Theory and Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment

Chapter 4
Theory and Practice of Aeration in

Wastewater Treatment
1.
Introduction 167
2.
Steps Involved in the Oxygen-Transfer Process 170
3.
Oxygen-Transfer Rate Equation 170
4.
Determination of the Overall Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient Κγ^α by
Unsteady-State Aeration of Tap Water 172
5. Integration of the Differential Equation for Oxygen Transfer between
Limits 176
6. Unsteady-State Aeration of Activated Sludge Liquor 177
7. Steady-State Determination of Κγ^α for the Activated Sludge Liquor 178
8. Standard Oxygenation Capacity and Oxygenation Capacity under Actual
Operating Conditions 178
9. Transfer Efficiency of Aeration Units 183
10. Effect of Wastewater Characteristics on Oxygen Transfer 184
11. Laboratory Determination of Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient α 186
12. Classification of Aeration Equipment; Oxygen-Transfer Efficiency 187
13. Air Diffusion Units 187
14. Turbine Aeration Units 194
15. Surface Aeration Units 199
Problems 205
References 210
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with the transfer of oxygen from air to a wastewater
subjected to biological aerobic treatment. Knowledge of the rate of oxygen
transfer is essential for specification of aerators to be utilized in the process. The
subject matter in this chapter includes: (1) A brief review of the stationary film
theory applied to the case of oxygen transfer; (2) experimental procedures for
determination of oxygen transfer coefficients from bench-scale units; (3) a
discussion of the most c o m m o n types of aerators utilized in wastewater
treatment; and (4) procedures for specifying aerators for a given application and
arriving at a reasonable aerator layout for the treatment unit.
The simplest explanation for the mechanism of gas transfer is given by the
two-film theory. According to this theory, it is the presence of two films, one
liquid and one gas, at the gas-liquid interface which provides most of the
167
168 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment
resistance to the passage of gas molecules from the bulk of the gas phase to that
of the hquid phase.
F o r gases of high solubility in the hquid phase, e.g., absorption of SO2 by
water, the major resistance to absorption is that offered by the gas film. F o r
gases of low solubility in the hquid phase, e.g., absorption of oxygen by an
aqueous liquor, which is the case under study in this chapter, the controlling
resistance resides in the liquid film. For gases of intermediate solubilities, both
films may offer significant resistance.
Oxygen saturation values (Cs)76o for distilled water at standard atmospheric
pressure (760 m m Hg) are presented in Table 4.1 as function of temperature. For
a more complete table with 1 °C increments, which also takes into account the
presence of chlorides, consult Ref. [ 9 ] .
TABLE 4.1
Oxygen Saturation Values {€^)η(,ο for Distilled

Water at Standard Conditions (1 atm)"
Temperature Temperature O2
CQ CF) (mg/liter)
0 32.0 14.6
5 41.0 12.8
10 50.0 11.3
15 59.0 10.2
20 68.0 9.2
25 77.0 8.4
30 86.0 7.6
35 95.0 7.1
40 104.0 6.6
From Ref. [ 9 ] .
The notation will be utilized hence to refer to dissolved oxygen

concentration (mg/hter) in t a p water at saturation conditions. The values
presented in Table 4.1 (distilled water) can be taken as a reasonable approxi
mation for Cs. For the case of wastewaters, the notation C^^ will be utilized
hence to designate the dissolved oxygen saturation concentration. The ratio
ß = Q J Q (4.1)
can be determined experimentally for a given wastewater. F o r most wastewaters

values of β fall within the range 0.92 to 0.98.
For the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 m m Hg, the effect of
temperature and presence of dissolved solids may be estimated by the following
equation [ 4 ] :
(Csw)76o = (475 - 0.00265.S)/(33.5 + T) (4.2)

where (Csw)76o is the saturation concentration at the standard atmospheric
7. Introduction 169
pressure, S is the concentration of dissolved solids in mg/liter, and Τ is the

temperature in °C.
The effect of the barometric pressure upon the value of the oxygen saturation
concentration (Cs), at the tap water surface, can be estimated from Henry's law.
According to Henry's law, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the liquid
phase is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas phase. The air
pressure in the gas phase is obtained by subtracting from the barometric pressure
P, the value of the vapor pressure of water P" at the system temperature. The
partial pressure of oxygen is then the product of the mole fraction of oxygen in
theair(>^02 = 0.21) by the difference ( P - P^),i.e.,0.21(/^ - P ^ . The ratio of the
dissolved oxygen concentrations at a barometric pressure P , i.e., C^, to that at
the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 m m Hg, i.e., (Cs)76o, is then given by
Eq. (4.3). The factor yo^ = 0.21 appears in both numerator and denominator
and therefore it cancels out. Therefore:
For tap water,*
(4.3)
(Cs) 7 6 0 760 - P'
where Ρ is the barometric pressure (mm Hg) and P" is the vapor pressure of water
at the water temperature. Values of P^ are presented in Table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2
Vapor Pressure of Water"
pv
Temperature Temperature
(X) (°F) (mm Hg)
0 32.0 4.579
5 41.0 6.543
10 50.0 9.209
15 59.0 12.788
20 68.0 17.535
25 77.0 23.756
30 86.0 31.824
35 95.0 42.175
40 104.0 55.324
" From Ref. [ 6 ] .
* The error in neglecting the term in the numerator and denominator of Eq. (4.3) [or (4.4)] is
small, and thus these equations are frequently written as
= (C,)76o(P/760) (4.3a)
and
• ßiCsheoiPPeO) (4.4a)
1 70 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment
For a wastewater, from Eqs. (4.1) and (4.3) (see footnote on p. 169),
= ßQ = ß{QUo ^Ιο~_^ρ. (4.4)
Equations (4.3) or (4.4) are only applicable at the water surface and are
utilized without further corrections for the case of surface aeration. F o r the case
of bubble aerators (e.g., diffusers and turbine aerators to be studied in Sections
13 and 14), it is necessary to introduce another pressure correction to account for
the hydrostatic head of liquid above the point of aeration. This matter is
discussed in Section 8.3.
2. STEPS INVOLVED IN THE OXYGENTRANSFER

PROCESS
The process of oxygen transfer from a gaseous to an aqueous phase occurs in

two steps:
Step L Saturation of the hquid interface between the two phases. Let Q (or
Csw) be the saturation concentration of oxygen for the cases when the hquid
phase is tap water or wastewater, respectively. This rate of oxygen transfer is
very rapid since the resistance of the gas film is negligible, and thus Step 1 is never
the controlhng one.
Step 2. Passage of oxygen molecules from the liquid interface to the bulk of
the liquid phase. Hence, C will denote the oxygen concentration in the bulk of
the liquid phase [ C < Q (or Q w ) ] . In the case of Step 2, the resistances involved
in this oxygen transfer are those offered by the hquid film and the resistance to
oxygen diffusion into the bulk of the hquid phase.
At very low mixing levels (low turbulence), the resistance to diffusion into the
bulk of the liquid phase is greater than the liquid film resistance. At moderate
turbulence levels the resistance to diffusion into the bulk of the liquid phase is
decreased and then the liquid film resistance will control the diffusion rate. At
higher turbulence levels the liquid film is broken u p and the rate of oxygen
transfer is controlled by the surface renewal rate, which is the frequency at which
hquid droplets with a concentration C replace the interface hquid in which the
oxygen concentration is Q (or Cs^).
3. OXYGEN-TRANSFER RATE EQUATION
Consider the diagram in Fig. 4.1a for the transfer of oxygen across the hquid
film.
The rate of oxygen transfer is given by Fick's diffusion equation apphed
across the hquid film:
dM/dt = - DA dC/dXf (4.5)
3. Oxygen- Transfer Rate Equation 171
Gas Liquid Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid

phose film phase phase film phase
Distance, χ Distance, χ
(α) (b)
Fig. 4.1. Diagram for oxygen transfer through liquid film: (a) rigorous Pick's equation, (b) linear
approximation.
where dM/dt is the rate of O2 transfer in lb 02/h; D is the diffusion coefficient in

ft^/h; A is the interfacial contact area between the gas and hquid phases in ft^;
and dC/dXf is the oxygen concentration gradient in (lb/ft^)/ft = Ib/ft"^. Equation
(4.5) is a partial differential equation since the concentration C along the hquid
film is not only a function of time but also of position, i.e., C = / ( / , x). However,
since the thickness of the hquid film is very small, a hnear approximation for the
oxygen concentration d r o p across the hquid film can be utilized. This
corresponds to the diagram shown in Fig. 4.1b. In this case Eq. (4.5) can be
rewritten as an ordinary differential equation in time:
dM C-Q Q-C
= - DA - = DA— (4.6)
dt X( X{
Dividing both members by the volume of the liquid phase V:
A c ^
V dt V X, ^ ^
The left-hand member of Eq. (4.7) has the dimensions (mass)/(volume)(time)

or (concentration)/(time), and will be written simply as dC/dt. On the right-
hand member, the ratio D/x^ will be denoted as A^L (oxygen transfer coefficient).
This is convenient since the thickness of the liquid film x^ is usually not determi
nable. Also, the term A/V, which represents the total interfacial contact area
per unit volume of liquid will be denoted hence as a (units: ft^/ft^ = 1/ft).
This again is convenient since it is essentially impossible to obtain a good
estimate of the total interfacial area A. With these modifications Eq. (4.7)
becomes
dC
O C = — = Kâ{C, - C) (tap water, Q) (4.8)
at
where O C stands for oxygenation capacity. F o r the case of a wastewater, Eq.

(4.6) is written replacing Cs with Cs^, i.e.,
dC
OC = — = Kâ{C,^ - C) (wastewater, Q^) (4.9)
dt
The term dCjdt represents the pounds of oxygen transferred per hour per ft-^
and is designated as oxygenation capacity (OC) as indicated in Eqs. (4.8) and
(4.9).
In the determination of the oxygen-transfer coefficient, the overall coefficient
Kiâ is obtained without attempting t o separate the factors A^L and a. It is
admittedly impossible to measure the interfacial area A.
The difference (C^ — C) or (C^^ - C) between dissolved oxygen saturation
value at the hquid film interface and actual concentration of oxygen in the bulk
of the hquid phase is called oxygen deficit. It represents the driving force to
oxygen transfer. F o r a steady-state operation of a continuous aerobic reactor, C
is kept constant at all times, and thus the rate of oxygen-transfer is a constant
value. This steady-state value of C is hence denoted as CL . In the case of a batch
aeration, C approaches Cs (or Cs^) as aeration proceeds; eventuahy the driving
force becomes zero and oxygen ceases to be transferred to the hquid phase.
For continuous aerobic treatment processes designed for removal of carbo
naceous organic matter, the range for steady-state operating dissolved oxygen
level C L is between 0.5 and 1.5 mg/liter. When nitrification is to be achieved,
dissolved oxygen levels in excess of 2.0 mg/hter are utilized.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE OVERALL OXYGEN-TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT/TL« BY UNSTEADY-STATE AERATION
OF TAP WATER
For purposes of rating aeration devices, the overall oxygen-transfer coef

