0 = initial flow velocity faster than the time it takes for the
(before valve begins to close) pressure wave to travel from the valve to
the reservoir and back to the valve.
Example: Water Hammer
L
• A 2000 ft, 4-inch steel pipe (thickness ȿ = 0.2 in; Ep = 28 x 106 psi) carries 0.6 cfs
of water (Ev = 320,000 psi; ρ = 1.94 slug/ft3) from a reservoir to a valve.
a) What is the pressure increase (in psi) if the valve is closed “instantaneously”?
b) What is the minimum amount of time that should be taken to close the valve to avoid
this “maximum” pressure
c '2 2L
Ev c 'p UcV0 tL
c' Ed c
U 1 v
HE p
Reminder: 1 slug·ft/s2 = 1 lbf
What is the pressure increase if you take longer

than the “minimum” time to close the valve?
§N N2 · ULV0
'p p0 ¨ N¸ N
¨2 4 ¸ p0Tv
© ¹
ρ = water density
L = physical length of pipe
V0 = initial water velocity prior to any valve closure
p0 = initial water pressure prior to any valve closure
Tv = valve closure time
Surge Tank
AL
S max V0
At g
Smax = maximum surge depth

V0 = water velocity (before valve closed)
A = pipe cross sectional area
At = surge tank cross sectional area
L = pipe length
Example:
– For a 2000 ft long 4-inch pipe with initial flow velocity of
6.875 ft/s, what surge tank diameter should be used if the
maximum allowable surge depth is 1 ft.
Hardy Cross: Example 2 Solution
Check with WaterGEMS
Pumps
• Change mechanical energy into fluid
energy
– Positive displacement pumps: deliver a

fixed quantity of fluid with each
revolution of the pump
– How does this pump add energy to the

water?
Positive Displacement: Screw Pump
Positive Displacement Pumps
Internal Gear Pump Lobe Pump
Rope Pump
Peristaltic Pump Scroll Pump

Centrifugal Pump (radial-flow)
Rotating impeller increases pressure.

Most common for pipe networks.
Axial Flow Pump
Energy added as
pressure increase
Pump Efficiency
How effective is a pump at turning mechanical energy into fluid energy?
SI . BG .
• ‘Ideal’ Pump Equation: Pi Q J hp

Q J hp
Pi
550
• Efficiency: K overall K motor K pump
Pi
• ‘Real’ Pump Equation: P Power consumed by
K overall the pump
• Factors that affect pump efficiency

– fluid density and viscosity
– pipe (and pump) diameter
– rotational rate of the pump (rpm)
– flow rate
• Energy lost to heat, friction, leakage in pump, etc.
Example Pump Performance Curve Pump Operations
hp = 24.4 – 7.65Q2
• Pumps work against a “head”

– Friction losses downstream from the pump
– Elevation of flow discharge
– Pressure of water downstream from the pump
• As head increases, the flow rate from the pump decreases
– This relationship is usually expressed in a pump performance curve equation
(i.e.: hp = 24.4 – 7.65Q2)
Pump Operations, cont.

A pump is needed to get water to flow
from lower tank into upper tank.
hp
required System Curve
Q
• For some pipeline system, if you rearrange the

energy equation, you can find out the pump head
needed for any given flowrate, Q
ª fL K º
hp 'z Q 2 «¦ ¦
2 gA2 »¼
2 System Curve
¬ 2 gA D
Pump Operations, cont.
• When you combine the pump curve and system curve solve simultaneous
equations and find the operating point
– Problem Solving Tip: Begin by assuming fully turbulent flow
Example: find Q
1.325
f
ª § H 5.74 · º
2
• L = 120 m; d = 250 mm; ϵ = 0.25 mm
«ln¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸ » • K = 2.4; ∆z = 9.1 m
¬ © ¹¼
ª fL K º
hp 'z Q2 «¦ ¦
2gA2 »¼
System Curve: 2
¬ 2gA D
Pump Curve: hp 24.4 7.65Q2
Problem 9.24 hint…

• The system curve is already
given in the problem statement.
• You must create a pump curve
by ‘digitizing’ the provided
figure
Known Calculated Difference
From Fig. from guess “c”
hp yint cQ 2
Q hp hp (ft) hp (known) – hp (calc.)
(cfs) (ft)
0 200 . .
20 150 .. .. Find the c that gives
. . … … the smallest average
.. .. …. …. difference. (Solver)
average
Before impeller:
pressure low Cavitation
(bubbles can form)
After impeller:
pressure high
(bubbles will collapse)
• If the absolute pressure on the suction side of the pump falls

below vapor pressure, water will vaporize
• Bubbles from the suction side of the impeller collapse and can
cause damage to the impeller
– Collapsing vapor bubbles can cause “jets” with velocity of up to 110 m/s
and pressures up to 800 MPa
Net Positive Suction Head

• Available NPSH (determined by system): p0 pv
NPSH A 'Z s hLs
J J
– How far is the system from cavitating?

• p0 = absolute pressure at the surface of the reservoir
• ΔZs = suction lift (elevation difference between pump and the reservoir surface elevation)
• hL = head loss in pipe from reservoir to pump
• pv = saturation vapor pressure (absolute)
• Required NPSH
• NPSHR increases with increasing Q
• Provided by manufacturer (e.g., on pump chart)
• If NPSHR > NPSHA cavitation occurs

– NPSHR = NPSHA is the point of ‘incipient cavitation’
Cavitation Example
• At a certain flow rate, the pump in the system
below requires 3.5 m of NPSH to avoid cavitation.
– Will cavitation occur in the case below?
p0 pv
NPSH A 'Z s hL
4.3 m
J J
Suction side headloss: 1.6 m
Water temperature = 40 °C, pv = 7300 Pa, γ = 9732 N/m3
Given
f = 0.021
Pump Example #2
Total pipe length = 135 m Pump Curve: hp = 18 – 5.6Q2
2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
fL V 2 D1 z1 h p D2 z2 ht hL
hf J 2g J 2g
D 2g
D = 25-cm Pi
P Pi Q J hp
K overall
= 12.0 m
K overall K motor K pump
Find
a) How long will it take to pump 1 metric ton of water?
b) If the pump is 80% efficient and the motor is 65%
K=1 efficient, how much electrical power will be consumed
by the motor (in Watts)?
Affinity Laws (Scaling Laws)

• Homologous series: a class of
pumps that have the same
shape. Example:
– Same pump style from same
manufacturer, but different
impeller diameter
– A single pump that is operated
at various different rpm
settings
Q = vol. flow rate ρ = density
݉ሶ = mass flow rate N = rotational speed
H = head D = impeller diameter
P = pressure rise ܹሶ= power
Affinity Law Examples
• A pump normally uses a 1200-rpm
motor, 8-inch impeller, and has a
performance curve of: h 12 0.1Q 2
p
a) What is the performance curve if a VFD is

used to change to 2400 rpm?
b) What is the performance curve if the
original 1200-rpm motor is used, but
changes to a 10-inch impeller?
c) If you need to pump water 30 ft above Q = vol. flow rate ρ = density
the source, which option is best? ݉ሶ = mass flow rate N = rotational speed
(Original, 2400 rpm, or 10” impeller) H = head D = impeller diameter
P = pressure rise ܹሶ= power
WaterGEMS Example:
1. Compare the flow rate in each pipe to previous Excel example.
All pipes, ϵ = 0.3 mm 2. Compare the pressure at each node. (Assume level terrain.)
hA = 61.162
A PA = 600 kPa
1 m3/s 220 m; 500 mm
B
0.6 m3/s
100 m; 650 mm
180 m; 400 mm 1.6 m3/s
150 m; 600 mm
C
80 m; 700 mm E
80 m; 850 mm
hD = 57.830
1.2 m3/s
F 200 m; 500 mm D
Demand Variation
• Maximum daily demand – demand on
the day of the year that uses the most
volume of water (compared to the average day
for the year)
• Maximum hourly demand – demand

during the hour that uses the most
volume of water (compared to the average day
for the year)
Design Project
Design Condition
The larger of…
(1)maximum hourly flow on the highest
demand day of the year, at full ‘build-
out’ condition, or
(2)maximum daily flow (i.e., the average

flow rate over the 24-hour period) for
the highest demand day of the year at
full build-out condition, plus the fire
flow that is identified.
Types of flow: What type of acceleration

causes non-uniform flow?
• Uniform:
– velocity is constant along the streamline
– Streamlines are straight and parallel
wV
0
ws
• Non-uniform:
– velocity changes along streamline
– Streamlines are curved and/or not parallel
wV
z0
ws
Types of flow, continued… What type of acceleration
causes unsteady flow?
• Steady:
– streamline patterns are not changing over time
wV
0
wt
• Unsteady:
– velocity at a point on a streamline changes over time
wV
z0
wt
Unsteady Flow
t=0
t>0
Channel Types
• Prismatic:
– Cross sectional shape is constant, mirrored about centerline
– Slope of channel is constant
– Alignment of channel is straight (top view)
Cross sectional view Side view Top view
• Non-prismatic:
– Variations in shape, slope, and alignment
Channel
Geometry
Three Types of Turbulent Flow

1. Smooth: when roughness Turbulent zone
projections are submerged in a Laminar zone
laminar sub-layer.
2. Transition: between smooth and Turbulent zone
rough… roughness projections same Laminar zone
height as laminar sub-layer
Turbulent zone
3. Rough: when roughness projections Laminar zone
extend beyond the laminar sub-

layer.
Governing Equations in Open Channel Flow

• Continuity Equation: Q1 V1A1 V2 A 2 Q2
• Momentum Equation
8g
¦F x UQ(V2 V1 ) W 0 JRSf V
f
RSf
Sf = slope of energy grade line

Sw = slope of water surface
S0 = slope of channel
(uniform flow; Sf = S0 = Sw)
R = hydraulic radius = A/P
What is EGL and HGL?

