Automatically rain covering system

ABSTRACT
In this paper we present Idea related to agricultural based system in which as per our
observation during the rainy seasons the cultivated crops gets affected due to the heavy rain fall.
The main theme of this project which is presented in the paper is that to prevent the crops from
the heavy rain and save the rain water. The rain sensor and soil moisture sensor is used for the
working of automatic roof. This system involves protects the crops by the auto roof which covers
the whole field. The rain sensor is activated when there is a rain fall. The soil moisture sensor
will sense the water level in the field. If the water level is beyond the normal level it will gives
intimation to the controller. So when both the sensor is ‘ON’, it will gives intimation to the
controller, GSM and it will indicate to the DC motor and it will automatically open the roof. In
this project, the roof is open automatically when both the sensor is ‘ON’. This complete system
can be handled manually If there is any problem with opening the roof automatically, it is blend
idea with controlling operation done through Arduino. GSM is report the conditions in the field
through SMS to the mobile phone. The power is supplied to this project is using renewable
energy sources as solar power. Direct power supply can also be fabricated which affect the basic
cost to build entire system.

Index Terms: Arduino, Automation, DC motor, GSM, Smart protection system, Rain sensor.
 Chapter-1
I. INTRODUCTION

As human beings we cannot control the natural phenomenon such as rain, humidity, high
temperature, etc. Some of the measures are taken against this environmental hazard but they are
performed manually. Here comes the need of automation. Automation greatly decreases the need
for human sensory and mental requirements as well. An automation system consisting of a
connection between hardware and software has freed the individuals from their day to day
chores. In this paper we try to establish new intelligent system which helps to protect the user
daily home application and other useful material against environmental impact like rain. This
paper is based on the project which is an embedded system consisting of Arduino UNO and rain
sensing system. Our design is a prototype of such system which consists of Rain drop sensor, a
microcontroller unit Arduino Uno board and a SIM900 GSM module. Arduino Uno is the
processing and controlling unit of this system which receives and processes the data from the
sensors. The GSM unit act as an interface between arduino and user’s mobile and is responsible
for communication between them. The mobile phone can be used as a controller from anywhere
in the world if the GSM network is available to switch on/off the system and to receive the alert
messages. The rain drop sensor will be placed at open place. They will continuously send the
moisture values to arduino. If the moisture value exceeds a certain set value then arduino will
send an alert message to the mobile station and roof will get close automatically and covers the
vehicle. Hence there exists an electro-mechanical system which continuously monitors the rain
and automatically closes the roof to protect vehicle from wet.
 II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Survey played a very vital role in this project, we analyzed the existing products for protection
of vehicles and clothes during rain, there were many demerits which we noticed during the
survey, some of them are the existing products are to be operated manually, and if incase there's
no one in the home to operate the switch then the clothes easily get wet and the product will be
of no use, and secondly if there's a disabled person in the house then he/she will not be able to
operate the system and this kind of system needs knowledge regarding the operation. So, we
chose to do automatic system which doesn't require any manual operation, which has rain
sensors which get activated during anytime of the day or night. Some methods through various
papers which we have surveyed are as follows.

A. An Automatic Sliding Door Using Infrared Sensor

In this research work, an Automatic sliding door System using an infrared sensor was developed.
It uses a sensor, a control unit & drive unit to open and close doors at the entrance of a public
building. The primary aim of this research work is to learn in details about how the automatic
door system works and to understand the concepts involved. The secondary aim is to fabricate a
simple circuit model to show how the system works. The main activities involved in this work
are the research done on how the automatic door works, sketching a detailed circuit & then
fabricating a simple model [1].

B. Intelligent Windshield for Automotive Vehicles

Windshield control is a vital operation of driver during driving. The mountings fitted in the
windscreen or also called windshields are essential to use for smooth driving. These can be
automated by using sensors and microcontroller. A complete windshield controlling system has
been developed here to increase human comfort and flexibility. The wiper havebeen controlled
by a water level sensor which regulate the wiper motor through sensing the level of water or rain.
A dust sensor has been integrated to spill some water in the windscreen and then wipe it. It
senses when a certain level of dust get accumulated in the screen. The sun visor which is
mounted inside the car to shade the driver’s eye from sun would be easier to control by a servo
motor. Here an automatic sun visor has been designed to be controlled through a light sensor
which is used to measure the light intensity and send the signal to the main control unit. This
project focuses on improving human comfort in the existing system so that the driver can pay full
attention in driving at all weather even in dusty, rainy or summer[2].

C. Automatic Rain Water And Crop Saving System Using Embedded Technology

Now a days, during the rainy seasons the cultivated crops gets affected due to the heavy rain
fall. The main theme of this project is that to prevent the crops from the heavy rain and save the
rain water. The rain sensor and soil moisture sensor is used for the working of automatic roof.
This system involves protects the crops by the auto roof which covers the whole field. The rain
sensor is activated when there is a rain fall. The soil moisture sensor will sense the water level in
the field. If the water level is beyond the normal level it will gives intimation to the controller. So
when both the sensor is ‘ON’, it will gives intimation to the controller, GSM and it will indicate
to the DC motor and it will automatically open the roof. In this project, the roof is open
automatically when both the sensor is ‘ON’. If there is any problem with opening the roof
automatically, manually set by remote access [3].