ficient Κγ^α is usually determined utilizing t a p water as the liquid phase. A
correction factor a, which will be defined in Section 8.2 of this chapter, will
permit estimate of Κγ^α for a wastewater from the value determined for tap water.
The procedure more commonly used for determination of K^â is the unsteady-
state aeration of tap water. The four steps involved in this determination are as
follows.
Step 1. Deoxygenate the water to an essentially zero concentration of
dissolved oxygen. This is done by addition of deoxygenation chemicals, the most
commonly used being sodium sulfite ( N a 2 S 0 3 ) . Cobalt chloride ( C 0 C I 2 ) is
added as a catalyst for the deoxygenation reaction:
C0CI2
Na2S03 + Na2S04
T h e S t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is
Na2S03/i02=^=7.9
4. Determination of the Overall Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient 173
This means that theoreticahy 7.9 ppm of N a 2 S 0 3 are required to remove 1 ppm
of D O . Based on the D O of the test tap water, the approximate N a 2 S 0 3
requirements are estimated (a 10-20% excess is used). Sufficient cobalt chloride
is added to provide a minimum Co^ concentration of 1.5 ppm. An alternative
deoxygenation procedure consists of removal of dissolved oxygen by purging
with nitrogen gas.
Step 2, After D O concentration becomes essentially zero, start aeration,
measuring the increasing concentrations of D O at selected time intervals. Since
D O concentration increases with time, this method is termed unsteady-state
aeration. A steady-state method, in which D O concentration is kept constant, is
discussed in Section 7. Dissolved oxygen measurements are preferably per
formed by instrumental methods. A properly cahbrated galvanic cell oxygen
analyzer and probe is the most rehable method. Experimental determination of
D O by this technique is described in Section 2.3.1 of Chapter 2. Chemical
analysis of dissolved oxygen (Winkler method) is also employed [ 9 ] . The
aeration device is located at the center of the test basin. When circular basins are
employed, baffles are placed at the quarter points of the basin, as indicated in
Fig. 4.2, in order to prevent vortexing.
When testing is performed in a circular tank for pilot or full scale tests,
sampling depths for the D O determinations are 1 ft from the surface and 1 ft
from the bottom, at the mid and end points of the radii trisecting the basin.
This yields a total of 12 samphng points, as illustrated by Fig. 4.3. Samples
Baffles
Baffles
Fig. 4.2. Baffle arrangement.
End point
'-Ο" ^ /
Samples ; Liquid level
hereH
—Bottom
, „ of tank
r-o"-j—
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.3. Location of sampling points (a) shown in cross section of tank (b).
from various test locations are analyzed for D O and the results are averaged and
recorded for the particular sampling time.
Step 3. Results are tabulated as shown by sample data in Table 4.3.
TABLE 4.3
Data for Example 4.1
(1) (2) (3)

Test time (min) C (mg/liter) C - C ( m g / l i t e r ) ' ' = 10.1 - ( 2 )
0 0.0 10.1
10 2.6 7.5
20 4.8 5.3
30 6.0 4.1
40 7.1 3.0
50 7.9 2.2
60 8.5 1.6
" = 10.1 mg/liter. (See Example 4.1, Step 3.)
Step 4. F r o m Eq. (4.10) it follows that a plot of ( Q - C) versus time in

semilog scale yields a straight line, the slope of which equals ( - Κγ^α). Take
ID
9
θ
7
1 4
20 40 60
Time (min)
Fig. 4.4. Determination of Kiâ (Example 4.1).

4. Determination of ttie Overall Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient 1 75
Eq. (4.8)
dCIdt = Kâ{C, - C)
Separating variables and integrating assuming Κγ^α to be independent of the time

of samphng:
ln(Cs - C) = - Kiât + const (4.10)
For the case of a wastewater an equation similar to (4.10) is obtained replacing

Cs with The plot of ln(Cs - C) versus time is shown in Fig. 4.4 for data in
Table 4.3. The straight hne is plotted by the least-squares method.
Determination of the overall mass-transfer coefficient Κγ^α by the method of
unsteady-state aeration of tap water is illustrated by Example 4.1.
Example 4 . 1 . D a t a presented in columns (1) and (2) of Table 4.3 are obtained
by utilizing an 8-hp surface aerator in a 150,000-gal circular test tank under the
following conditions:
T a p water temperature: 15°C

Atmospheric pressure: 750 m m Hg
Test water is deoxygenated using sodium sulfite and a cobalt catalyst. Calculate:
1. Chemical requirements (lb NaaSOa/lb hquor) to deoxygenate test water

with 9 ppm of D O . Calculate also total lb N a 2 S 0 3 required.
2. C 0 C I 2 requirements (lb).
3. Value o f / : L ö ( h " ' ) .
Solution
Step 1. Establish the chemical requirements. Theoretically, 7.9 ppm of

Na2S03 are required to remove 1 ppm D O . Thus
7.9 X 9.0 = 71.1 ppm of N a 2 S 0 3
Utilizing a 20% excess,
20/100 X 71.1 = 14.22 ppm (take 15 p p m excess)
Requirements
Theoretical 71.1 p p m
Excess 15.0 ppm
86.1 ppm of N a 2 S 0 3
Requirements = 86.1 ppm = 86.1 χ 10"^ lb N a 2 S 0 3 / l b water
Total required: 86.1 χ 1 0 ' ^ l b N a 2 S 0 3 / l b water χ 8.341b water/gal water
X 150,000 gal water = 1081b of N a 2 S 0 3

Step 2. Determine the C0CI2 requirements (lb).

Basis: 1.5 p p m of C o ^ ^
Molecular weight of C0CI2: 130
Atomic weight of C o : 59
Thus
1.5 ppm Co^-' or 1.5 X 130/59 = 3.3 ppm C0CI2
= 3.3 X 10"^ lb CoCl2/lb water
Therefore, the lb of C0CI2 required are
3.3 X 10"Mb CoCU/lb water χ 8.34 lb water/gal water χ 150,000 gal water
= 4.13 lb C0CI2 (minimum)
Take 5 lb C0CI2.
Step 3. Complete column (3) of Table 4.3.
Cs: F r o m Table 4.1 (Cs)76o = 10.2 mg/liter at 15°C. Since the aerator is of the
surface type, Eq. (4.3) can be utilized to obtain the corrected value of
At 15°C, from Table 4.2 = 12.788 m m Hg.
The corrected Cs is then [Eq. (4.3)]
750 - 12.788
Cs = 10.2 = 10.1 mg/liter
760 - 12.788
Column (3) of Table 4.3 is then completed.
Step 4. The straight line in Fig. 4.4 is then drawn by the least-squares method.
Then
Kâ = - slope = - 2.303[(log 10.1 - log 2.95)/(0 - 40)] χ 60 = 1.85 h"^
Notice that since Kiâ is the slope of the straight line in Fig. 4.4, its units depend
exclusively upon the time units utihzed in the abscissa. Changing the con
centration units for the ordinate simply causes an upward or downward
displacement of the straight hne parallel to itself, therefore without affecting its
slope.
It should also be remarked that the value of Kiâ is essentially unaffected by
changes of barometric pressure. According to Eq. (4.3a) [or (4.4a)], a change in
barometric pressure would produce simply an upward or downward displace
ment of the straight line in Fig. 4.4 parallel to itself, as the value of the driving
force (Cs - C) is changed.
5. INTEGRATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR

OXYGEN TRANSFER BETWEEN LIMITS
Integration of Eq. (4.8) between times ti and t2, corresponding to D O

concentrations Cj and C2, yields
ln[(Cs - C2)/(Cs - CO] = - Kâit2 - h)
6. Unsteady-State Aeration of Activated Sludge Liquor 177
or
Kâ = 2.303 log[(C - C,)/(Q - €2)^2 - t,) (4.11)
From Eq. (4.11) the value of Kiâ is calculated from only two experimental
determinations of D O . However, it is preferable to utihze the semilog linear plot
method with several experimental points, since this permits statistical averaging
of errors.
6. UNSTEADY-STATE AERATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE

LIQUOR
In aeration of activated sludge hquor, oxygen uptake rate (respiration rate) by

the microorganisms must be taken into account. The oxygen uptake rate is the
rate of oxygen utilization by the microorganisms [units from laboratory
determinations: mg 02/(liter)(min)] and will be the subject of further discussion
in Chapter 5, Section 6.3.2. Equation (4.9) is modified as follows:
dC/dt = KiâiQ^ - C) - O U R (4.12)

where O U R is the oxygen uptake rate; is the saturation concentration of
oxygen for the wastewater; and C is the operating concentration of dissolved
oxygen in the aerated hquor. Values of dC/dt are obtained by plotting C
(measured by D O tests) versus time and determining slopes at selected time
intervals (Fig. 4.5).
Equation (4.12) is rearranged to yield
dC/dt = (KiâQy, - O U R ) - K^âC (4.13)
Equation (4.13) indicates that a plot of dC/dt (values of slopes obtained from
Fig. 4.5) versus C yields a straight line, as indicated in Fig. 4.6. The slope of this
line yields Kiâ and oxygen uptake rate is determined from the intercept.
The experimental technique for this determination consists in cutting off the
aerators in the reactor tank and allowing the D O level to d r o p to a low value.
Time, t
Fig. 4.5. Determination of dC/dt. Fig. 4.6. Determination of Kiâ (unsteady-

state aeration of activated sludge liquor).
1 78 4. Theory arid Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment
Then aeration is restarted and the increase in D O concentration is recorded as a

function of aeration time yielding Fig. 4.5.
It should be stressed that the procedure described in this section applies to the
case of the activated sludge liquor, which contains an appreciable concentration
of microorganisms that exert a demand of oxygen for respiration.
For the case of a wastewater containing negligible concentration of biomass,
the unsteady-state determination of Κγ^α is identical to that described in Section
4, utilizing instead of Q in Eq. (4.10).
7. STEADY-STATE DETERMINATION OF Kâ FOR THE

ACTIVATED SLUDGE LIQUOR
The methods described in Sections 4 and 6 were based upon unsteady-state

techniques, with the concentration of dissolved oxygen increasing with time
during the experimental procedure. F o r the case of aeration of the activated
sludge liquor, it is possible to utihze a steady-state technique for determination
of the overall oxygen transfer coefficient Κγ^α. T o achieve steady-state conditions
the activated sludge liquor is aerated at a rate just sufficient to supply the oxygen
required for respiration of the microorganisms. Then in Eq. (4.12) dC/dt = 0
and therefore
Kâ = OOR/(Q^ - C^) (4.14)
where C = C L (steady-state oxygen concentration).