Energy Equation
1 2
• Energy equation: pipes
§ p1 V
2
· § p2 V
2
·
¨ D1 1 z1 ¸ h p ¨ D 2 2 z2 ¸ hL
¨J 2g ¸ ¨J 2g ¸ hL = hf + ho
© ¹ © ¹
hp = pump head
• Energy equation: open channels
§ V
2
· § V
2
· y = water depth
¨ y1 D1 1 z1 ¸ ¨ y2 D 2 2 z 2 ¸ h f
¨ 2 g ¸ ¨ 2 g ¸
© ¹ © ¹
1 2 No pumps. ‘Local Losses’
accounted for in a different way.
• Continuity: Q1 V1A1 V2 A 2 Q2
• Momentum:
Darcy-Weisbach Manning / Strickler
8g 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V RS f V R S
f n
Uniform flow: Sf = S0 = S
• Energy: § V
2
· § V
2
·
¨ y1 D1 1 z1 ¸ ¨ y2 D 2 2 z 2 ¸ h f
¨ 2g ¸ ¨ 2g ¸
© ¹ © ¹
h1 h2 h f
Example: Energy, Open Channel

• At 1, the river bed is 0.782 m above the vertical datum, the bed
width is 0.500 m, and the average flow velocity is 0.550 m/s.
Total energy at 1 is 1.451 m.
– What is the water depth at 1?
– What is the flow rate Q?
V2
E y z
Cross-Sectional View
2g
1
2
Side View
Channel Slope Impact on Energy Equation
z1
L
Δz
L cos θ z2
θ
Full Energy Equation
§ V1
2
· § V2
2
· z1 z2
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ y1 cosT D1 2 g z1 ¸ ¨ y2 cos T D 2 2 g z2 ¸ h f S0
© ¹ © ¹ L cosT
But in open channels, θ is usually very small,

• Small θ → L cos θ ≈ L … so (S0 < 0.1):
In open-channel
§ V
2
· § V
2
· hydraulics, a downward
¨ y1 D1 1 z1 ¸ ¨ y2 D 2 2 z 2 ¸ h f
¨ 2g ¸ ¨ 2g ¸ slope has positive sign.
© ¹ © ¹
Open Channel Flow Regime

• Laminar vs. Turbulent
UV ( 4 Rh ) V ( 4 Rh )
Re
P Q
• Sub-critical vs. Super-critical. Much more later, but…

V
Fr where yh A/ B
gyh
Fr > 1 is super-critical. Fr < 1 is sub-critical.
Example: Trapezoidal Channel Geometry
• Find:
– Depth, y
– Area, A
– Wetted Perimeter, P
– Hydraulic Radius, R
– Hydraulic Depth, D
(EGL) hf Normal Depth, y0
W0 JRS f
ΔZ
Problem
11.16
• y0 is the water depth when flow conditions are

– steady: not changing with time
– uniform: not changing with position
• Flow Energy Equilibrium: energy lost through
resistance = energy gained by change in elevation
• S0 = S w = S f
Manning’s “n”
• Previously, the Chezy equation has been identified
as a method for finding flow velocity
V C RS 0
• Manning showed “better fit” if R2/3 were used
instead of R1/2
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 1.49 2 / 3 1/ 2
SI: V R S0 BG: V R S0
n n
• Manning’s “n” is related to the Chezy “C” value

by: C
1 1/ 6
R
n
Manning Equation
• Empirical equation where friction factor “n”
does not (directly) account for flow conditions
Material n
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 Lined Channels:
V R S Asphalt 0.013 – 0.017
n Brick 0.012 – 0.018
V = flow velocity [=] m/s Concrete 0.011 – 0.020
R = hydraulic radius = A/Pw [=] m Rubble or riprap 0.020 – 0.035
S = channel slope Vegetal 0.030 – 0.40
n = Manning friction factor Excavated or dredged channels:

Earth, Straight and uniform 0.020 – 0.030
Example: Earth, winding, fairly uniform 0.025 – 0.040
a) What is the flow capacity for a 1 m x 3 m Rock 0.030 – 0.045
rectangular smooth concrete channel at 1% Unmaintained 0.050 – 0.14

Natural Channels: (width < 31 m)
slope?
Fairly regular section 0.03 – 0.07
b) For y=1, what channel width will convey a
Irregular section with pools 0.04 – 0.10
flow of 30 m3/s?
Manning’s n values
dm
• Manning n can be
estimated for gravel
beds by the median
particle size
– dm = median grain
diameter of the bed
material in feet
Example: Estimate a Manning’s n-
1/ 6
value for a channel bed that has a n 0.034d m
median particle size of 0.5 in.
Example: Trapezoidal Channel Geometry - 2
• For Q = 175 m3/s and S = 0.0045, what is the depth? n = 0.013

– Solve using calculator (equation solver)
– Solve with Excel
A 2 / 3 1/ 2 A5 / 3 S 1/ 2 A5 / 3 nQ
Q R S Q
n nP 2 / 3 P2/3 S 1/ 2
Finding Normal Depth

A 2 / 3 1/ 2 1.49 1/ 2
SI: Q R S0 BG: Q AR 2 / 3 S 0
n n
nQ nQ
AR 2 / 3 1/ 2
AR 2 / 3 1/ 2
S0 1.49S 0
• Where A and R are in terms of the normal depth

y0
Channel
Geometry
Manning’s Equation for Flow Depth

• What is the normal flow depth (y0) in a smooth asphalt
(n = 0.014) trapezoidal channel that has a 3.5 m base,
2.5:1 (H:V) side slopes, and flow rate of 29 m3/s.
Bed slope is 0.10 % http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OmYoHF3IALE
?? m
nQ
AR 2 / 3 1/ 2
Solve with 3.5 m S0
Calculator
Normal Depth & Maximum Allowable Shear Stress
• Since shear stress, W 0 JRS0

– Geotechnical analysis has specified the maximum
shear stress τ0 that is allowable to prevent erosion
– For a certain bed slope S0
– The corresponding hydraulic radius R can be
found
• Use Manning equation to find 1 2 / 3 1/ 2

V R S0
maximum allowable velocity n
Example: A soil has a maximum permissible unit tractive force of 10 N/m2. What
is the maximum allowable water velocity over a channel of this material laid out
on a 1.5% slope? (Use “Natural Earth, straight, good condition: n = 0.020)
Designing a city pipe network

• It is very bad if pipes aren’t big enough to carry the
needed flow
– Industry shuts down
– Green areas die
– Buildings burn
– People go thirsty
and & unwashed
• Pipes should be designed to carry the larger of:

– Maximum daily demand + fire demands
– Maximum hourly demand
Design Criteria
• Pipe network pressure: 240 – 850 kPa
– Peak flow: pressures will be low
– Low flow (no flow): pressures will be high
• Minimize pipe diameter to save money
• Assume all pipes are buried at the same depth

– For simplicity, it is okay to use surface elevations
Manning’s Equation for Flow Rate
• What is the flow rate (Q) in a smooth asphalt (n = 0.014)
trapezoidal channel that has a 3.5 m base, 2.5:1 (H:V) side
slopes, and depth of flow is 1.2 m?
Bed slope is 0.10 %
1.2 m
3.5 m
Velocity Distribution in Open Channel Flow

3
F
l 2.5
o 1 § y·
w
2
v( y ) V gdS o ¨1 2.3 log ¸
D
1.5
S=0.005 N © d¹
e 1 S=0.02
p
t 0.5 κ = 0.4 (von Karman constant)
h
0 V = average velocity
-3.0 -1.0
Velocity
1.0 3.0
d = depth of flow
y = distance from bottom of channel
Average Velocity for the Channel

V v ( 0 .4 d )
v ( 0 .2 d ) v ( 0 .8 d )
V y d
2
Composite Roughness
Floodplain: grass, weeds,

stumps, cars, buildings, etc.
Main channel: clay,
concrete, soil, etc.
Side slope: grass, rip-rap,
concrete
Channel is divided into sections based on (a)
2/ 3 geometry and (b) channel material
§ ¦N P n 3/ 2 ·
ne ¨ i1 i i ¸ • Pi = wetted perimeter of the ith element
¨ ¸
© ¦i 1 Pi ¹
N
• Ai = area of the ith element
Horton-Einstein Method • Ri = hydraulic radius of the ith element

• ni = roughness coefficient of the ith element
2/3
A§ A· 1/ 2 1 A5 / 3 1 / 2
Q ¨ ¸ S0 S0
n © P¹ n P2/3
P = 22 m P = 14 m P = 13 m P = 14 m
Q = 144 m3/s Q = 195 m3/s Q = 205 m3/s Q = 195 m3/s
• For a fixed n and S0, how do you maximize Q?