The techniques for determination of the oxygen uptake rate are described in
Chapter 5, Section 6.3.2. Equation (4.14) yields Kiâ.
8. STANDARD OXYGENATION CAPACITY AND

OXYGENATION CAPACITY UNDER ACTUAL
OPERATING CONDITIONS
It has been stated in Section 4 that aeration devices are rated by determining
the overall oxygen-transfer coefficient Kiâ utilizing t a p water as the hquid
phase. Furthermore, the oxygenation capacity utilized in this rating is that under
the so-called standard conditions corresponding to a t a p water temperature of
2 0 ° C , standard atmospheric pressure of 760 m m Hg and zero dissolved oxygen
concentration. The reader will notice that the determination of Kiâ in Example
4.1, although performed with t a p water, was not at the standard conditions as
defined above. However, corrections which will be described in this section can
be apphed to refer that Kiâ value to the standard conditions.
The most general corrections to be applied will be to relate the Kiâ value for a
wastewater at temperature T, pressure conditions different from the standard,
and a steady-state dissolved oxygen concentration C = C L (where C L > 0) to the
Kiâ value for tap water at standard conditions. F o r this case, write Eq. (4.9) for
8. Oxygen Capacity 1 79
the wastewater in question as
(OC)3etuai = (dC/dtU,,, = (Kâ)^^r{Cs. - C J (4.15)

On the other hand, write Eq. (4.8) for the t a p water at standard conditions
(T = 20°C, Ρ = 760 m m Hg, a n d C = 0) as
(OC)3,3„dard = idC/dt\,,,,,,, = iKâ)2oc Q (4.16)

The ratio of the oxygen capacities thus defined is
(OC)actual (^L^)w,r
(OQstandard (^L^)20°C Q
In Eq. (4.17) Cs is the standard dissolved oxygen concentration at saturation
for tap water ( Γ = 20°C, Ρ = 760 m m Hg). This value (Table 4.1) is 9.2 mg/liter.
Therefore Eq. (4.17) becomes
(OC)actual (ö^C/Ôactual (^LÖ!)w,r Qw " Q

(4.18)
(OC),,3ndard (rfC/rf/)s.3„dard (/^L«)20X 9.2
The corrections t o be studied next, fall into three categories which are
considered in Sections 8.1-8.3.
8.1. T e m p e r a t u r e Corrections
First, in the numerator of Eq. (4.18), Kiâ for the wastewater at temperature Τ
will be written as a function of the Kiâ for the same wastewater, but at Γ = 20°C.
It h a s been observed that Kiâ increases with temperature. Eckenfelder [ 3 ]
proposed the following empirical equation t o account for this temperature
effect.
For the wastewater,
( ^ L ß ) w , r = (/^L«)w,2ox X 0^"'" (4.19)

For the t a p water,
(^L^)^ = ( ^ L ö ) 2 o x X Ö ^ - ' " (4.20)
where θ = 1.024.
Utilizing Eq. (4.19), Eq. (4.18) wih be rewritten as
(OC)aciual _ (dC/dt\ctual _ {f^L^)w,20°C ^ ^ 024^"^^ X " (4 21)

(OC)standard (ö?C/i/Ostandard (^LÖf)20°C 9.2
8.2. Corrections t o A c c o u n t f o r t h e E f f e c t o f Dissolved

Solids in t h e W a s t e w a t e r
As indicated in Section 1 the dissolved oxygen concentration in a wastewater
at saturation is a value lower than that for the saturation concentration in t a p
water. F r o m Eq. (4.1)
Csw = j5Cs (4.22) [71
Furthermore, the ratio (A:LO)W,2O°C/(^L«)2O°C in Eq. (4.21) is a value which can

be determined experimentally, e.g., by the unsteady-state aeration method
(Section 4) applied to the wastewater and the t a p water. This ratio, hence
denoted as a, will be the object of further discussion in Section 10. Usually this
ratio is less than unity. Thus, in general,
Κ,α of wastewater
α = — (4.23)
Kiâ of t a p water
and for the case of Γ = 20°C, as it appears in Eq. (4.21),
(^L^)w,20°C , Λ ^ Λ \
α2οτ = - τ τ ^ τ (4.24)
(ALÖ!)20°C
Utilizing Eqs. (4.22) and (4.24), Eq. (4.21) becomes
= α2οχ χ 1.024^-2^ χ — — (4.25)

andard
Remark that in Eq. (4.25) Cs stands for the oxygen saturation concentration for
tap water at the temperature T.
One final remark should be made concerning the temperature effect on the
products of Kiâ and oxygen concentration terms in the numerator a n d
denominator of Eq. (4.17). While the Κγ^α terms increase with temperature, the
dissolved oxygen concentrations d o decrease and the effects are about of the
same magnitude tending to cancel each other. Consequently, for approximate
calculations it is possible to neglect the temperature effect, provided that the
values of Κχ^α and C utilized refer to a same c o m m o n temperature.
8.3. Pressure Corrections

At this point one must make a distinction between the pressure corrections for
the case of surface aerators and bubble aerators. F o r the case of surface aeration,
Eq. (4.25) will be rewritten letting Cs = Cs,s to indicate oxygen saturation
concentration for t a p water, at the surface of the liquid pool. This leads to
(OC),,,,3i (dC/dt\,,,,i i5Cs,s - CL
(OC)standard (^C/i/Ostandard
= a2ox X 1.024' X —
9.2
(4.26)
where Cs,s can be estimated as a function of the Cs value at the standard

barometric pressure from Eq. (4.3), which yields
Q.s = iQ.she,o,^^, (4.27)
Substitution of Q . s given by Eq. (4.27) into Eq. (4.26) yields

(QC)ac.ual ^ idC/dt\,,,,,
(C)C)standard (dC/dt )standard
^(Q.s)76o _ - CL
= aôx X 1.024^-20 χ — (4.28)
8. Oxygen Capacity 1 81
For the case of bubble aerators [Eqs. (4.29), (4.30), and (4.33)], it is necessary
to take into account the pressure correction due to the hydrostatic head of liquid
above the point of aeration. Oldshue [5] has proposed in this case to utihze for
the term Cs in Eq. (4.25), the oxygen saturation concentration for tap water at
aeration tank mid-depth. This term will be hence denoted as Cs,m. Equation
(4.25) will then be written as
(OC)aetual (^QÔactual /^Qm "

= a2ox X 1.024' X (4.29)
(OC)s,andard WÔstandard 9.2
Notice that i^Cs,^ represents the oxygen saturation concentration for the
wastewater at aeration tank mid-depth. Furthermore, Oldshue [5] proposed the
foUowing equation for Cs,m ·
-(PJ14.7) + (0,/21)"
Γ =c = C,s[(Pb/29.4) + (0,/42)] (4.30)
Terms Cs,^ and Cs,s have been previously defined. In case the barometric
pressure is different from 760 m m Hg, the value of Cs,s can be estimated from Eq.
(4.27), where (Cs,s)76o is the value of the saturation oxygen concentration read
from Table 4.1 at the operating temperature. The other terms in Eq. (4.30) are as
fohows.
Pb- Air pressure (psia) at the depth of air release. Since the standard
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia) corresponds to a column of water 33.92
ft high, then
= âtm + (<^/33.92) X 14.7 + [fricfional losses in piping system (psi)]
(4.31)
where Patm is the local atmospheric pressure (psia) and d is the depth of air
release (tank depth) in feet.
Ol- percentage of oxygen in exit gas leaving the liquid surface. This value
might be estimated from gas analysis made in covered aeration tanks in
bench-scale units. In case such data is not available, it may be assumed
that between 6% and 10% of the oxygen is absorbed. Since the air
contains initially 21% of oxygen,
0 , = 21(1 - x ) ( % ) (4.32)
where χ is the fraction of oxygen absorbed
0.06 <x< 0.10
There are modifications of conventional activated sludge process, such as
the U N O X process (Chapter 6, Section 4.5), which utilize pure oxygen
instead of air, and this can be taken into account in the choice of the value
for Of. Since Eq. (4.28) is only approximate, the term O JAI is frequently
estimated as 0.5, taking = 21%, without correcting for absorbed
oxygen. In this case, Eq. (4.30) becomes
Cs,. ^ Cs,s[(/'b/29.4) + 0.5] (4.33)
Example 4.2. F o r the surface aerator in Example 4.1, calculate
1. Value of {Kiâ)2o°C'
2. Pounds of oxygen transferred per hour at standard conditions.
Solution
StepL The value 1.85 h " ^ (Step 4, Example 4.1) was that f o r / = 15°C.From
Eq. (4.20)
( ^ L « ) 2 o c = (^Lfl)r X θ^""-^ = (1.85)(1.024)^^-^^ = 2.083 h " ^
Step 2. lb 02/h at standard conditions. F r o m Eq. (4.16)
lb 02/h = (^Lö)2oxC X V
(^L«)2ox = 2.083 h-^

mg02 ^ lb02
C, = 9 . 2 - ^ - ^ = 9.2ppm = 9.2 χ 10-
liter - - lb water
Since the tank has a volume of 150,000 gal,
1 . Ib02 lb water
lb02/h = 2.083 - X 9.2 X 10"^ — χ 150,000 gal χ 8.34
h lb water gal
= 24 lb 02/h
Example 4 . 3 . A diffused air system is employed in aeration of an activated
sludge tank. The diffusers are located 14 ft below the liquid surface. The
frictional loss in the piping system is estimated at 2 psi. T h e design is to be based
on an average barometric pressure of 740 m m Hg and a system temperature of
77°F (25°C). The manufacturer's specifications indicate that each diffuser unit is
capable of transferring 1.7 lb 02/h when operating under an air flow of 12
S C F M * , for aeration of t a p water at 20°C, 760 m m Hg pressure, and zero
concentration of D O (i.e., under standard conditions). Estimate the lb 0 2 / h
transferred per diffuser unit at actual operating conditions. Assume that 7% of
the oxygen bubbling through the water is absorbed. The values of a2ox and β
from bench-scale tests are 0.9 and 0.92, respectively. Base design upon an
operating steady-state value C L of 2.5 mg/liter.
Solution
Step I. Compute the value Cs,s for t a p water at the liquid surface at 25°C and
Ρ = 740 mm Hg from Eq. (4.27). (Cs,s)76o = 8.4 mg/liter from Table 4.1 a n d
= 23.756 m m Hg from Table 4.2.
740 - 23.756
Cs s = 8.4 = 8.17 mg/ Iter
760 - 23.756 ^'
* SCFM stands for standard cubic feet per minute measured at 760 mm Hg pressure and a
temperature of 0°C.
9. Transfer Efficiency of Aeration Units 183
Step 2. C o m p u t e the value Cs,^ at mid-depth from Eq. (4.30). The required
value of [Eq. (4.31)] is
Pb = Palm + ^2 92 ^ '"^'^ [frictional losses in piping system (psi)] psia
740 14
= _ X 14.7 + X 14.7 + 2.0 = 14.3 + 6.1 + 2.0 = 22.4 psia
and the value of O, is estimated from Eq. (4.32):

O, = 21(1 - x) = 21(1 - 0.07) = 19.5%
Then from Eq. (4.30)
"22.4 19.5
Q,n, = 8.17 = 10 mg/liter
29L4 ÎT
Step 3. The ratio of the actual transfer of oxygen to that at standard
conditions is the same ratio given by Eq. (4.29), i.e.,
[Ib02/(h)(diffuserunit)]3c,uai ,r-2o ^Cm - CL