• Spreadsheet Example: n = 0.013 and S0 = 0.01
– What is the “most efficient” cross section…?
• Minimize the wetted perimeter
Best Trapezoidal Channel

B ty
2 3 3
P 2 3y b y A 3y 2 t
3 3
A 3y2 y
R
P 2 3y 2
Other “most efficient” channel shapes
Best
Shape A P B
geometry
Trapezoidal Half hexagon 1.73y2 3.46y 2.31y
Rectangle Half square 2y2 4y 2y
Triangle Half square y2 2.83y 2y
Semicircle - 0.5πy2 πy 2y
Parabola - 1.89y2 3.77y 2.83y
Example: What will be the flow depth in the “best”

triangular cross section for Q = 2.5 m3/s, n = 0.013,
and S = 0.01?
Design Project Phases
1. “How much water”? (Define flow rate, Q)
2. “What size pipe?” (Optimize pipe size, D)
• Pressure guidelines: 240 – 850 kPa
• Pipe too big: good pressure, but cost is high
• Pipe too small: low cost, but pressure not high enough
• Make the pipes just big enough to satisfy the design constraints
Design Project
• WaterGEMs Demo #1
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kihIihP8BeM
• WaterGEMs Demo #2
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnpSeR4qKzk
• Free PDF creator:

– http://www.pdfforge.org/pdfcreator
Example “Annotated Map”
Identify:
• Pipe location
• Pipe diameter
• Pipe length
• Flow rate through pipe
• Junction pressure
• Flow rate out of junctions
(where applicable)
Why do I want
two maps…?
Specific Energy
• Specific Energy, E: energy per unit weight of the fluid relative to
the channel bottom
How many different ways
V2
E y D (velocity and depth) can 10 m3/s
2g go through a rectangular
channel of width = 4 m?
or
y
Q2
E y D 4m
2gA2 Q
Possible Velocity – Depth combinations & Resulting Specific Energy
Q2
E y D
A = Q/V y = A/4 2gA2
Q (m3/s) V (m/s) A (m2) y (m) E (m)

10 10 1.000 0.250 5.347
10 8 1.250 0.313 3.574
10 7 1.429 0.357 2.855
10 6 1.667 0.417 2.252
10 5 2.000 0.500 1.774
10 4 2.500 0.625 1.440
What depth has
10 3 3.333 0.833 1.292
the lowest
10 2.905 3.442 0.861 1.291
Specific Energy?
10 2.5 4.000 1.000 1.319
10 2 5.000 1.250 1.454
10 1 10.000 2.500 2.551
12
10 V2
y D
Flow Velocity (m/s)
8 E
6
2g
4
2 alternate depths: two depths that

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
have the same specific energy.
Flow Depth, y (m)
3.0
What controls the depth that a water flows at? 2.5

Depth of flow, y (m)
Critical
2.0 depth, yc
All factors (roughness, geometry, etc.)
contribute; 1.5
1.0
• For a given section it is slope that
determines flow depth. 0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Minimum Energy, Emin Specific Energy, E (m)
Classifying Critical Flow
• When the depth in a channel is yc flow is critical
• When y > yc, flow is subcritical (i.e., the water velocity is slow)
– When Fr < 1 flow is subcritical
• When y < yc, flow is supercritical (i.e., the water velocity is fast)
– When Fr > 1 flow is supercritical
• The top channel width when depth of flow is critical: Bc
V2 Q2 B
B=4m B depends on y and side slope angle Fr 2
gD gA3
y y
Where D = hydraulic
4m 4m depth = A/B
Hydraulic Depth, D
B
V2 Q2 B
Fr 2
gD gA3 y
1
b t
• Hydraulic depth, D: ratio of channel area to top width

A
D yh
B
– What is the hydraulic depth of a rectangular channel?

B
For ‘very wide’ (b ൒ 20 y) channels, D is
y
also equal to y, regardless of shape
Example: Critical Flow Determination

Solve using (1) graph, and (2) Froude number.
y
4m
• For Q = 10 m3/s, when y = 0.25 m
– Is flow supercritical or subcritical? (What is Fr?)
10m /s
2
Q 2T
3
4m
Fr 6.38
gA3 9.81m/s 2 (1m2 )3
• For Q = 10 m3/s, when y =1.25 m
– Is flow supercritical or subcritical?
10m /s
2
3.0
Q 2T
3
4m
2.5 Fr 0.571
gA3 9.81m/s 2 (5m 2 )3
2.0
1.5
1.0
V2 Q2 B
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fr 2
Specific Energy, E (m) gD gA3
Alternate Depth
3.0
2.5 Rectangular channel, Q = 10 m3/s and b = 4

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 V2 Q2
0.0 E y y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2g 2 gA2
Specific Energy, E (m)
• What is the specific energy when y = 0.5 m?
• Example: Solve the specific energy equation to find the

alternate depth for y = 0.5 m.
– Note: energy loss is neglected here. Sometimes it must be accounted for
(in future examples this will be demonstrated).
Critical Conditions
Q2
• Conditions are critical when we have E y
2gA2
minimum specific energy E (i.e., when
E does not change with y)
dE Q 2 dA
1
dy gA3 dy
for:
3.0
dE/dy = zero
2.5 dA/dy = top width, B
2.0
1.5
Q2 B
1
1.0
gA3
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
At critical conditions
Finding Critical Depth

Given a flow rate (Q) and channel shape
• What is the critical depth? Q2

3
Ac
Regardless of channel cross section g Bc
or shape, this equation will always
tell you critical depth
Example
– For rectangular channel, Q = 10 m3/s, and the Bc = 4m find yc
Finding Critical Depth:
A Simplification and Warning
• In rectangular channel, B = b
• Definition: Flow per unit width, q = Q/b
1/ 3
§ q2 ·
yc ¨¨ ¸¸
© g ¹
This equation only works
for a RECTANGULAR Example: Find the critical depth
channel cross section!!!
for 10 m3/s flowing through a 4
m wide rectangular channel.
Critical Slope Example

• Trapezoidal concrete (n=0.013) channel with bottom width
3.0 m, side slopes of 1.5:1 (H:V), carrying 186 m3/s.
– What is the critical slope?
Q = 186 m3/s Q2 B
1.5:1 (H:V)
1
3.0 m gA3
B = b + 2ty
A = (b + ty)y A 2 / 3 1/ 2
P = b + 2yw
Q R S0
W = (1 + t2)0.5
n
Water Storage Volumes

• Storage reservoirs & tanks
often used to generate
system pressure
– Min: 240 kPa Max: 850 kPa
• Elevation: acceptable
minimum and maximum
range exist
• Tanks used to supply network
flows during maximum daily
demand spikes
– During peak, Q very high
• How big should the tank be?

• Storage tanks often used to
generate system pressure
• Acceptable minimum and

maximum range exist
• Tanks used to supply network

flows during maximum daily
demand spikes

– MS Excel demonstration
Reservoir Sizing: Peak Flow vs. Time High Scale % of Peak

Average Flow 12:00 AM
1:00 AM
100
94
36%
34%
Design Flow Rate 2:00 AM 88 32%
3:00 AM 98 36%
4:00 AM 110 40%
5:00 AM 152 55%
6:00 AM 178 65%
7:00 AM 180 66%
8:00 AM 205 75%
9:00 AM 210 77%
10:00 AM 195 71%
11:00 AM 168 61%
12:00 PM 155 57%
1:00 PM 149 54%
2:00 PM 147 54%
3:00 PM 168 61%
4:00 PM 190 69%
5:00 PM 220 80%
6:00 PM 255 93%
7:00 PM 273 100%
• Use this information to find 8:00 PM 274 100%
9:00 PM 268 98%
the flow at every hour of the 10:00 PM 200 73%
day. 11:00 PM 140 51%
Reservoir Sizing Example

• For the previously-shown temporal distribution, Peak Demand
is 400 L/s. For an inflow of 253.7 L/s, how large should the tank
be?
Procedure:
– Find when at night is Qin > Qout (reservoir filling)
– Calculate volume in, volume out for each hour
– Determine cumulative difference over time
Project: Finance
Identify the construction costs (pipe + reservoir).
Determine quarterly payments. From this,
annual cost:
a) Per Customer
b) Per L/s of design demand
• Municipal bond websites:

http://www.bloomberg.com/markets/rates-bonds/government-bonds/us/
http://www.fmsbonds.com/Market_Yields/index.asp
(no 15-year price data… exclude from report)
Annuities (Uniform Series) And Present Value
Interest Table Factor

i 1 i
N
A P A = P(A/P,i%,N)
(1 i ) N 1
Excel function: =PMT(rate, nper, pv, [fv], [type])
You may use Excel to check your work, but use the equation method
(hand calculations) for primary solution.
Example: A 24-inch diameter

concrete pipe has a flow
depth of 9” on a slope of
0.5%. What is Q?
Solve both ways:

• Find θ, A, P and put them
into Manning's.
• Find Qfull, and use figure.
• Must use the npartially full value in the angle
/equation method…
– The Q/Qfull figure already accounts for it
Angle / Equation method:

• Using n = 0.013, Q = 4.80 ft3/s (this is wrong!)
• Using corrected n = 0.01664, Q = 3.75 ft3/s
Figure Method
• Q = 0.24 (16.04 ft3/s) = 3.85 ft3/s
(2.7% difference)
Dimensionless Specific Energy Diagram nomographs
y
• For a pipe diameter of 0.9 m
and discharge of 0.566 m3/s,
what is the critical depth?
Dimensionless Specific Energy Diagram nomographs
Qt 3 / 2 Q
y Z trap Z circ
g 1 / 2b 5 / 2 g 1/ 2 d 5 / 2
• For a pipe diameter of 0.9 m

and discharge of 0.566 m3/s,
what is the critical depth?
Previously
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Concept:
1.0
• Fixed Q
0.5 • Fixed n
0.0 • Fixed channel width
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
- Varying depth for varying S
- Each different depth has a .
• For steady, uniform flow, how
different Specific Energy, E
do differing depths yield
different specific energies? A 2 / 3 1/ 2
Q Rh S 0
n
Discharge-Depth for Constant Specific Energy
What does
this mean and
why is it
located here?
• Keeping energy (E) constant, and varying discharge (Q)