= a2o-c X 1-024^
[lb02/(h)(diffuserunit)],.,„aard 9.2
= (0.9)(i.024)—
= 0.74
Therefore the actual transfer of oxygen is
[lb02/(h)(diffuser u n i t ) ] a c t u a i = 0.74 χ 1.7 = 1.261b02/h
9. TRANSFER EFFICIENCY OF AERATION UNITS
Transfer efficiency (TE) of aeration units is commonly expressed in terms of

mass of oxygen actually transferred per (hp χ h) of energy expenditure, i.e., [Eq.
(4.34)],
TE = l b 0 2 transferred/(hp χ h) (4.34)
Sometimes, nominal hp (nameplate hp) of the aerator is utilized for simplicity

in evaluating TE. It is more reasonable to base calculation upon actual hp (blade
hp) measured during the test by a watt meter or an energy counter. When the
power factor (cos PF) is known, blade hp is calculated from Eq. (4.35) [ 2 ] .
Blade hp = (line voUage) χ (line amperage) χ [cos PF (3)^''^]
X 7 4 6 X (motor efficiency) χ (gear efficiency) (4.35)
* Equation (4.35) is written, as indicated by the cos PF term, for the case of a three-phase motor,
which is by far the most common type in industrial power distribution systems.
where 7 ^ is the conversion factor hp/W. Values of TE u p to7 lb 0 2 / ( h p χ h) are

reported for surface aerators, although for most units the values of TE range
from 2-4 IbOa/ihp χ h). F o r turbine aerators the usual range is 2-3 lb
0 2 / ( h p X h).
One can define a standard transfer efficiency, hence denoted as (TEXtandard.
referring to the oxygen transfer to t a p water at standard conditions, i.e.,
Τ = 20°C, Ρ = 760 m m Hg, and zero concentration of dissolved oxygen. The
actual transfer efficiency will be denoted as (TE)actuai- Obviously the ratio
(TE)3ctuai/(TEX,3„d will be identical to that of (OC)aetuai/(OC),,3„d.
Consequently, for surface aerators, from Eq. (4.26),
^ ^ = α . . , χ · . 0 2 4 - « χ ^ ^ ,4.36)
and also Eq. (4.28) does apply. For bubble aerators, from Eq. (4.29),
—— = c X 1.024^ χ — (4.37)
I A ^Jstand
where C^,. is given by Eqs. (4.30) or (4.33).
Example 4.4. For the aerator in Examples 4.1 and 4.2, report aerator standard
efficiency in terms of nameplate hp and blade hp. The following data are
available in addition to those for Examples 4.1 and 4.2:
Drawn voltage: 225 V (average)
Amperage: 20 A (average)
c o s P F (measured): 0.85
Motor efficiency (estimated): 90%
Gear efficiency (estimated): 90%
Solution Oxygen transferred at standard conditions had been determined in

Example 4.2 (Step 2) as 24.0 lb 0 2 / h . Therefore
(TE),,3ndard = 24.0/8.0 = 3.0 lb02/(hp χ h) (nameplate)

F r o m Eq. (4.35)
Blade hp = (225)(20)(0.85 χ 2>"^){^)φ,9)(0,9) = 7.19
Then,
(TE),a„dard = (24.0/7.19) = 3.34 lb 0 2 / ( h p χ h) (blade)
10. EFFECT OF WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS ON

OXYGEN TRANSFER
When oxygen is supplied for aerobic biological treatment of wastewater, it is

necessary to define a correction factor which relates oxygen transfer to the
nature of the waste. This correction factor α relating the overall mass-transfer
10. Effect of Wastewater Ctiaracteristics on Oxygen Transfer 185
coefficient {Kiâ) of the wastewater to that of the tap water is given by Eq.
(4.23).
There are many variables which affect the magnitude of a. These include ( 1 )
temperature of the mixed liquor; (2) nature of the dissolved organic and mineral
constituents; (3) level of agitation of aeration basin, usually expressed in terms
of hp per 1 0 0 0 gal of basin volume; ( 4 ) characteristics of the aeration equipment;
and (5) liquid depth and geometry of aeration basin.
The temperature effect is attributable to temperature dependence of the liquid
film coefficient Ä^L- Figure 4 . 9 illustrates typical temperature effect on values
of a.
Since the nature of dissolved organic and mineral constituents affects a, its
value is expected to increase during the course of biological oxidation, because
dissolved organic materials affecting the transfer rate are removed in the
biological process. A typical situation is shown in Fig. 4 . 7 . As the final efñuent
approaches purity of tap water, the value of α approaches unity asymptotically.
Effect of mixing intensity in aeration basin (usually expressed in terms of
h p / 1 0 0 0 gal) is illustrated by Fig. 4 . 8 , which is a typical curve for a wastewater
containing surface-active agents. M a n y wastewaters of domestic and industrial
origin contain surface-active agents such as fatty acids and alcohols. These
compounds have a polar group (carboxyl and hydroxyl for the case of acids and
alcohols, respectively) and a nonpolar hydrocarbon chain. The polar groups are
hydrophilic, whereas the hydrocarbon chains are hydrophobic. It is assumed
of BOD removed (%) I007o

Raw waste
Fig. 4.7. Plot of α versus B O D removed (%).
1.0 -
0.8 -
0.6
Low » Moderate High
0 . 4 Lturbulence 1 turbulence turbulence
0.2
H P / 1 0 0 0 gal
Fig. 4.8. Plot of α versus mixing intensity.

that these surface-active agents concentrate at the interface hquid film, with their
polar hydrophilic groups dipping into the liquid film and their hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chains extending into the gas phase. This concentration of
molecules into the hquid film retards the process of oxygen diffusion described in
Section 2 (Step 2) of this chapter. As a result of this decreased oxygen transfer
for the wastewater as compared to the transfer for tap water, the ratios α [refer to
Eq. (4.23)] tend to be depressed to values of α < 1.0. Referring to Fig. 4.8, one
notices that this depression is less accentuated for the region of low turbulence.
This is explained by the fact that as described in Section 2 (Step 2) at very low
turbulence levels the resistance to oxygen diffusion into the bulk of the liquid
phase is greater than the liquid film resistance. At moderate turbulence levels
owing to the decrease of the resistance to diffusion into the bulk of the hquid, the
liquid film resistance becomes the controlhng factor to oxygen transfer. It is then
that the presence of the surface-active agents concentrated at the liquid film and
hindering the process of molecular diffusion becomes a critical factor. For this
reason the α values are depressed to a minimum in this region of moderate
turbulence as shown in Fig. 4.8. At high turbulence levels as described in Section
2, the liquid film is broken u p and the surface renewal rate becomes the
controlhng factor in oxygen transfer. Under such conditions the α values will
approach or even exceed unity as shown in Fig. 4.8.
An interesting illustration of the effect of characteristics of aeration equip
ment on the value of α is bubble aeration (air diffusion or turbine units) in the
presence of surface-active agents. Presence of these agents decreases bubble size,
and thus increases interfacial area per unit volume. Under these conditions the
Kiâ value of the wastewater usually increases, because increase in a exceeds
decrease of A^L caused by the surface barrier. This increase in Κγ^α of the
wastewater results in a corresponding increase of α [Eq. (4.23)].
11. LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF

OXYGEN-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT α
This determination is based directly on the definition of α given by Eq. (4.23).

Values of Kiâ of wastewater and tap water are determined as described in
Section 4. It is interesting to make parallel determinations for wastewater and
0 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 Fig. 4.9. Plot of α versus power level at two
Power level (HP/1000 gal) different temperatures [ 3 ] .
13. Air Diffusion Units 1 87
tap water at different mixing intensities and at different temperatures in order to

obtain curves such as the ones shown in Fig. 4.9.
12. CLASSIFICATION OF AERATION EQUIPMENT;

OXYGEN-TRANSFER EFFICIENCY
Aeration equipment selection is a critical decision to be made in designing an

activated sludge plant or an aerated lagoon. In terms of cost, the aeration system
is the major item in the design. Aerators commonly employed in wastewater
treatment may be classified into three types: (1) air diffusion units, (2) turbine
aerators, and (3) surface aerators. The two first categories involve aeration by
bubbling air deep into the aeration tank and are referred to by the generic term
''bubble aerators."
When comparing aeration devices it is useful to consider an alternative
definition of oxygen-transfer efficiency other than that presented in Section 9
[Eq. (4.34)]. This definition is given by
mass of O2 transferred/unit time

ε= , . . X 100 (4.38)
mass of O2 supplied/unit time
This definition is not applicable to surface aeration units since the oxygen
supphed comes from surrounding air, and thus it is not possible to determine the
mass of oxygen supphed per unit time.
In aerobic biological processes, aerators perform two basic functions: (1)
provision of the required oxygen transfer needed for oxidation of organic matter
in the wastewater; and (2) maintenance of an adequate level of turbulence in the
biological reactor in order to yield relatively uniform concentrations of dissolved
oxygen and biological mass throughout.
For the activated sludge process, most of the power expenditure by the
aerators is for the purpose of providing oxygen transfer. For large volume
biological units (namely, aerated lagoons), the larger share of the power
expenditure is for maintenance of an adequate level of turbulence.
Characteristics and specifications for the three categories of aeration equipment
are discussed individually in the next three sections.
13. AIR DIFFUSION UNITS
13.1. Type 1 : Fine Bubble Diffusers

Small orifice diffusion units such as porous media, plates, or tubes are
constructed of silicon dioxide (SÍO2) or aluminum oxide (AI2O3) grains, held in a
porous mass with a ceramic binder. Other units employed consist of Saran,
Dacron, or nylon-wrapped tubes. Compressed air is blown through these units
forming air bubbles which serve to transfer oxygen and provide the required
level of turbulence in the aeration tank.
Small bubbles, having a high surface area per unit volume, provide good
oxygen-liquid contact, leading to relatively high values of the oxygen-transfer
efficiency. Diameter of the bubbles released from these diffusers are 2.0 to 2.5
mm, the oxygen-transfer efficiency depending on bubble size, (ε from 5 to 15%
are common.) Standard porous diffuser units are designed to deliver 4-15 S C F M
of air per unit. ( S C F M stands for standard cubic feet per minute, referred to a
pressure of 760 mm Hg and a temperature of 0°C.) Diffusers with micropores of
the order of 3 μm in diameter are now available, with transfer efficiencies ε in the
range of 20-25%.
Porous ceramic diffuser units (tubes)
(compressed
air)
Fig. 4.10. Sketch of a fine bubble air diffusion system consisting of a series of porous ceramic
diffusers.
A disadvantage of small orifice diffusion units is the high maintenance costs in

some applications owing to orifice clogging. Air filters are commonly used to
clean and eliminate dust particles that might clog the diffusers. Since the pressure
drop through fine bubble diffusers is relatively high, this results in an increase of
power costs for the operation of the air compressors. A sketch of a fine bubble
air diffusion system is shown in Fig. 4.10.
13.2. Type 2 : Large Bubble Diffusers

These units employ large orifice or hydraulic shear devices. Large bubble units
have lower oxygen-transfer efficiency than fine bubble units since the interfacial
Perforated tube
Air bubbles wrapped witti α
Dacron sock-
Clomp
Fig. 4.11. Sketches of typical large bubble diffuser units.