– Maximum discharge occurs at the critical depth
• Thus, critical flow is:

– The minimum specific energy for a certain discharge
– The maximum discharge for a certain specific energy
Bed transition: drop

What is the new flow depth after a drop?
• With given initial depth & velocity, calculate Froude number, determine if
conditions are super-critical or sub-critical. V2 Q2 B
Fr 2
1. Identify the initial depth y1 on the SED. gD gA3
2. Get the initial specific energy E1.
3. Find the new specific energy E2, by E2 = E1 + Δz
4. Find corresponding points on the SED.
5. Choose the depth y2 that retains sub- / super- previously found.
E1 + Δz = E2
Example: Bed drop
Q = 30 cfs
Δ z = 1.2 ft drop
V2 Q2B
Fr 2
y2 = ?? ft
gD gA3
y1 = 3.5 ft
8 ft 8 ft
V2 Q2
E y y
2g 2 gA 2
A = by
• What is the flow depth after the drop?
Bed transition: step (subcritical)
• E1 is the energy available to push the flow over the

step
– Specific energy does change, E2 = E1 – Δz
– Total energy does not change
• How is total energy different from specific energy?
• New depth is less deep because less specific energy,
and sub-critical conditions
Bed transition: step (supercritical)
• Less specific energy

– Since in the super-critical range….
• New depth is greater than old depth
Example: Bed Step (up)
y2 = ?? ft Super- or Sub-Critical at 1?
y1 = 5 ft
b = 10 ft V2 Q2 B
b = 10 ft Method 1) Fr 2
gD gA3
E1 = E2 + Δz or
Method 2) Compare y1 to yc
Q = 250 cfs
Δ z = 0.5 ft step 1/ 3
§ q2 ·
yc ¨¨ ¸¸
© g ¹
• Find: What is the flow depth after the step?
Energy, Critical Depth & Velocity Head

1/ 3
Q 2 Bc § q2 ·
3
1 yc ¨¨ ¸¸
gAc © g ¹
Bc = Top width at critical flow (rectangular only)
• Critical flow in a rectangular channel

– Water depth is 2/3 of the specific energy
– Example: 50 m3/s through a 5 m wide rectangular channel.

• For critical conditions: what is the specific energy?
Review: Bed Step

• What equation is used to find the new downstream depth?
Subcritical flow upstream, a step (Δza) forces
a decrease in downstream depth (y2)
A bigger step (Δzb) reduces y2 even more.
1/3 The step (Δzc) is so big that y2 has dropped

down to the critical depth yc
2/3 • This represents the minimum specific energy
. for this particular flow rate and channel width
A step larger than the critical step will mean

there isn’t enough energy available to push all
of the flow up over the step
• Flow will “back up” and get deeper upstream until
enough energy to flow at critical depth at 2
Subcritical flow upstream, a step (Δza) forces

a decrease in downstream depth (y2)
A bigger step (Δzb) reduces y2 even more. (Same flow

rate Q, less specific energy, so the flow is forced to be
closer to the ‘most efficient’ depth.)
1/3 The step (Δzc) is so big that y2 has dropped

down to the critical depth yc
2/3 • This represents the minimum specific energy
. for this particular flow rate and channel width
A step larger than the critical step will mean

there isn’t enough energy available to push all
of the flow up over the step
• Flow will “back up” and get deeper upstream until
enough energy to flow at critical depth at 2
Constriction Example: Maximum Step
• At Location 1: Flow in a rectangular channel is such that depth is 0.90 m, width is 2.5 m,
and flow rate, Q, is 4.25 m3/s
0.90 m
2.5 m
• At Location 2: (a) What is the flow depth for ΔZ = 0.05 m? (b) What is the maximum
obstruction allowed (ΔZmax) before choking?
Steps Rectangular channel: y = D
1) Find V1
Hint: Just before choking, 2) Find Fr1 V2
3) Find E1 Fr
what is the water depth at gy
the constriction? ??? m 4) Find y2
2.5 m
Choked flow
• A “maximum” constriction causes critical flow at the
constriction
• Exceed the maximum constriction and choked flow will occur

– Water elevation upstream of constriction will be affected
– Increased water depth may submerge upstream hydraulic structures
Choke Effects: Computing new upstream depth
yc Example
Q = 500 cfs
b = 10 ft
y'1 = ?? y1 = 10 ft
y1 = 10 ft 10 ft y'1 = ??
• Find total energy required for flow to go over the obstacle = Emin + ΔZ
• Find total energy initially available at 1 V2 Q2 q2

– Is there choking? (Compare Erequired with Eavailable) 2g 2 gA 2 2 gy 2
• If yes, determine the depth y’1 that corresponds to Erequired
Example: a) Will it choke if ∆z = 3 ft? Example

Q = 500 cfs
b = 10 ft
y1 = 10 ft
y2 = ??
y2 = ??
y1 = 10 ft
3 ft
b) Find the ‘maximum allowable obstruction’ before choking
Will the water level

rise or fall at the
constriction?
We really don’t
know until we do
the calculations!
Constrictions (obstructions)
• A constriction is when:
– The bottom of the channel is raised
• q is the same and E decreases
– The width of the channel decreases Previous lecture
• q increases and E is same
• Behavior at constriction governed by behavior upstream

– Use energy equation to compare two sections
• Subcri cal flow upstream of constric on → flow at constric on is
subcritical
• Supercri cal flow upstream of constric on → flow at constric on is
supercritical
Constriction Example: Peirs

• Situation 1 (upstream): Flow in a rectangular channel is such that depth is 0.90 m, width is
2.5 m, and flow rate, Q, is 2.25 m3/s
0.90 m
2.5 m
• Situation 2 (downstream): A bridge is built over the channel… same Q, but now there are
two 0.25 m wide supports in the channel constricting flow.
Steps
1) Find V1
What is the water depth at ??? m
the constriction? 2) Find E1
(Assume hL = 0) 2.5 m 3) Find y2
Contraction (decrease b, keep Q same)
Q Q
b1 b2
q1 q1 q2
q2
1/ 3
Q § q2 ·
q yc ¨¨ ¸¸
b © g ¹
E1 Specific Energy
• Increase q → shi specific energy diagram:

– Up: new critical depth is deeper
– Right: new Emin is bigger
Example: Rectangular Channel Contraction
Q b1 b2 Q
q1 q2
• b1 = 10 ft, y1 = 5 ft, V1 = 3 ft/s
• What is the minimum b2 that can be used and avoid

choking? (Neglect energy loss.)
2 2
– Hint: The Emin at 2 will equal E1 q1 q2
y1 2
y2 2
2 gy1 2 gy2
Contractions, Expansions, and Energy Loss

2 2 2
q1 q2 q
y1 2
y2 2
C 2 2
2 gy1 2 gy2 2 gy2
• Loss coefficients, C
– Contractions: 0.1 – 0.6
– Expansions: 0.3 – 0.8
Q b1 Q
b2
q1 q2
Expansion (decrease b, keep Q same)
Q b1 Q
b2
q1 q2
• Example: Draw Specific Energy Diagrams for (1) and (2).

– How will Curve 2 be shifted horizontally?
– How will Curve 2 be shifted vertically?
1/ 3
Q § q2 ·
q yc ¨¨ ¸¸
b © g ¹
Example: Rectangular Channel Expansion
Q b1 Q
b2
q1 q2
• Q = 9.9 m3/s, b1 = 3.0 m, y1 = 2.75 m, C = 0.45
• What is the new flow depth downstream (y2)

for b2 = 5.7 m?
2 2 2
q1 q2 q
y1 2
y2 2
C 2 2
2 gy1 2 gy2 2 gy2
Grand Coulee Dam, Columbia River (Washington State)

Overflow Spillways
3/ 2
Q 3.32 LH 3 / 2 3.97 LH d (BG)
• Water depth
– Critical near spillway crest
– Super-critical, normal depth along spillway
Spillway Example
3/ 2
Q 3.32 LH 3 / 2 3.97 LH d
• A 300 ft long spillway is used to control depth at a reservoir

during flood events. A “100 year” storm will yield a spillway flow
of 38,000 cfs. Due to structures upstream, maximum allowable
water level = 4350 ft.
– At what elevation should the spillway crest be built?
Broad-Crested Weirs
3/ 2
§2 ·
Q Cd b g ¨ H ¸
©3 ¹
2 3
yc H so H yc
3 2
• How do they work?
Estimating Cd
• What is the disadvantage? 0.65

Cd
(1 H / H w )1/ 2
Energy at a Sharp Crested Weir
2 2
V1 V2
y1 y2
2g 2g
2
for y2 = 0 V2 2 gy1 V1
for H = y1 + V12/2g V2 2 gH
Weir energy, cont.