13. Air Diffusion Units 189
area for oxygen transfer is considerably less. Bubble sizes are u p to 25-mm
diameter. They have the advantage, however, of not requiring air filters, of
generally requiring less maintenance and lower power expenditure for the air
compressors. Sketches of two typical large bubble air diffuser units are shown in
Fig. 4.11. A large variety of designs for fine and large bubble diffusers is
commercially available [ 1 ] .
13.3. P e r f o r m a n c e of Air Diffusion Units
Performance data for air diffusion units are available as graphs for the lb of
O2 transferred/h per aeration unit versus the air flow per unit. A sample of
typical data for a Saran-wrapped tube (small bubble) is shown in Fig. 4.12.
3.0
- WIDE BAND
^ 1.5
c
—
yî^NARROW
BAND
O
-h
0.3
02 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 . 1
2 5 10 20 30
Gs [air flow/unit (SCFM)]
Fig. 4.12. Oxygen-transfer data from Saran tubes in water [ 2 ] . (Reprinted with permission.
Copyright by the University of Texas Press.) · , 9-in. spacing narrow band; O , 9-in. spacing wide
band; Δ , 24-in. spacing narrow band; O , 5-in. spacing wide band.
Air diffusion units are not recommended when the oxygen uptake rate
( O U R ) , a parameter which was defined in Section 6 of this Chapter, exceeds 1
mg/(hter)(min). F o r values of O U R in the range from 1 . 0 - 1 . 4 mg/(hter)(min)
surface aerators are indicated. F o r higher values of O U R , turbine aerators are
preferable.
Eckenfelder [ 1 ] recommends the following empirical equation for correlating
performance of air diffusion units and tabulates values of characteristic
constants for several types of diffusers:
N=CG['-\H'ÎWP){C,^ - C L ) Χ 1 . 0 2 4 ^ - ^ ^ χ α 20°C (4.39)
where Λ^^ is the lb of O2 transferred/(h) (aeration unit); is the air flow

( S C F M / a e r a t i o n unit, S C F M are measured at Ρ = 760 m m H g and 0 ° C ) ; Η is
the hquid depth (ft); W is the aeration tank width (ft); C^^ is the saturation
concentration of D O in wastewater (mg/liter, at tank mid-depth); C L is the
steady-state operating concentration of D O (mg/liter, usually 0.5-1.5 mg/hter);
Γ is the temperature ( ° C ) ; α the oxygen-transfer coefficient of the wastewater
[defined by Eq. (4.23)]; and C, n, m, ρ are the constants characteristic of the

aeration device. F r o m Eq. (4.9)
Ν = KâViQ^ - C^) (4.40)
where Κ is the hquid volume (aeration tank volume). By comparing Eqs. (4.39)
and (4.40) the result is
KâV=CG['-''\H'ÎWP) χ 1.024^ χ a2oc Λ > (4.41)
Term Κγ^α has units of h " ^ and Κ is the volume of the aeration tank in ft^. If
(Cs^ - CL) is given in mg/liter, it is multiplied by a conversion factor to express it
in Ib/ft^, so that Ν is obtained in Ib/h.
(Cw - CL) = mg/hter χ g/lOOOmg χ lb/454g χ 28.3 liter/ft^
(Csw - C L ) X 6.23 χ 10"^ = lb/ft^
Factor 6.23 χ 10~^ is conveniently included in constant C i n Eq. (4.39), so that
(Cs^ - CL) enters the equation directly in mg/liter, and Ν is obtained in Ib/h.
13.4. Design Procedure for A e r a t i o n Systems Utilizing

Air Diffusion Units
Fundamental information required is as follows.
1. Volume of aeration tank ^calculated from biological reactor requirements

(Chapter 5, Section 7.6).
2. Oxygen requirements (lb 0 2 / h ) also calculated from biological reactor
requirements (Chapter 5, Section 7.2.6).
3. Operating temperature.
4. Operating steady-state D O ( C L , mg/hter), usually 0.5-1.5 mg/liter. For
nitrification units values above 2 mg/liter are employed.
5. Oxygen-transfer coefficient α and solubility coefficient β.
6. Performance data for the air diffuser units [available as graphs, e.g.. Fig.
4.12, or expressed in terms of values for constants C, «, m, and ρ in Eq. (4.39)].
The following steps may be then followed for the design.
Step 1. Select a tank depth Η usually between 10 and 15 ft.
Step 2. Cross-sectional area is then A = VIH.
Step 3. For aeration tanks with rectangular cross section, select a width W of
approximately twice the tank depth. This is necessary in order to maintain
adequate mixing. Then tank length L = A/W. For aeration tanks with circular
cross section, calculate diameter from D = {4Α/πγ^^.
Step 4. Select the desired model of aeration unit, with an air flow rate per
unit. Usual range for values of is 4-8 SCFM/unit and 4-16 S C F M / u n i t for
fine and large bubble diffusers, respectively.
Step 5. Value C^w [used in Eq. (4.39)] is computed at tank mid-depth. This
value equals ßC^^^, where C^.m the oxygen saturation concentration for the case
of tap water is calculated from Eq. (4.30).
Step 6. Oxygenation capacity per aeration unit \_N = lb O2 transferred/

(h)(unit)] is estimated from manufacturer's data (e.g., Fig. 4.12) or computed
from Eq. (4.39).
Step 7. F r o m oxygen requirements (lb 02/h) calculated in Chapter 5, Section
7.2.6 and value of TV calculated in Step 6, determine the number of aeration units
required to transfer required amount of oxygen:
lb 0 2 / h (required)
N o . of units = ^ ^ ^ - (4.42)
TV
Step 8. Prepare a layout of the aeration tank and determine the spacing
between the aeration units. Minimum spacing is about 6 in. and maximum
between 24 and 30 in. This is necessary in order to maintain solids in suspension
and to minimize coalescence of air bubbles. If spacings calculated fall outside
this range, double rows or adjustment in the number of units (selection of
different air flow rate Gs) are made.
Step 9. Compute total air flow :
Total air flow = G, χ (no. of units) (SCFM) (4.43)
Step JO. Compute oxygenation efficiency from Eq. (4.38), where the nume
rator was calculated in Step 6 and the denominator obtained from values of G^
selected in Step 4 (it equals approximately 23.2% of the mass of air correspond
ing to Gs). The mass of air corresponding to Gs is calculated from the ideal gas
equation. From
PV = NRT= (mass/molecular weight) χ RT
then
Mass of air = (molecular weight)(PK)//?r
where molecular weight = 29 lb/lb mol (average molecular weight of air) Ρ = 1
atm, V=G,,R = 0.73 atm f t ^ l b mol °R, and Τ = 492°R (32°F). Therefore,
= mass of air/min = (29 χ 1 χ Gs)/(0.73 χ 492) = 0.081 Gs Ib/min
(4.44)
and [Eq. (4.45)]

lb of 02/min = 0.232 X 0.081Gs = 0.0187Gs (4.45)
Step 11. Estimate required horsepower for the compressor. This estimate
can be made by calculating the theoretical horsepower based on the assumption
of reversible adiabatic compression and then utilizing appropriate efficiency
factors to estimate actual horsepower. For detailed discussion of such calcu
lations the reader is referred to textbooks in thermodynamics [ 8 ] . The procedure
is illustrated in the sketch shown in Fig. 4.13. Utilizing a temperature-entropy
diagram for air (refer to Perry and Chilton [6, pp. 3-153, Fig. 3.15, and Tables
3.207-3.208]), one can locate a state 1 representing the condition for the air at
State 2 {P2J2)-
Isoenthalp (Hg)
Isoenthalp
Fig. 4.13. Sketch for reversible adiabatic compression on a TS diagram.
the compressor inlet ( P i , Tj). Then fohow a vertical line (constant entropy for
the reversible adiabatic compression) until reaching the required discharge
pressure P2. This locates state 2 {P2, T2) corresponding to the condition of the
compressed air at the compressor discharge. From the first law of thermody
namics written for a continuous flow process, neglecting changes of potential
and kinetic energy between states 1 and 2 and taking into account that the
compressor is assumed to be adiabatic it follows that
W, = -AH= -(H2-H,) (4.46)
where is the shaft work for the compressor per pound of compressed air and
AH is the difference between the enthalpies Η2 and Hi (Btu/lb) for the air in
states 2 and 1, respectively. The values of H^ and Η2 are read from the diagram
(corresponding to the isoenthalps passing through points in the diagram
representing states 1 and 2). The final temperature T2 can also be read.
Equation (4.46) yields the compressor shaft work in Btu/lb. If is the pounds
of air per minute being compressed [Eq. (4.44)], the theoretical horsepower is
given by
lb Btu ft lb 1
hp = m. X W.— X 778: X
mm lb Btu 33,000 ft Ib/min/hp
= 0m36m,W, (4.47)
The actual horsepower (brake hp) can then be estimated from

Brake hp = 0.0236m^WJE^ (4.48)
where is an estimated value for the compressor overall efficiency (as fracdon
of unity, i.e., 0 < £ 0 < 0 · In esUmating this overall efficiency one has to take
into account not only that the actual compressor is not a reversible adiabatic
ideal compressor, but also that there are losses in the electric motor and in the
transmission of work. In effect the overall efficiency EQ is
= X (4.49)
where £Ί stands for the thermodynamic efficiency (deviation of the actual
compressor from the reversible adiabatic one) and is the efficiency term,
allowing for the losses in electric motor and transmission of work.
An alternative procedure for estimating the compressor horsepower is based
upon the assumption that for the pressure and temperature ranges involved in
the compression, the behavior of air is adequately described by the ideal gas law.
In this case the shaft work is given by the well-known equation for the
reversible adiabatic compression of an ideal gas [8]:
> \(y-i)/y"
Btu/lb (4.50)
where R = 1.987 Btu/lb mole °R, y is the adiabatic constant (ratio of heat
capacities at constant pressure to constant volume, i.e., y = Cp/C^) and (jg) is the
number of lb moles in one pound of air, where the average molecular weight of
air is taken as 29. Take y = 1.4 for air. Equations (4.47) to (4.49) are then utilized
for the computation of the horsepower.
The value of the required pressure P2 can be estimated from Eq. (4.31), where
P2 = P^. The temperature T2 at the compressor exit may be estimated from the
relationship for adiabatic compression of an ideal gas [8]:
T2 = Τ,{Ρ2ΐΡιψ~'^" (4.51)
where the Τ are absolute temperatures (°R or °K).
Example 4.5. For the diffused air system in Example 4.3, design calculations
for the activated sludge unit (to be discussed in Chapter 5, Section 7.2.6)
indicated that 1450 Ib/h of oxygen are required.
Estimate:
1. Temperature of air at discharge conditions. Assume that inlet air is at the
average barometric pressure of 740 m m Hg and 60°F.
2. The number of diffuser units required.
3. Oxygen transfer efficiency ε.
4. The actual horsepower requirements, assuming an overall efficiency of
70% for the compressor unit.
Solution
Step 7. Estimate T2 from Eq. (4.51), where
P^ = P^ = 22.4 psia [Example 4.3, Step 2]
Pi=l^^ 14.7 = 14.3 psia
Γι = 60 + 460 = 520°R
y = 1.4
.'.T2 = 520(22.4/14.3)^^·^-^·^^/^·^ = 59rR (13ΓΕ)
Step 2. Number of diffuser units [Eq. (4.42)], where
IbOa/h (required) = 1450 Ib/h
= 1.26 lb 0 2 / h [Example 4.3, Step 3]
. ' . N o . of units = 1450/1.26 = 1151
Step 3. Oxygen-transfer efficiency ε [Eq. (4.38)], where
l b 0 2 transferred/h unit = 1.26 [Example 4.3, Step 3]
l b 0 2 supplied/h unit, from Eq. (4.45):
lb02 min lb02