dQ VdA 2 gH LdH
H
Q 2 g L ³ H 1/ 2 dH
0
2
For weir = full width of channel, Q 2 g LH 3 / 2
this is a “suppressed” weir 3
Estimating Cd
0.611 0.08
H 2
Cd
Z Q Cd 2 g LH 3 / 2
Because of:
• Drawdown
3
• Friction losses for H/Z < 2.0 - as long as nappe is free
• Contraction losses (better to keep H/Z < 0.4)
Weir Equation
• For a low H/Z ratio (e.g., 0.1) Cd ≈ 0.62
2
Q Cd 2 g LH 3 / 2
3
Q CLH 3 / 2
– Where C = 3.32 (BG) or 1.84 (SI)
Contracted (Unsuppressed) Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir
(Front view) (Top view)
• Additional head loss, due to: Q CL ' H 3 / 2

– Flow contraction
– Ineffective area
L' L 0.2 H

• Storage reservoirs & tanks often used to
generate system pressure
– Min: 240 kPa Max: 850 kPa
• Tanks supply water flows during maximum

daily demand spikes
– During peak, Q very high (more than the water
source can accommodate)

Reservoir Sizing: Peak Flow vs. Time High Scale % of Peak
Average Flow 12:00 AM
1:00 AM
100
94
36%
34%
2:00 AM 88 32%
3:00 AM 98 36%
4:00 AM 110 40%
Design Flow Rate 5:00 AM 132 48%
(Outflow Curve) 6:00 AM 152 55%
7:00 AM 180 66%
8:00 AM 205 75%
9:00 AM 210 77%
10:00 AM 195 71%
11:00 AM 168 61%
12:00 PM 155 57%
1:00 PM 149 54%
Avg. Flow 2:00 PM 147 54%
Rate 3:00 PM 168 61%
(Inflow 4:00 PM 190 69%
5:00 PM 220 80%
Curve)
6:00 PM 255 93%
7:00 PM 273 100%
8:00 PM 274 100%
9:00 PM 268 98%
10:00 PM 200 73%
11:00 PM 140 51%
Reservoir Sizing Example

• For the previously-shown temporal distribution, Peak Demand
is 400 L/s. For an inflow of 253.7 L/s, how large should the tank
be?
Procedure:
– Find when at night is Qin > Qout (reservoir filling)
– Calculate volume in, volume out for each hour
– Determine cumulative difference over time
Momentum
You previously learned about it in closed conduit flow…
P1 A1 Fx UQV2 V1
Q2 Q2 For free surface flow:

A1h1 A2 h2 A: cross-sectional area of flow
gA1 gA2 h: depth to centroid
Multiply both sides by γ
F1 F2 dynamic force hydrostatic force
§Q 2
·
Since F J ¨¨ Ah ¸¸
© gA ¹
Hydraulic features that can cause
Rapidly Varying Flow (RVF)
Where do you see GVF?
Momentum-Depth diagram
(This is not a specific energy diagram)
Q2
M Ah
gA
• Conjugate depths (aka “sequent depths”) – same value of

momentum and same discharge, y1 is lower than critical depth, y2
is higher
Example: SED vs. MDD

• Create a Specific Energy Diagram and a Momentum
Depth Diagram for the following:
Q2
– Q = 15.0 m3/s M Ah
– b = 6.5 m gA
– y = various depths
V2
E y
2g
y
1/ 3
§ q2 ·
¨¨ ¸¸
b
yc
Discuss: What is SED used for vs. © g ¹
what is MDD used for?
Hydraulic Jump
• When supercritical flow transitions to subcritical flow
• [Videos – sink, gate outlet]
Q2B
Fr
M1 = M 2 gA3
Always valid, regardless of
channel shape.
y
Supercritical
Flow V1 q
Fr1
Section Centroid
gy1 y1 gy1
Only valid for a rectangular channel.
Identifying Conjugate Depths

• Graphically, using:
Q2 Q2 Q2
A1h1 A2 h2 M Ah
gA1 gA2 gA
Flow conditions: fixed Q (10 m3/s), fixed geometry (b=3m; t=1)
Identifying Conjugate Depths

§ § yc · ·¸
3
y1 § y1 ¨
¨ 1 1 8Fr1 ·¸ ¨ ¸
2
y2 y2 1 1 8¨ y ¸ ¸¸
2© ¹ 2 ¨¨ © 1¹ ¹
©
• Belanger momentum equation
• Assumes
– Uniform velocity distribution
– Hydrostatic pressure distribution
– Horizontal bed (or slope is small
enough to neglect)
– Boundary shear stress is negligible
Energy Loss in the Hydraulic Jump
( y2 y1 ) 3
'E
4 y1 y2
Hydraulic Jump Example

Rectangular Channel
y2
y1
y1 = 0.86 m Q = 123 m3/s b = 9.4 m

– Find y2
– Find the fraction of the initial energy that is lost through the jump
y2 1§ ( y2 y1 ) 3
¨ 1 1 8Fr1 ·¸ 'E
2
y1 2© ¹ 4 y1 y2
Trapezoidal Geometry - Review

• Example: What is h (depth to centroid)?
T=B
y=1m
1
b=3m t=1
y ( B b) B
Area
2
y
y (2 B b )
Dist up to centroid
3( B b)
Hydraulic Jump
y2 1§
¨ 1 1 8Fr1 ·¸
2
y1 2© ¹
y2
y1
( y2 y1 )3
'E
4 y1 y 2 (Peterka, 1963)
Location of Hydraulic Jump

Warning: New Variable Definitions!
Ideal case
Jump rating curve and Tail Water rating curve coincide
Rating curve: the relationship

between depth and flow rate
• yc = critical depth Ideal case

• y1 = depth of flow at contracted section
just after gate
• y1’= conjugate depth of hydraulic jump
• y2 = Downstream normal water depth
(determined by Q, S0, n)
• mild slope

Tailwater Normal Depth < Conjugate Depth of Hydraulic Jump
Downstream jump Jump Moves Downstream
y’2 • Jump rating curve above Tail Water rating curve

• y2 < y’1
y2
• Jump moves downstream
- Water out of gate rises until it (i.e., y’2) is the conjugate depth of y2
Jump is moving away from gate
Downstream jump
• yc = critical depth
• y1 = depth of flow at contracted section just
after gate
• y’1= conjugate depth of hydraulic jump
• y2 = Downstream water depth (determined by
Q, S0, n) mild slope
Tailwater Normal Depth > Conjugate Depth of Hydraulic Jump
Jump Moves Upstream
Upstream jump
y2
• Jump rating curve below Tail Water rating curve
• y2 > y’1 y’2
• Jump moves upstream, gate is submerged
• yc = critical depth Upstream jump

• y1 = depth of flow at contracted section just
after gate
• y ’1= sequent depth of hydraulic jump
• y2 = Downstream water depth (determined by Q,
S0, n)
mild slope
y2 1§
¨ 1 1 8Fr1 ·¸
2
y1 2© ¹
Jump Types
• Undular Jump – 1 < Fr1 < 1.7
– Two conjugate depths are close
– Transition from supercritical to subcritical
is not abrupt
– Slightly ruffled water surface
• Weak jump – 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5

– Eddies and rollers are formed on water
surface
– Length of rolling surface is small relative
to jump length
– y2/y1 varies between 2.0 and 3.1
Jump Types, cont.
• Oscillating Jump – 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5
– Jet oscilates from bottom to top
– Oscilating pattern causes surface waves
beyond jump length
• Cause erosion to banks
– Destructive – generally avoided in design
– y2/y1 varies from 3.1 and 5.9
• Stable jump – 4.5 < Fr1 < 9

– Most advantageous / well balanced
• Good energy dissipation
• Large rise in downstream water level
– Jump location insensitive to variation in y2
– y2/y1 varies between 5.9 and 12.0
Jump Types, cont.
• Strong or rough Jump –Fr1 > 9

– Since turbulence and energy dissipation is so large, stilling basins
required are very large and expensive
– y2/y1 between 12 and 20
Jump Length
• Many empirical estimations of jump length
– Challenge with all of them is identifying y2: where the jump ends
US Bureau of Reclamation nomograph (p. 413)
Roller length vs.

Jump Length
Lr varies between 0.4 LJ
(Fr1 = 3) to 0.7 LJ (Fr1 = 9)
Hager Jump Length Equation “Another” Jump Length Equation

LJ F LJ a y2 y1
220 tanh n1
y1 22 Where a varies from 5.0 to 6.9
Example: Hydraulic Jump Length
y1 §
¨ 1 1 8Fr1 ·¸
2
y2
2© ¹
Q 2T
Fr
gA3
LJ Fn1
220 tanh LJ a y2 y1
y1 22
• Water flows at a velocity of 5 m/s through a 25 cm wide
channel. Depth upstream of a hydraulic jump is 10 cm.
– Find the depth after the hydraulic jump.
– Predict the length of the jump, using the three methods.
Jump Profile
Hager Jump Profile Method
( y y1 )
X x / Lr Y tanh(1.5 X ) Y
( y2 y1 )
Bakhmetef and Matzke
Gate rises up
to increase
flow through
canal.
Gate Discharge: Energy Equation
Q2 Q2
y1 2
y2 2
2 gA1 2 gA2
most gate openings are
Cc generally varies from 0.59 rectangular…
to 0.62
2g
q y1 y2
y1 y2
(If there was no energy loss…)
Gates
• Used to regulate (rather than quantify) flow
– Underflow operation desirable to prevent sedimentation
Typical Cc for vertical sluice gate = 0.61
Orifice Equation
y1 y2
Q Cd bw 2gy1 Cd Cc
y1 y2
Cc
w
Gate Example
• A 4.3 m wide canal has an upstream depth of 2.7 m.

A 1.5 m wide sluice gate is opened 45 cm. After
contracting, the downstream depth is 27.5 cm.
– What flow will exit through the gate?
y1
Cd Cc
Q Cd by g 2gy1 y1 y2
Gates: Prevent drowning of hydraulic jump

1. Calculate normal depth based on stream
characteristics and Manning equation. Let it = y2.
2. Find critical depth yc. Determine if slope is mild
(i.e., if it can support a hydraulic jump)
3. Maximum gate opening (w) to prevent drowning
= y1/Cc (the opening that produces, after
contraction, the sequent to the normal depth y2)
§ § y · ·¸
3
y2 ¨ Close the gate more than this,
y1 ¨ 1 1 8¨¨ c ¸¸ ¸ and the jump will ‘run’ away
2 ¨ © y2 ¹ ¸¹ from the gate since GVF must
© occur until the normal depth’s
sequent is found.

Ideal case: Depth after jump = channel normal depth
mild slope
• yc = critical depth
• y1 = depth of flow at contracted
section just after gate
• y1’= sequent depth of hydraulic jump
• y2 = Downstream water depth
(determined by Q, S0, n)
S0 = 0.003
Gate Example 2 n = 0.02
Q = 25 m3/s
yafter jump
=w ybefore jump
• A 5 m wide canal with 5 m wide gate carries 25

m3/s. For a Cc = 0.60,
– How much can the gate open without drowning the
hydraulic jump?
– What is the depth behind the gate?
y1
Cd Cc
Q Cd by g 2gy1 y1 y2
Downstream Jump Upstream Jump
• Open the gate less than this • Open the gate more than this
– yafter jump will be taller than yn – yafter jump will be less than yn
– The jump will “run” – Tailwater will back up
– Jump will “drown”
Choke Effects: Computing new upstream depth
yc
y'1 = ??
y1 = 10 ft 10 ft
• In this example, what determined how deep y’1 was?

Underflow Gate acting as choke
Sluice Gate
Example: Rectangular, width = 4.0 m,

Q = 36 m3/s, original upstream depth = 3.5 m
y'1 = ?? m • What is the new upstream depth?
y1 = 3.5 m
y2 = 0.7 m
• Sluice gates are used to regulate and measure flow

– In contrast to a “sill”, the sluice
• Does not retain sediment
• Allows for easy flow rate adjustment
• Flow after the choke is not “critical”

– Depth is governed by the hydraulic structure
HW 14 – Key ideas
• 14.2) Find dy/dl
• 14.3) Slope of the water surface, relative to horizontal,
Sw = dy/dl – S0
• 14.4) a) Is it M1, M2, M3, S1, S2, S3, etc.? c) What depth is
upstream, what depth is downstream?
• 14.25) Assume Cc = 0.60
Gradually Varied Flow

• A transition zone
– Between two uniform flow sections
– Due to hydraulic structures
• Gates
• Weirs
• Dams
– Due to natural objects
• Drops, waterfalls
• Channel slope changes
• Obstructions (e.g.,rocks)
• As depth changes, so does average velocity

• Pressure distribution is assumed hydrostatic
• Energy loss due to boundary friction is accounted for
Potential causes of GVF
Gradually Varied Flow Equation

• Assumptions
1. Prismatic channel
2. Steady flow
3. Bed slope (So) is relatively small
4. Uniform velocity distribution
5. Kinetic energy correction factor = 1
6. Parallel streamlines & hydrostatic pressure distribution
7. Channel roughness is constant in the flow direction and is
independent of depth of flow
Gradually Varied Flow Equation, cont.

Q2 dE
• Starting with E y and 1 Fr 2 (Lecture 17)
2gA2 dy
–Sf is substituted for dH/dl (where H = z + y + V2/2g)

–So is substituted for dz/dl
dy So S f
dl 1 Fr 2
General governing equation for GVF in
open channels
dy
Sw S0 “rate of variation of depth of flow with
dl respect to distance along the flow
direction”
Note: used here, S0
is usually negative Use to find Sw at a certain point.
dy So S f Sf = slope of the energy grade line
This can be determined by the Manning equation
dl 1 Fr 2
Thus…
V n 2 2
V 2n2
So So
dy R4/3 <-true for any dy 2.22 R 4 / 3
section shape->
dl 1 Fr 2 dl 1 Fr 2
(SI Units) (BG Units)
ª § y ·10 / 3 º
«1 ¨¨ n ¸¸ »
dy y
So « © ¹ 3 »
or
dl « »
« 1 §¨ yc ·¸ »
¨ ¸ <- only valid for
Slope of the water surface, relative to the
bed, at a certain point where the depth is y ¬« © y ¹ ¼» ‘wide’ sections
“The Process” Equation

dy So S f
dl 1 Fr 2
V 2n 2 V 2n2
So So
dy R4/3 dy 2.22 R 4 / 3
dl 1 Fr 2 dl 1 Fr 2
ª § y ·10 / 3 º
«1 ¨¨ n ¸¸ »
dy y
So « © ¹ 3 »
dl « »
« 1 ¨ yc ·¸ »
§
¨ ¸
¬« © y ¹ ¼»
The sign of dy/dl indicates whether profile is rising or falling.
Manning's: For a ‘wide’ Channel

5/ 3 3/5
yn § qn ·
q S 1/ 2 yn ¨ 1/ 2 ¸ “wide” – when width of a channel is
n ¨S ¸ more than 20x the depth
© 0 ¹
A b y A 40 2 80
R R 1.82 | 2
P 2y b P 2 2 40 44
For b = 20 m and
y = 1 m, what is R?
“wide”: R = y and V = q/y
Example: Flow depth variation
• A rectangular channel carries 20 m3/s, is 40 m wide and 2
m deep. Bed slope = 0.00015 (down) and n = 0.021.
a) What is the rate of flow depth variation?
b) Is depth increasing or decreasing (in the direction of flow)?
c) What is the water surface slope with respect to horizontal?
ª § y ·10 / 3 º
«1 ¨¨ n ¸¸ »
dy y
So « © ¹ 3 » Sw S0
dy
dl « »
« 1 ¨ yc ·¸ »
§ dl
¨ ¸
¬« © y ¹ ¼»
Water Surface Profiles

• There are three depths used
to classify a water surface at ª § y ·10 / 3 º
«1 ¨¨ n ¸¸ »
a certain location: dy y
S o «« © ¹ 3 »»
– Normal depth, yn dl
« 1 §¨ yc ·¸ »
– Critical depth, yc ¨ y¸ »
– Depth at that location, y ¬« © ¹ ¼
• Flow classification is useful in identifying

– What caused the GVF
– How the flow depth will change upstream & downstream
Classification: Bed Slope
Compare: Normal depth (yo = yn) versus critical depth (yc)
(Profile types are first classified according to the type of slope the
bed has, e.g., “M”, “S”, “C”, etc.)
Zone Classification
Zone 1: Water depth y is
above normal depth and
critical depth

between normal depth and
critical depth

below normal depth and
critical depth
If slope is mild, normal depth (yo) > critical depth (yc)

If slope is steep, critical depth (yc) > normal depth (yo)
(Profile type is next classified by which zone the water depth is in.)
Classifying Profile According to dy/dl
Rising curve Falling curve Uniform flow Negative infinity

Depth increasing Depth decreasing Depth constant Free overfall
Graphical Representation:
Zone and water slope
dy So S f
dl 1 Fr 2
Reasons for changes to the WSP
“Mild” slope “Steep” slope
More WSP Change Causes…
“Adverse” slope “Critical” slope

Water Surface Profile Example
Q 2T
Fr Q = 31 m3/s n = 0.033
gA3 y = 3.2 m S0 = 0.001
b = 8.5 m
A5 / 3 1 / 2
Q S • Classify the WSP
nP 2 / 3
– Find normal depth
1/ 3
§ q2 · – Find critical depth
yc ¨¨ ¸¸
© g ¹ – Compare to profile criteria
• Find water surface slope
dy So S f
– Find Sf (slope of the energy grade line)
dl 1 Fr 2
– Compute dy/dx (water surface slope) What if the flow
depth was 2.0 m?
River Depths: Gaging Station
http://waterdata.usgs.gov/wv/nwis/uv?site_no=03206000
Direct Step Method
also known as… “Step-by-Step Method”
Given two depths, how far apart?
• Considers the difference in specific energy at two locations

– Non-uniform flow
– Relative to channel slope and EGL slope at midpoint between two
sections
Direct Step (Step-by-Step) Method
2 2
V1 V2
S o dl y1 y2 S f dl
2g 2g
S o dl z S f dl
§ V · §
2
V ·
2
S S f dl ¨ y2 2 ¸ ¨ y1 1 ¸
¨ ¸ ¨ E2 E1 Sf
S f1 S f 2
2 g ¸¹
o
© 2g ¹ © 2
Because the energy grade

'E • Subcritical flow: proceed upstream line is curved.
dl • Supercritical flow: proceed downstream
So S f • Divide a reach into several segments
• Limit Δy to 0.5 m (or less) per step
Direct Step (Step-by-Step) Method Example