(0.0187 X 1 2 ) — ^ X 60 = 13.46
min h h unit
1.26
• -^ = 7 1 ^ ^ 100 = 9.4%
13.46
Step 4. Compressor horsepower:
(a) Compute W, from Eq. (4.50):
1.4 1 22 4 \ < ΐ · ^ - ΐ · 0 ) / ΐ · 4 ^
W, = (1.987)(520) 1 - = - 17.06 Btu/lb
' 1.4 - 1.0 29^ ^ 14.3
The minus sign simply indicates that work is done on the air (compression).
(b) Calculate (lb air/min) from Eq. (4.44):
lb air
m a = (0.081 X 12) χ 1151 units = 1119 lb air/min
(min)(unit)
(c) Estimate brake hp from Eq. (4.48):
(0.0236)(1119)(17.06)
Brake hp = = 644 hp
0.7
14. TURBINE AERATION UNITS
14.1. Description of U n i t
A sketch of a typical turbine aeration unit is shown in Fig. 4.14. These units
entrain atmospheric oxygen by surface aeration and disperse compressed air by
a shearing action employing a rotating turbine or agitator. Air bubbles
discharged from a pipe or sparger below the agitator are broken down by the
shearing action of the high-speed rotating blades of the agitator. For systems of
low oxygen utilization rate, oxygen is supphed by the flow of air self-induced
from a negative head produced by the rotator (suction effect). F o r systems of
higher utilization rate a blower or compressor is needed.
Rotor-xj ι ^Liquid level
Fig. 4.14. Turbine aeration unit.
An interesting feature of turbine units is the flexibihty, owing to the fact that
the degree of mixing is controUed by the power input to the turbine and is
therefore independent of the air flow, controlled by the compressor capacity. In
the cases of either diffuser units or surface aerators the degree of mixing and the
air supply cannot be independently varied.
14.2. Performance of Turbine A e r a t i o n Units
Main variables to be considered are air flow, diameter D, and speed of

impeller. These variables determine bubble size and degree of agitation in the
tank, thus affecting the overall oxygen-transfer coefficient Κγ^α. Performance
data for turbine aeration units are available from manufacturer's information
taking these variables into consideration. Eckenfelder [ 1 ] recommends the
following empirical equation for correlating performance of turbine aeration
units:
Ν = CG^SÔîQ^ - CL)1.024^-2â2ooc (4.52)
where Ν is the l b 0 2 transferred/(h)(aeration unit); G^ is the air flow

(SCFM/aeration unit); S is the peripheral speed of the impeller (ft/sec); D is the
impeller diameter (ft, see Fig. 4 . 1 4 ) ; is the saturation D O concentration in
wastewater (mg/liter) at tank mid-depth; CL is the operating D O concentration
(mg/liter); and C, n, x, y are the constants characteristic of the aeration device.*
C o m p a r i n g Eqs. ( 4 . 4 0 ) and (4.52),
/Í:LOF=C(?,".S^Z)^X 1.024^-2%o^c ft'/h (4.53)
where term Kiâ has units of h " ^ and V is the volume of the aerator tank in ft^. If
(Csw - CL) in Eq. ( 4 . 5 3 ) is given in mg/liter, its value is multiphed by factor
6 . 2 3 X 1 0 ~ ^ to obtain in Ib/h, as shown in Section 1 3 , 3 .
14.3. P o w e r Requirements f o r Turbine Aerators
Power is required for two purposes: ( 1 ) operation of rotor (corresponding

horsepower is designated hence as h p j , and ( 2 ) operation of compressor or
blower (corresponding horsepower is designated hence as h p j . Power drawn by
* Typical values for «, x, and y (depending on impeller geometry) [ 4 ] : w, 0 . 4 to 0.9; 1.2 to 2 . 4 ;

and y, 0.6 to 1.8.
the rotor is computed from the relationship [4]

(4.54)
C , m, and ρ are constants characteristic of the aeration device. Equation (4.54)
was developed for the case of liquid mixing, without injection of air. In the case
of turbine aeration, instead of a hquid, the medium consists of a liquid-air
mixture with an average density lower than that of a compact body of hquid.
Actual drawn horsepower decreases as air flow is increased under the impeller
due to decreased density of the aerated mixture. For this reason, horsepower
calculated from Eq. (4.54) is referred to as ungassed horsepower ( h p r , u ) .
Equation (4.54) can also be rewritten as
hpr,u = C " / ) ' " ^ V (4.55)

where η is expressed in revolutions per second. Equation (4.55) results from Eq.
(4.54) as follows: if η denotes rev/sec, since S is the peripheral impeller speed in
ft/sec, then
η = S/nD = (ft/sec)/(ft/rev) = rev/sec (4.56)
where nD is the perimeter of the circumference described by the rotation of the
impeller. F r o m Eq. (4.56) S = uDn. Substitution of this expression for S in Eq.
(4.54) yields Eq. (4.55), where C " = Cn^.
Typical values of exponents m and ρ are [4]
4.8 ^ 5.3
2.0 ^ /7 ^ 2.5
Ungassed horsepower ( h p r , u ) is correlated to actual horsepower ( h p r ) . A

correlation is presented in Fig. 4.15. Power drawn by the compressor is
calculated as described in Section 13.4, Step 11.
It is important to determine the optimum power split between rotor and
compressor. A correlation between oxygen-transfer efficiency [expressed as
100 r-i— — 1 —
o 80
g
\ 60
• -
^ 40
-
5 20
-
1
20 40 60 80 100
G./Ap
Fig. 4.15. Effect of air rate on turbine horsepower hp^, actual hp; hpr,u, ungassed hp [Eqs. (4.54),
(4.55)]; Gs, air flow, S C F M ; A,, area of circle described by the rotation of the impeller = ^πΟ^.
(lb O2 transferred)/(hp χ h)] and a factor defined as
P¿ = hp,/hpe (4.57)
has been developed by Quirk [ 7 ] , and its utilization is summarized by

Eckenfelder [ 1 ] . In Eq. ( 4 . 5 7 ) , h p r is the rotor horsepower, corrected for the
presence of air, obtained from Fig. 4 . 1 5 . P¿ represents the power split between
rotor and compressor. A typical correlation curve is shown in Fig. 4 . 1 6 .
Pd=HP,/HP,
Fig. 4.16. Correlation for power split for turbine aeration units.
The value indicated in Fig. 4 . 1 6 as P* is the optimum power split

corresponding to the maximum oxygen-transfer efficiency. In most cases is
approximately unity, this implying an equal power expenditure by the turbine
and the compressor. At extremely high air rates (high values of h p c ) , values of P^
are less than 1.0, i.e., hp^ > h p r , thus P^ < 1.0. Under these conditions, large air
bubbles and flooding of the impeller yield poor oxygenation efficiencies. On the
other hand, at very low air rates P¿> 1.0 and too much turbine horsepower is
spent in mixing the liquor.

Turbine A e r a t i o n Units
For fundamental information required see items 1 - 5 for air diffusion units
(Section 1 3 . 4 ) . Obtain performance data for the turbine aeration units available
from manufacturer's information or expressed in terms of values for the
constants in Eq. ( 4 . 5 2 ) . The following design procedure is then utihzed.
Step 1. Select a tank depth H, usually between 1 5 and 2 0 ft. In some cases
deeper hquid depths are employed.
Step 2. Cross-sectional area is then A = V/H.
Step 3. Select a ratio r = D/T, where D is diameter of the turbine and Γ the
"diameter" of the tank. F o r tanks of circular cross section, the meaning of ratio
D/T is straightforward. For tanks with rectangular or square cross sections,
select a value for Τ based on geometry of the system. Selection of Τ for a
rectangular tank with two turbine aerators is illustrated by Fig. 4.17 ( Γ equals
the diameter of influence of the aeration unit, which is the diameter of a circle
within which complete mixing conditions prevail). In the final layout an overlap
of the circles corresponding to the diameters of influence is provided in order to
reduce or eliminate dead zones in prehminary layout (Fig. 4.17) where total
mixing does not occur. Typical Ζ)/Γ ratios are 0.1 to 0.2.
Step 4. F o r tanks of circular cross section, calculate the tank diameter Γ, i.e.,
Τ = (4Α/πΥ'^, where A is the cross-sectional area (Step 2). For tanks of
rectangular cross section select a tank width Τ approximately twice the tank
depth. Therefore turbine diameter is D = Τ χ r.
Step 5. Select the desired model of turbine unit with an air flow rate Cs, per
unit (SCFM/aeration unit). Typical values of are between 200 and 1500
SCFM.
Step 6. From Fig. 4.16 (manufacturer's data) determine optimum power split
P*.
Step 7. Value C^^ [to be used in Eq. (4.52)] is computed at tank mid-depth.
Refer to Section 13.4, Step 5.
Step 8. Oxygenation capacity per aeration unit [ i V = l b 0 2 transferred/h
unit] is estimated from manufacturer's data or computed from Eq. (4.52).
Step 9. F r o m oxygen requirements (lb 0 2 / h ) calculated in Chapter 5, Section
7.2.6 and value of TV calculated in Step 8, determine the number of aeration units
needed to transfer required a m o u n t of oxygen [Eq. (4.42)]:
N o . of units = [lb 0 2 / h (required)]/A^
There should be one turbine unit for every 900-2500 ft^. By varying air rate per
unit, i.e., Cs, one adjusts calculations so that spacing falls within this range.
Fig. 4.17. Ratio r = D/T (or a rectangular Fig. 4.18. Cross-sectional diagram of a
tank with two turbine aerators (prehminary surface aerator.
layout).
15. Surface Aeration Units 1 99
Step 10. Compute total air flow [Eq. (4.43)]:
Total air flow = Gs χ (no. of units) (SCFM)
Step 11. Compute operating compressor horsepower as described in Section

13.4, Step 11.
Step 12. Determine turbine horsepower from optimum power split estab
lished in Step 6.
hp, = (P*)(hp,) (4.58)
Step 13. C o m p u t e oxygenation efficiency from Eq. (4.38), where numerator

was obtained in Step 8. Calculate denominator from Eq. (4.45).
15. SURFACE AERATION UNITS
15.1. Description of U n i t
Surface aeration units are based solely on entrainment of oxygen from
atmospheric air. Unlike air diffusion and turbine aerators, there is no stream of
air involved in this system.
Improved design of surface aerators has resulted in improvement of oxygen-
transfer capacity and a rapid increase of their use in the past few years. They are
widely used in activated sludge plants and aerated lagoons.
The principle of operation of surface aerators is illustrated by the sketch in
Fig. 4.18. Liquid is drawn from underneath the unit and sprayed upward and
outward by a propeller inside a vertical tube.
Most conventional surface aerators are fixed to piers mounted across the
aerating tanks. Floating units are also available, the whole unit being supported
on a reinforced fiberglass float filled with plastic foam to make it unsinkable.
Oxygen transfer in surface aerators occurs according to two mechanisms: (1)
transfer at the turbulent liquid surface, and (2) transfer to droplets sprayed by
the blades of the unit. Considerable heat dissipation occurs due the evaporation
of the water droplets in the spray. The resulting temperature d r o p may cause
freezing, which may become a problem in the operation of surface aerators,
mainly during the winter months. F o r this reason, in regions where cold weather
prevails for a large fraction of the year, the utihzation of bubble aerators
(diffusers or turbine-type) is usually preferable to that of surface aerators.
15.2. Correlation b e t w e e n Transfer Efficiency and

Level of A g i t a t i o n
A correlation has been developed [1] between transfer efficiency [expressed
as lb of O2 transferred/(hp χ h)] and level of agitation of the basin (in terms of
hp/1000 gal basin). There is an approximate hnear relationship between these
two parameters, as indicated by the straight hne in Fig. 4.19, which is a typical
example of this correlation for a specific surface aerator unit. Correlation
Unit horsepower
30 40 50 55 60
0 0.1 0.2
Pv ( H P / 1 0 0 0 gal)
Fig. 4.19. Characteristics of surface aerator.
between diameter of influence and unit horsepower, which is also plotted in Fig.
4.19, is discussed in this section. Ordinate (TE)stand equals the lb of O2
transferred to tap water at standard conditions (20°C and 1 atm, with initial zero
dissolved oxygen) per (hp χ h). The correction to obtain oxygen transfer
( T E ) a c t u a i for a wastewater under operating conditions is obtained from Eq.
(4.36) as
(TE)actual = (TE)st3ndard a20°C X 1-0241Γ-20

9.2
( Q w = ßC.^s) (4.59)
where Q s is corrected for deviations from standard barometric pressure by Eq.
(4.27).
The linear correlation plotted in Fig. 4.19 is expressed by the relationship* [ 1 ]
(TE),,a„dard = SP^ + (TE), (4.60)
where (TE)standard is the total oxygen transferred to t a p water under standard
* For the specific surface aerator unit corresponding to Fig. 4.19, this relationship is
( T E U „ d a r d = 3.4P, + 2.1
conditions per unit [lb 0 2 / ( h p χ h ) ] ; is the h p per 1000 gal of basin hquid; S
is a constant characteristic of the aeration device (in Fig. 4.19, .S corresponds to
slope of the straight line); and (TE), is the oxygen transferred to tap water at
standard conditions per (hp χ h) at zero turbulence. In Fig. 4.19, (TE),
corresponds to the ordinate of the straight line at the origin. For a given aerator,
(TE), corresponds to oxygen transfer per (hp χ h) at standard conditions in a
basin of infinite volume. In such cases, all oxygen transfer is accomplished by the
spray mechanism alone since turbulence is negligible. The subscript s in (TE),
stands for ''spray."
Performance of surface aerators is related to the following factors: (1)
submergence of impeller and (2) diameter and speed of rotor. Values for transfer
efficiency [ l b 0 2 transferred/(hp χ h)] are 2-4 for most surface aerators,
although values as high as 7 are reported. Transfer efficiency remains essentially
constant at an optimum submergence regardless of size of the unit.
Some typical ranges for power levels P^ in terms of hp/1000 gal of basin
volume are the following:
1. For conventional activated sludge units: 0.2 < P^ < 0.3.