• A rectangular concrete (n = 0.020) canal has a slope of § q2 ·
1/ 3
0.0015, is 7 m wide, and is carrying 15 m3/s. At the yc ¨¨ ¸¸

upstream end of a broad-crested weir, the depth is 3.8 m © g ¹
– What is the critical depth?
– What is the normal depth? 1/ 2
A5 / 3 S 0
Q
– What is the WSP type? nP 2 / 3
– How many segments should be used?
– What are the upstream & downstream depths for each segment? 'E
– What is the length of the backwater curve? dl
So S f
2
y1 y2 y6 y7 § nQ ·
y3 y4 y5 Sf ¨ 2/3 ¸
© AR ¹
Standard Step Method
• Last time: Direct Step (Step-by-Step) method
– Only for a cross-sectional shape that is not changing
(e.g., rectangular up & down-stream, or trapezoidal “1” means “known” and “2” means
up & down-stream) “unknown” – does not refer to
upstream/downstream
• Standard Step Method

• Can be used regardless of the cross-sectional shape
• Subcritical flow (pictured): “known section” (1) is downstream. Work
upstream (towards 2).
• Supercritical flow: “known section” (1) is upstream, work downstream.
2 2
V1 V2
WS1 hL WS 2
2g 2g
Total energy balance (* hL is with the “1” side of the
equation here because subcritical flow is pictured)
Standard Step Method

• Assume a WS2 (look at WSP classification)
• Find hL-observed hL obs E2 E1
2 2
• Find hL-calculated V2 V1 § nQ ·
2
hL calc Sf LC ¨ 2/ 3 ¸
Sf
2 g 2g © AR ¹
• Compare hL-obs and hL-calc
– If no match, estimate a WS2-calc using hL-calc and previous V2
2 2
V1 V2
WS1 hL calc WS 2 calc
2g 2g
WS 2calc WS 2 previous
– Determine updated WS2 WS 2updated
2
• Recompute cond. at 2, compare hL-obs and hL-calc
Standard Step Method Example
• What is the depth 1000 ft upstream of section 1

if the channel transitions from trapezoidal to
rectangular?
– Q = 1000 cfs
– n = 0.05
– Expansion coefficient = 0.3
Standard Step Example #2
• Section 1 – Downstream
y=1.5 m
– Half-Circle, depth = 1.5 m
– Z1 = 0 m
2y
• Section 2 – Upstream
y=?? m
– Triangle, depth unknown
– Z2 = 0.5 m
• L = 100m, n = 0.045, Q = 1.5 m3/s,

C = .2
– yc = 0.653m yn = 0.986m
Sanitary-Sewer Systems
• Convey wastewater from point of production to
treatment plants
• Buried pipe conveying flow in open channel
conditions
– Service connections: where an individual residence
or business ties into the wastewater distribution
network
– Manholes: access chambers at fixed intervals along
the network to allow maintenance
– Pump stations: lift flow to higher elevation
Flow Estimation
• Sewers designed with current and future flows in mind
– Typical design life: 50 years
– Some sewers still operational after >100 years
• Flow types
– Service connection flows: daily flow variation
– Infiltration: groundwater (including increased groundwater flows during wet
weather events), seeps into pipe breaks and poorly constructed seams
• Relatively constant: these flows must be added as a baseline
– Inflow: Roof drains, basement sumps, manhole openings, illegal connections
• Vary with wet-weather events
Service Connection Flows
• Often design by mandate rather than reality (per capita)
• Future planning flows based on population density (per area)
Type of Area Density (persons/ha)

Large Lots 5–7
Small lots, single family 75
Small lots, two-family 125
Multistory Apartments 2,500
Commercial and Industrial Connections

• Often based on land use, per area
• Some industrial facilities will have their own

treatment / discharge systems
Calculating Infiltration/Inflow (I/I) and Peaking Factors
• Infiltration can be computed on a m3/d/km of sewer basis

• Infiltration/Inflow data often provided on a L/d/ha
– Sewer submergence in water table will increase I/I rate
– Good quality workmanship and regular inspection will decrease I/I rate
• Empirical peaking factors have been developed
Q peak 5.5 Qmin

0.2 P 0.16
Qavg P 0.18 Qavg
P = population in thousands
“peak” = 15-min maximum during a 12 month period
Wastewater Flow Rate Estimation Example
Type of Area Density
(persons/ha)
Large Lots 5–7
Small lots, single 75
family
Small lots, two- 125
family
Multistory 2,500
Apartments
• A 17.5 hectare condominium development is planned in an area

where water use is ~350 L/day/person.
– Estimate peak and min wastewater flow rates (m3/day).
Q peak 5 .5 Qmin
0.2 P 0.16
Qavg P 0.18 Qavg
Pipe Hydraulics
• Sewers rarely flow at full capacity (video)
Θ = radians
§T ·
Top Width B D sin ¨ ¸
© 2¹
Dª § T ·º § T sin T · 2 DT
h 1 cos¨ ¸» A ¨ ¸D P
2 «¬ © 2 ¹¼ © 8 ¹ 2
2/3
A § A·
T 2 / 3 (T sin T ) 5 / 3 20.16nQD 8 / 3S o 1/ 2
1/ 2
Q ¨ ¸ So 0
n ©P¹
Note: the n value used should be For a given flow (Q) and pipe slope (So),
corrected compared to full-pipe material (n) & diameter (D), find θ.
n. Or correct with Q/Qfull Use θ to calculate depth of flow.
Example: A 24-inch
diameter concrete
(nfull = 0.013) pipe has a
flow depth of 9” on a slope
of 0.5%.
1.49 A5 / 3 1/ 2
Q S
nP 2 / 3
Part 1 – Nomograph method
• Find Qfull
• Find Q y=9” using the Q/Qfull nomograph
Part 2 – Angle method

• Find θ, A, P
• For y/D and n/nfull, find n
• Substitute into Manning’s equation
Sewer Design Procedure (Excel)
1. Size pipe diameter for max flow
– Round up to nearest actual size
2/3 3/8
XA § A · 1/ 2 § Qn ·
Q ¨ ¸ So D 1.55¨ 1/ 2 ¸ X = 1 or 1.49
n ©P¹ © XS ¹
2. Find normal depth at max flow A5 / 3 nQ
– Solve right side of: P 2 / 3 XS 1/ 2
– For a guess θ, find A and P, put into left side of eq.
D2 D
A T sin T P T Θ [=] radians
8 2
– When two sides match, find normal depth by
§ y · D§ T·
T 2 ACOS ¨¨1 2 ¸¸ or y ¨1 cos ¸
© D ¹ 2 © 2¹
Sewer Design Procedure, cont.

3. Find normal depth at minimum flow
– Use same method as above
4. Find the flow velocity at the minimum flow
– Velocity at minimum flow must be > 2.0 ft/s to prevent sedimentation
Example: Sewer Design

Design and analyze a concrete sewer
pipe to carry Qmax of 2.5 ft3/s over a
0.75% slope. Qmin = 0.45 ft3/s.
Note: use n = 0.013 and neglect n variation
with depth.
3 /8
§ Qn ·
D 1.55¨ 1/ 2 ¸
© XS ¹
nQ 2
D
AR 2 / 3 A T sin T D P T
XS 1/ 2 8 2
D§ T·
y ¨1 cos ¸
2© 2¹
Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S
• Poisonous, corrosive, malodorous
– 300 ppm will kill a person
– Is oxidized to sulfuric acid
– Stinky at first, then you lose your ability to smell it
• Generated under anaerobic conditions
– Prevented by faster flow velocities
– Temperature effects (typically uncontrollable)
EBOD P
Z 0.308 1/ 2
Z = sulfide potential
S 0 Q1/ 3 B EBOD = Effective (@20 deg) BOD [=] mg/L
EBOD = BOD x 1.07T-20
Z < 5000 H2S rare P = wetted perimeter
5000 < Z < 10,000 H2S possible B = Width of water surface at top
Z > 10,000 H2S likely
Sanitary Sewer and H2S Example

EBOD P DT
Z 0.308 1/ 2
P
S 0 Q1/ 3 B 2
EBOD = BOD x 1.07T-20 Dª § T ·º

y 1 cos ¨ ¸»
2 «¬ © 2 ¹¼
§T · § T sin T · 2
Top Width B D sin ¨ ¸ A ¨ ¸D
©2¹ © 8 ¹
T 2 / 3 (T sin T ) 5 / 3 20.16nQD 8 / 3S o 1/ 2 0
• A 750-mm diameter concrete (n=0.013) sewer must carry a flow of

0.92 m3/s of wastewater at 33 °C over an average slope of 0.8%.
– Find the wetted perimeter, top width, and depth
– For a BOD5 of 350 mg/L, estimate the probability of H2S formation.
HEC-RAS Example 1/ 3
§ q2 ·
• A rectangular concrete (n = 0.020) canal has yc ¨¨ ¸¸ = 0.7764 m
a slope of 0.0015, is 7 m wide, and is carrying © g ¹
15 m3/s. At the upstream end of a broad-
1/ 2
crested weir, the depth is 3.8 m A5 / 3 S 0
Q
a) What is the water depth 1500 m upstream? nP 2 / 3 yn = 1.195 m
b) How far upstream until the water depth is
within 1% of the normal depth? Within 1% of normal depth:
L = ?? y = 1.01*(1.195 m) = 1.207 m
1500 m
(0,4) (7,4)
y = 1.207 m y@1500 = ?? y = 3.80 m
4.0 m
3000 m (0,0) (7,0)