2. For extended aeration units: 0.1 < P^ < 0.2.
3. For aerated lagoons: 0.004 < P^ < 0.025.

Surface A e r a t i o n Units
For fundamental information required see items 1-5 for air diffusion units
(Section 13.4). Next obtain characteristics for the aerator. This includes (1)
correlation of (TE),tand versus P^ and (2) correlation between unit horsepower
and diameter of influence for sohds in suspension (ft). For the specific design
illustrated by Example 4.5, these two correlations are presented in Fig. 4.19.
Depths of aerator basins for surface aerators are usually lower than for
diffusion or turbine aeration, ranging from 8 to 12 ft.
The design steps are as follows:
Step 1. Take Eq. (4.59) and calculate the term between brackets for summer
and winter conditions to determine which is the controlhng one. Remark that
jSC,,, = C,,,. Note that [C,J,u^„,er < [Csw]winter [thus (C,^ - C L ) [S larger for
the winter condifions], whereas Trümmer > ^winter»thus term 1.024^ is larger
for summer conditions. Let the results of this calculation be
(TE)actual = ^summer ^ (TE)standard

(4.61)
(TE)actual = Kînur X (TE),,a„dard (4-62)
where Κ are values of the term between brackets in Eq. (4.59). The lower Κ
corresponds to controlhng condition (lower transfer of oxygen). In general,
aerator specification will be controlled by the critical summer conditions, i.e.,
-^summer -^winter ·
Step 2. Since power level (abscissa of Fig. 4.19) is not known, a trial and error
solution is necessary for determination of (TE)stand based on the correlation of
(TE)stand versus power level.
(1) Assume a power level P^, hp/1000 gal.

(2) From Fig. 4.19 read (TEUnd.
(3) Calculate (TE)actuai from Eq. (4.61) [or Eq. (4.62)], whichever is the
controlling one [generally it is Eq. (4.61)].
(4) Power requirements are calculated for assumed power level from
O2 required (lb 02/h)

Power requirements = — — — = hp (4.63)
( T E ) 3 c t u a i [lb02/(hp X h)]
where the oxygen requirement has been previously calculated from biological
reactor requirements (item 2 on Fundamental information required. Section
13.4).
(5) Recalculate power level:
Power level = h p [Step 2(4)]/volume of aeration basin
where volume of the aeration basin is calculated from biological reactor

requirements (item 1 on Fundamental information required. Section 13.4).
Express recalculated power level in terms of hp/1000 gal and compare it with the
value assumed in Step 2(1). If agreement is within preset limits (e.g., 5%) is
obtained, calculations are stopped. Otherwise, iterate Steps 2(l)-(5) until
agreement is obtained.
(6) Select h p per unit and calculate number of units.
Step 3. Spacing between aerators is determined from the correlation in

dicated in Fig. 4.19. The procedure for the aerator basin layout is illustrated in
Example 4.6.
Example 4.6. Surface aerators are to be specified for the activated sludge plant
designed in Chapter 5 [Section 7.14, Example 5.2, Step 9 ] . Oxygen requirements
and volume of the biological reactor are calculated by the procedure described in
Chapter 5, yielding the following results:
1. Reactor volume: 1,250,000 gal (Example 5.2, Step 6).

2. Oxygen requirements: 605 lb 02/h (Example 5.2, Step 7).
The following additional information is available:
3. Wastewater temperature; Summer: 77°F (25°C) [Example 5.2, Step 3(a)];

Winter: 55.4°F (13°C) [Example 5.2, Step 3(b)].
4. Steady-state D O concentration; C L = 2.0 mg/liter [statement of Example
5.2, item I V ] .
5. Values for parameters α and β [statement of Example 5.2, item I V ] :
a2ox = 0.87, β = 0.97

Average barometric pressure [statement of Example 5.2, item I V ] :

i> = 755 mmHg
6. Characteristics of surface aerators selected are given by Fig. 4.19. These
include the correlations between (TE^tandard and power level and that between
unit horsepower and diameter of influence (ft).
Solution
Step 1. Calculate the term between brackets in Eq. (4.59) for summer and
winter conditions:
Summer:
α,οχ Χ 1 . 0 2 4 —
1.024''-2° = 1.024"-^° = 1.126
Ρ-Ρ"
C,,,[Eq. (4.27)]: C , , = ( Q , Jêo _
where
(C.s)76o = 8.4 mg/liter [Table 4 . 1 , for Γ = 25°C]
Ρ" = 23.756 m m Hg [Table 4.2, for Τ = 25°C]
Ρ = 755 mm Hg
755 - 23.756
• • ^ - - ^ • S 6 0 - 23.756 = ^ · ^ ^ '^^/'"^-·
and
C w = )?Q,s = (0.97)(8.34) = 8.09 mg/liter

Then
^rsummer = a a o x X 1 . 0 2 4 ' ' " 2 ° X 9.2

8.09-2.0
= 0.87 X 1.126 X — = 0.648
Winter:
1 0 2 4 ^ - 2 0 = 1.024·^-^° = 0.847
.755
755 - 11.231
C s . [ E q . (4.27)]: C, = 1 0 ' 7. 660 -- —11.231
- — = 10.53
and
Cs,w = (0.97)(10.53) = 10.21
Then
10.21 - 2.0
^winter = 0.87 X 0.847 X — = 0.658
Consequently, as expected, the aerator design is controlled by the summer

conditions.
Step 2.
(1) Assume a power level; e.g., = 0.252 hp/1000 gal.
(2) From Fig. 4.19 read
(TEU„,3rd = 2.96 lb02/(hpxh)
(3) Then
(TEXctuai = ^sumnêr X (TE^ndard = (0.648)(2.96) = 1.918 lb Oj/ihp X h)
(4) Power requirements, Eq. (4.63):
lb02
605
h
= 315 hp
lb02
1.918
hp X h
(5) Recalculate power level:
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = 252 hp/MG (or 0.252 hp/1000 gal)

1.25 M G
This agrees with value assumed under Step 2(1).
(6) Select 55-hp aerators
No. of aerators = 315/55 = 5.72
(say 6 aerators).
Step 3. Aerator layout. From Fig. 4.19 read the following:
for unit horsepower = 55
diameter of influence = 67 ft
Provide some overlap by taking a security factor of about 20%, i.e.,
d = 67/1.2 = 56-ft spacing
Prepare a sketch shown in Fig. 4.20.
For the layout in Fig. 4.20
Area = length χ width = Od){2d) = 6d^ = 6(56)^ = 18,816 ft^
Since
K = 1.25 Mgal (or 1,250,000 gal χ ftV7.48 gal = 167,112 ft^)
then
depth = 167,112 ftVl8,816 ft^ = 8.9 ft
Problems 205
h28'-0'^56'-0"—~28'-Öii
28'-'
-ét --
56'-0"
l68'-0" -I φ é - - -
56'-0"
Fig. 4.20. Layout of aerator tank (Example

4.5). Aerators are illustrated by O- 1 .
This is a reasonable depth. As indicated in Section 15.3, depths ranging from 8

to 12 ft are usually utilized when surface aerators are selected.
Several selections of aerator units and layouts are compared for any given
application. Engineering judgment and economic considerations determine final
selection of aerator units and their layout.
PROBLEMS
I. The following results are obtained in an unsteady-state aeration test with

tap water utilizing a 5-hp surface aerator. The water temperature is 20°C and the
average atmospheric pressure is 28.5 in Hg. The aeration tank has a capacity of
100,000 gal.
Time (min) C (mg/liter)
0 0.00
12 2.65
24 4.50
36 5.80
48 6.70
60 7.33
Calculate:
1. Chemical requirements (lb N a 2 S 0 3 ) for deoxygenation of test water with 8

ppm of D O .
2. Value of overall oxygen transfer coefficient Κγ^α (h~^).
3. Pounds of oxygen transferred per hour at standard conditions.
4. Standard transfer efficiency (lb02/hp χ h) based both u p o n nameplate
and blade HP. The following information is available:
Drawn voltage: 220 V (average)

Amperage: 13.5 A (average)
cos P F (measured): 0.8
M o t o r efficiency (estimated): 85%
Gear efficiency (estimated): 85%.
II. Unsteady-state aeration data is obtained at Ρ = 760 mm Hg for tap
water at 6°C and for wastewater at 0°C, and is tabulated below. Estimate the
coefficient α at 20°C. For the wastewater take β = 0.92.
Wastewater (0°C)
0 0.0
5 1.9
10 3.4
15 4.7
20 5.8
25 6.8
Tap water (6°C)
0 0.0
5 2.3
10 4.2
15 5.7
20 6.9
25 7.9
III. The following smoothed data were obtained utilizing the unsteady-state
aeration technique for a petrochemical wastewater at 15°C [3] and at four
different power levels.
Power level no. 1 Power level no. 2 Power level no. 3 Power level no. 4.
(0.05 hp/1000 gal) (0.15 hp/1000 gal) (0.25 hp/1000 gal) (0.35 hp/1000 gal)
Time Time Time Time

(min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter)
0 6.9 0 6.5 0 6.5 0 6.4

5 5.4 5 4.6 5 4.4 3 4.4
10 4.2 10 3.3 8 3.5 5 3.4
14 3.4 14 2.5 11 2.95 8 2.3
18 2.8 16 2.2 15 2.1 10 1.8
22 2.3 20 1.7 17 1.8 14 1.1
24 2.05
The same tests were then repeated utilizing tap water, also at 15°C. The data
are as follows:
Problems 207
Power level no. 1 Power level no. 2 Power level no. 3 Power level no. 4
(0.05 hp/1000 gal) (0.15 hp/1000 gal) (0.25 hp/1000 gal) (0.35 hp/1000 gal)
Time Time Time Time

(min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter) (min) (mg/liter)
0 7.3 0 7.3 0 6.8 0 6.4

5 5.35 5 4.65 5 3.95 3 3.8
10 3.95 10 3.0 10 2.3 5 2.7
14 3.1 14 2.1 14 1.5 8 1.6
18 2.4 16 1.75 16 1.2 10 1.13
22 1.9 20 1.22
Prepare a plot of α values at 15°C versus power level.
IV. Unsteady-state aeration studies were performed with a tank provided

with an air diffusion system. The characteristics of the system are
Tank dimensions: 50' χ 25' χ 16' (length χ width χ depth)

N o . of diffusers: 26
Flow rate of air per diffuser: 12 S C F M (at 760 m m Hg and 0°C)
In a first experiment the tank is filled u p with tap water at a temperature of

15°C. Atmospheric pressure was 765 m m Hg. The tap water was deoxygenated
by purging with nitrogen and then aeration was started. The following data were
obtained during the aeration.
0 0.0
5 2.4
10 4.4
15 5.9
20 7.2
25 8.2
During this experiment the tank was covered and the effluent gas was
analyzed with the following result:
Volume (%)
CO2 2.3
16.9
N2 80.8
The pressure d r o p of air through piping can be taken as 1.0 psi.