Z = 4.50 m Z=0m b=7m
Constructed channel design
considerations:
• Quantity of water to be conveyed
• Slope of ground
• Velocity of water
• Is percolation / infiltration of water
good or bad?
• Potential for channel erosion
Constructed Open Channels

• Constructed open channels can utilize sizing and material
parameters to match intended use
– Lined (non-erodible) channels
– Unlined (erodible) channels
– Grass-lined channels
• The “best” hydraulic section geometry is one that safely

accommodates flows at reasonable cost, limits erosion, and
minimizes flow area
3/ 5
§ Qn · For a certain Q,
A ¨¨ 1/ 2 ¸¸ P2/ 5
Rearranged Manning’s minimize A by
equation minimizing n, P, or
© So ¹ increasing slope, So
Best Trapezoidal Channel & Economic Factors
2 3 3
P 2 3y b
y A 3y 2 m
3 3
• Above parameters describe best channel in terms of minimizing excavation
and channel lining cost
– Freeboard considerations
– Natural materials ≠ steep channel side slopes (angle of repose)
– Lining costs may exceed excavation costs
– Others: excavation disposal, right-of-way, real-estate costs
Other “most efficient” channel shapes (i.e.,
minimizing flow area for a given shape)
Best
Shape A P T
geometry
Rectangle Half square 2y2 4y 2y
Triangle Half square y2 2.83y 2y
Semicircle - 0.5πy2 πy 2y
Parabola - 1.89y2 3.77y 2.83y
Channel Slopes
• Longitudinal Slopes – governed by topography
– Shallow slopes may not allow for minimum velocity to be achieved
– Steep slopes may cause channel erosion (can this be prevented?)
• Side Slopes – governed by degree of cohesiveness and resistance to erosion
Freeboard & Superelevation

• Vertical distance from water surface to top of channel
F 0.55 Cy
C = 1.5 at 0.57 m3/s

2.5 for 85 m3/s or more
– Extra channel capacity * Linear interpretation between
– Wind-driven waves
– Superelevation of flow around bends
hs = superelevation height
V 2T V = mean velocity
hs T = channel top width
grc
rc = radius of curvature of channel centerline
Lined Channels
• Advantages:
– Increased velocities permissible (reduces required sectional area)
– Decreases seepage losses
– Ensures channel stability & durability
• Procedure:
1. Select material, identify flow-rate to be carried.
2. Estimate roughness coefficient, n, and freeboard coefficient C
3. Compute normal depth of flow, yn
4. Check velocity and Froude number
5. Calculate required freeboard, including superelevation
* Flow velocity should not exceed 2.1 m/s or Fr>0.8 for nonreinforced lining,
flow velocity < 5.5 m/s acceptable for reinforced lining.
Example: Lined Channel Design

• Design a reinforced concrete (n = 0.015) “best” trapezoidal channel to
carry 2.4 m3/s where the land surface slope 0.5%. The ‘tightest’ turn
anticipated will have a radius of 5 m.
C = 1.5 at 0.57 m3/s
1. Select material, identify flow-rate to be carried.
2.5 for 85 m3/s or more
2. Estimate roughness coefficient, n, and freeboard coefficient C
* Linear interpretation between
3. Compute normal depth of flow, yn using Manning’s equation
4. Check velocity for sedimentation and vegetative growth
• V > 0.9 m/s prevents sediment., V > 0.75 m/s prevents veg. growth
• V should not exceed 2.1 m/s for non-reinforced lining
5. Calculate required freeboard and expected superelevation
V 2T
F 0.55 Cy hs
grc
Shape Best geometry A P T
Unlined Channels
• Primary design constraint: balance between deposition of
suspended sediment and scour of wetted perimeter
Ws JRh S f Shear stress on channel bottom
Ws COS (D )JRh S f Shear stress on channel sides
• Angle of repose:
Unlined Channel
Design & Analysis Procedure
• Geotechnical analysis of soil characteristics
– Yields allowable shear stress (by particle size distribution
estimation, or directly)
• For design depth, determine other geometric
parameters (i.e., A, P, R)
• Compute maximum permissible slope
(for uniform flow, S0 = Sf)
• Solve Manning’s equation for Q
Channel Sedimentation and Vegetative Growth
• Water velocity determines particle

settlement (sedimentation) and
vegetative growth
• V>0.9 m/s: no sedimentation
• V>0.75 m/s: no vegetation growth
1
Retardance Class Cover Condition
A Weeping Love Grass Excellent stand, tall, average 760 mm (30 in)
Yellow Bluestem Ischaemum Excellent stand, tall, average 910 mm (36 in)
B Kudzu Very dense growth, uncut
Bermuda Grass Good stand, tall, average 300 mm (12 in)
Native Grass Mixture (little bluestem, bluestem, Good stand, unmowed
blue gamma, and other long and short midwest
grasses)
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, tall, average 610 mm (24 in)
Lespedeza sericea Good stand, not woody, tall, average 480 mm (19
in)
Alfalfa Good stand, uncut, average 280 mm (11 in)
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, unmowed, average 330 mm (13 in)
Kudzu Dense growth, uncut
Blue Gamma Good stand, uncut, average 280 mm (11 in)
C Crabgrass Fair stand, uncut 250 to 1200 mm (10 to 48 in)
Bermuda grass Good stand, mowed, average 150 mm (6 in)
Common Lespedeza Good stand, uncut, average 280 mm (11 in)
Grass-Legume mixture--summer (orchard grass, Good stand, uncut, 150 to 200 mm (6 to 8 in)
redtop, Italian ryegrass, and common lespedeza)
Centipede grass Very dense cover, average 150 mm (6 in)
Kentucky Bluegrass Good stand, headed, 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in)
D Bermuda Grass Good stand, cut to 60 mm (2.5 in) height
Common Lespedeza Excellent stand, uncut, average 110 mm (4.5 in)
Buffalo Grass Good stand, uncut, 80 to 150 mm (3 to 6 in)
Grass-Legume mixture-fall, spring (orchard grass, Good stand, uncut, 100 to 130 mm (4 to 5 in)
redtop, Italian ryegrass, and common lespedeza)
Lespedeza sericea After cutting to 50 mm (2 in) height. Very good
stand before cutting.
E Bermuda Grass Good stand, cut to height, 40 mm (1.5 in)
Bermuda Grass Burned stubble
Source: HEC-15
Grass-Lined Channels
• Desirable in intermittent flow areas Flow, Retardance, and Roughness
for
– Erosion control
– Improved infiltration
– Enhanced storage within the channel
– Aesthetic benefits
• Roughness coefficient, n, is a
function of velocity in the channel
• Qualitative judgments must be
made about the coverage, quality
of the lining
Grass Channel Freeboard
V2
F (meters) 0.152
2g
Maximum Velocities

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CE 331 – Hydraulic Engineering

Magdeburg Bridge, Germany

What is the design process?

Forces Acting on Steady Uniform Flow

α = angle the pipe makes with horizontal 4W 0 L

A = cross sectional area of control surface (m2)

Example: Shear Stress

hydraulic grade line

For closed-conduit flow, the pipe

Friction factor is directly

Flow Resistance in Open Channels

• The same flow resistance / flow rate relationships

For steady, uniform flow in an open channel,

Example: What is R for a trapezoidal

– Chezy roughness coefficient, C [=] L0.5/T From Pg 201

• Manning later improved on the Chezy equation

• Fully turbulent flow in

Shear Stress Distribution: Turbulent Flow

• Boundary layer (laminar sublayer) thickness

Wrought iron, steel (new) 0.045 0.00015

Calculating Boundary Layer Thickness, δ

• If δ < 0.08ε, roughness elements dominate:

of the laminar sublayer Laminar zone

Example: Energy Loss

Finding Friction Factor f

ks is equivalent sand roughness,

Example: Using Colebrook

• Find the friction factor for a 136 mm diameter galvanized iron

Finding friction factor f

The Jain Equation is only an estimate of f and is valid between

Example: Using Jain

Example: What is the Blasius-derived DOESN’T APPLY – outside

??? Pipe Sizing

• Sometimes you know the expected headloss

• The pipe diameter (and material type) must be designed to match

Using Darcy Weisbach Equation in Pipes of

… but f is not a constant, since it depends on the flow

• Calculate Re for these conditions

Example: Pipe Diameter Required (excel)

Diameter needed for a given flowrate and headloss.

The “easy”, less accurate approach… (explicit)

3000 ≤ Re ≤ 3 x 108 10-6 ≤ ks/D ≤ 2 x 10-2

Note: ks, hf, and L in units of meters; Q in units of m3/s

• Hazen Williams equation

V = Average pipe flow velocity

Hazen-Williams Example: Find Pressure

1.85 WSE = 103.5 m

Hazen-Williams Example: Find Flow Rate

SI Units British Gravitational (BG) Units

Hazen-Williams & Manning

Headloss Method Comparison

2 2 1.325 ν = 1.22 x 10-5 ft2/s

J 2g J 2g «ln ¨ 3.7 D  Re 0.9 ¸»

The Three Reservoir Problem…

D QA-D • Middle reservoir...?

The Three Reservoir Problem – Iterative Solution Method

1. Guess some value for the total head at D (hD).

70 ft QD-C 5. Compute the Re for these V values.

What is the flow through each pipe?

J 2g J 2g «ln ¨ 3.7 D Re 0.9 ¸»

• ‘Ideal’ Pump Equation: Pi Q J hp

Pump Curve: hp 24.4 7.65Q2