In a second experiment the tank is filled u p with a wastewater. The
temperature was 5°C and the atmospheric pressure was 770 m m Hg. Again, the
wastewater was deoxygenated by purging with nitrogen and aeration was
started. The following data were obtained.
0 0.0
5 1.5
10 2.8
15 4.1
20 5.2
25 6.1
For the wastewater, the coefficient β was determined as 0.9. Biomass

concentration is neghgible. The effluent gas for this second experiment was also
analyzed with the following result:
Volume (%)
CO2 2.7
O2 18.8
N2 78.5
Take again the pressure d r o p of air through piping as 1.0 psi.

Then calculate the following:
1. Saturation concentration of oxygen in the t a p water (mg/liter) at mid-
depth, at 15°C and 765 m m Hg.
2. Saturation concentration of oxygen for the wastewater (mg/liter) at mid-
depth, at 5°C and 770 m m Hg.
3. Kiâ (h"^) for the t a p water at 15°C and at 20°C.
4. Kiâ (h"^) for the wastewater at 5°C and at 20°C.
5. Value of coefficient α at 20°C.
6. lb 02/h transferred to tap water at standard conditions.
7. lb 02/h transferred to the wastewater at 5°C for aeration at a steady-state
oxygen concentration value of 2.0 mg/hter.
8. lb 02/h supplied to the diffusers.
9. Transfer efficiency ε (%) for the aeration of the wastewater.
V. A single turbine aerator in a tank of dimensions 30 χ 50 χ 15 ft
(width X length χ depth) transfers oxygen to an industrial wastewater accord
ing to the relationship:
where Kiâ is in h~ ^ Κ is the tank volume in ft^, is the air flow in S C F M , S is

the peripheral speed of the impeller in ft/sec, and D is the impeUer diameter in ft.
The power drawn by the turbine is defined by the relationship
h p r = 0.02 Ζ)5·25^2.75
where D is the impeller diameter (ft) and η is the revolutions/sec of the rotor.
1. Compute Kiâ ( h " ^ ) . Turbine is 40-in. diameter, rotating at 15 ft/sec
peripheral speed and air flow is 300 S C F M (measured at 760 m m Hg and 0°C).
Problems 209
2. Calculate the pounds of oxygen transferred per hour to the wastewater for
a continuous operation at a steady-state oxygen concentration in the hquor of
2.0 mg/liter. Wastewater temperature is 20°C and C^w = 8.45 mg/liter.
3. Calculate the turbine horsepower corrected from Fig. 4.15.
4. Calculate the brake horsepower for the compressor. F o r this calculation
base estimates of discharge pressure on an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia,
allow a 4-psi air pressure d r o p through piping and the required hydrostatic head.
Take inlet air at 60° F, y = 1.4, and an overall compressor efficiency of 65% with
respect to the ideal reversible adiabatic compressor. What is the ratio P^ of
power supplied to the rotor to compressor power?
5. Estimate oxygen-transfer efficiency, Eq. (4.38).
VI. An iterative procedure has been suggested in Section 15.3 in order to

determine the total hp required for the case of surface aeration from the
knowledge of a correlation between the standard transfer efficiency (TE)standard
and the power level P^, in hp/1,000 gal.
However, if the above mentioned correlation is hnear, i.e., given by Eq. (4.60),
one can derive an analytical expression for the required hp and thus avoid the
iterative procedure.
Assume that the summer conditions control aerator specification, i.e., let the
term between brackets in Eq. (4.59) be denoted as A:summer- Let F b e the reactor
volume in Mgal, and TV the required oxygen in Ib/h. Derive an expression for the
total h p :
hp=/[^,K,^_r,.S,(TE)J
Apply this expression for the calculation of h p in Example 4.6.
VII. 1. Write an equation for the ratio C'J{C^)ηô, equivalent to Eq. (4.3) for
aeration of tap water with a surface aerator, for the case of oxygenation with
pure oxygen (Chapter 6, Section 4.5) where
(Oveo- Saturation concentration for dissolved oxygen in t a p water, when

atmospheric pressure is 760 m m Hg and the gas phase is air ( 2 1 %
oxygen by volume)
C[ — Saturation concentration for dissolved oxygen in tap water when the
gas phase is pure oxygen at a pressure of Ρ m m Hg.
Like for the case of Eq. (4.3) assume applicability of Henry's law.
2. With the equation estabhshed in Part 1, calculate the dissolved oxygen
saturation concentration for tap water, oxygenated with pure oxygen, with a
surface type aerator in a covered biological reactor. The pressure of the gas
phase is 795 mm Hg and the tap water temperature is 15°C.
For a wastewater which is to be oxygenated under these same conditions,
estimate the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen, taking β = 0.96.
3. F o r this surface aerator, the value of (TE)standard is 2.2 lb 0 2 / ( h p χ h). This
value corresponds to oxygen transfer to tap water at Ρ = 760 m m Hg, t = 20°C
and an initial dissolved oxygen concentration C = 0.
21 o 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment
Estimate the value of (TE)actuai [lb02/(hp χ h)] for the case of oxygenation
of the wastewater in Part 2 with the covered reactor ( P = 795 m m Hg, / = 15°C),
in a continuous process when the steady-state dissolved oxygen concentration is
CL = 6.5 mg/liter. Take « 2 0 c = 0.8.
REFERENCES
1. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes & Noble,
New York, 1970.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D. L., in "Advances in Water Quality Improvement" (E. F.
Gloyna and W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr., eds.), p. 226. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, 1968.
3. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press, Austin
and New York, 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and O'Connor, D . J., "Biological Waste Treatment." Pergamon,
Oxford, 1961.
5. Oldshue, J., "Biological Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Wastes." Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
Princeton, New Jersey, 1956.
6. Perry, R. H., and Chilton, C. H., "Chemical Engineer's Handbook," 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1973.
7. Quirk, T. P., unpubHshed report (1962) (mentioned in Eckenfelder [1]).
8. Smith, J. M., and Van Ness, H. C , "Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics,"
3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
9. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater," 15th ed. Yearbook Publ.,
Chicago, IlHnois, 1981.

Theory and Practice of Aeration in Wastewater Treatment

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Chapter 4

Theory and Practice of Aeration in

Oxygen Saturation Values {€^)η(,ο for Distilled

The notation will be utilized hence to refer to dissolved oxygen

can be determined experimentally for a given wastewater. F o r most wastewaters

(Csw)76o = (475 - 0.00265.S)/(33.5 + T) (4.2)

pressure, S is the concentration of dissolved solids in mg/liter, and Τ is the

For tap water,*

Vapor Pressure of Water"

" From Ref. [ 6 ] .

= ßQ = ß{QUo ^Ιο~_^ρ. (4.4)

2. STEPS INVOLVED IN THE OXYGENTRANSFER

The process of oxygen transfer from a gaseous to an aqueous phase occurs in

3. OXYGEN-TRANSFER RATE EQUATION

Gas Liquid Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid

where dM/dt is the rate of O2 transfer in lb 02/h; D is the diffusion coefficient in

The left-hand member of Eq. (4.7) has the dimensions (mass)/(volume)(time)

where O C stands for oxygenation capacity. F o r the case of a wastewater, Eq.

(4.6) is written replacing Cs with Cs^, i.e.,

4. DETERMINATION OF THE OVERALL OXYGEN-TRANSFER

For purposes of rating aeration devices, the overall oxygen-transfer coef­

Fig. 4.2. Baffle arrangement.

Samples ; Liquid level

Data for Example 4.1

(1) (2) (3)

" = 10.1 mg/liter. (See Example 4.1, Step 3.)

Step 4. F r o m Eq. (4.10) it follows that a plot of ( Q - C) versus time in

Fig. 4.4. Determination of Ki^a (Example 4.1).

Separating variables and integrating assuming Κγ^α to be independent of the time

ln(Cs - C) = - Ki^at + const (4.10)

For the case of a wastewater an equation similar to (4.10) is obtained replacing

T a p water temperature: 15°C

1. Chemical requirements (lb NaaSOa/lb hquor) to deoxygenate test water

Step 1. Establish the chemical requirements. Theoretically, 7.9 ppm of

7.9 X 9.0 = 71.1 ppm of N a 2 S 0 3

Utilizing a 20% excess,

20/100 X 71.1 = 14.22 ppm (take 15 p p m excess)

Requirements = 86.1 ppm = 86.1 χ 10"^ lb N a 2 S 0 3 / l b water

Total required: 86.1 χ 1 0 ' ^ l b N a 2 S 0 3 / l b water χ 8.341b water/gal water

X 150,000 gal water = 1081b of N a 2 S 0 3

Step 2. Determine the C0CI2 requirements (lb).

5. INTEGRATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR

Integration of Eq. (4.8) between times ti and t2, corresponding to D O

6. UNSTEADY-STATE AERATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE

In aeration of activated sludge hquor, oxygen uptake rate (respiration rate) by

dC/dt = Ki^aiQ^ - C) - O U R (4.12)

Fig. 4.5. Determination of dC/dt. Fig. 4.6. Determination of Ki^a (unsteady-

Then aeration is restarted and the increase in D O concentration is recorded as a

7. STEADY-STATE DETERMINATION OF K^a FOR THE

The methods described in Sections 4 and 6 were based upon unsteady-state

K^a = OOR/(Q^ - C^) (4.14)

where C = C L (steady-state oxygen concentration).

8. STANDARD OXYGENATION CAPACITY AND

the wastewater in question as

(OC)3etuai = (dC/dtU,,, = (K^a)^^r{Cs. - C J (4.15)

(OC)3,3„dard = idC/dt\,,,,,,, = iK^a)2oc Q (4.16)

(OC)actual (ö^C/^Oactual (^LÖ!)w,r Qw " Q

( ^ L ß ) w , r = (/^L«)w,2ox X 0^"'" (4.19)

(OC)aciual _ (dC/dt\ctual _ {f^L^)w,20°C ^ ^ 024^"^^ X " (4 21)

8.2. Corrections t o A c c o u n t f o r t h e E f f e c t o f Dissolved

Furthermore, the ratio (A:LO)W,2O°C/(^L«)2O°C in Eq. (4.21) is a value which can

= α2οχ χ 1.024^-2^ χ — — (4.25)

8.3. Pressure Corrections

For purposes of rating aeration devices, the overall oxygen-transfer coef