III. OUTCOMES OF DESIGN 1.

1.To develop and implement a system which protects the vehicles, clothes, small scale
agricultural crops, etc automatically by detecting rain without the need of human beings.

2. This project entitled smart protection against environmental impact is small step towards the
comfort ability and save our time. By considering above views, which encourage us to choose
such a project.

3. To design a smart system to prevent the hazards caused due to rain using sensors and arduino
microcontroller.

4. To develop electromechanical system to perform automatic roof mechanism as rain is

detected using rain sensors.

At the end of this project we were able to design a system, which can solve the problem better
idea for drying wet clothes especially in rainy season and many of other applications.
 Chapter-2

Arduino
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.The
Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller, simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno differs from all
preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features
the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USBto-serial converter."Uno" means one in Italian and is
named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino.

Arduino is "an open-source electronics platform based totally on clean-to-use hardware and
software". The Arduino control panel programmed by Arduino c and is based on C and C ++

Arduino is a single-board microcontroller meant to make the application more accessible which are
interactive objects and its surroundings. The hardware features with an open-source hardware board
designed around an 8-bit Atmel or a 32-bit Atmel ARM. Current models consists a USB interface, 6
analog input pins and 14 digital I/O pins that allows the user to attach various extension boards.
The Arduino Uno board is a microcontroller the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins
in which 6 can be used as PWM outputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, an ICSP header, a USB
connection, 6 analog inputs, a power jack and a reset button. This contains all the required
support needed for microcontroller. In order to get started, they are simply connected to a
computer with a USB cable or with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery. Arduino Uno Board varies
from all other boards and they will not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip in them. It is
featured by the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter.

There are various types of Arduino boards in which many of them were third-party compatible
versions. The most official versions available are the Arduino Uno R3 and the Arduino Nano V3.
Both of these run a 16MHz Atmel ATmega328P 8-bit microcontroller with 32KB of flash RAM
14 digital I/O and six analogue I/O and the 32KB will not sound like as if running Windows.
Arduino projects can be stand-alone or they can communicate with software on running on a
computer. For e.g. Flash, Processing, Max/MSP). The board is clocked by a 16 MHz ceramic
resonator and has a USB connection for power and communication. You can easily add micro
SD/SD card storage for bigger tasks.
 It is an easy USB interface. This allows interface with USB as this is like a serial device.
 The chip on the board plugs straight into your USB port and supports on your computer
as a virtual serial port. The benefit of this setup is that serial communication is an
extremely easy protocol which is time-tested and USB makes connection with modern
computers and makes it comfortable.
 It is brain which is the ATmega328 chip. It has more number of hardware features like
timers, external and internal interrupts, PWM pins and multiple sleep modes.
 It is an open source design and there is an advantage of being open source is that it has a
large community of people using and troubleshooting it. This makes it easy to help in
debugging projects.
 It is a 16 MHz clock which is fast enough for most applications and does not speeds up
the microcontroller.
 It is very convenient to manage power inside it and it had a feature of built-in voltage
regulation. This can also be powered directly off a USB port without any external power.
You can connect an external power source of upto 12v and this regulates it to both 5v and
3.3v.
 13 digital pins and 6 analog pins. This sort of pins allows you to connect hardware to
your Arduino Uno board externally. These pins are used as a key for extending the
computing capability of the Arduino Uno into the real world. Simply plug your electronic
devices  into the sockets that correspond to each of these pins and you are good to go.
 This has an ICSP connector for bypassing the USB port and interfacing the Arduino
directly as a serial device. This port is necessary to re-bootload your chip if it corrupts
and can no longer used to your computer.
 It has a 32 KB of flash memory for storing your code.
 An on-board LED is attached to digital pin 13 to make fast the debugging of code and to
make the debug process easy.
 Finally, it has a button to reset the program on the chip.

Softwere of arduino
Arduino IDE is an open-source software program that allows users to write and upload
code within a real-time work environment.

The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-

platform application (for Windows, macOS, Linux) that is written in the programming
language Java. It is used to write and upload programs to Arduino compatible boards, but
also, with the help of 3rd party cores, other vendor development boards.[2]
The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public License, version
2.[3] The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code
structuring.[4] The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project,
which provides many common input and output procedures. User-written code only
requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are
compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable cyclic
executive program with the GNU toolchain, also included with the IDE distribution.
[5]
 The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert the executable code into a
text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a loader
program in the board's firmware.
 Chapter-3

DETAILS OF COMPONENT

 Arduino
 Water sensor
 Gsm
 Dc motor
 Power supply

Water sensor:
A water sensor or rain switch is a switching device activated by rainfall. There are two main
applications for rain sensors. The first is a water conservation device connected to an automatic
irrigation system that causes the system to shut down in the event of rainfall. The second is a
device used to protect the interior of an automobile from rain and to support the automatic mode
of windscreen wipers. An additional application in professional satellite communications
antennas is to trigger a rain blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to remove water droplets
from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and dry air inside the waveguides.

Ultrasonic sensors operate by transmitting sound waves that reflect from the liquid
surface and are obtained by the sensor. The sensor measures the time interval between
the transmitted and received signals, which is then converted into distance
measurement with the help of electronic circuits within the sensor thereby measuring
the level of the liquid.

Float sensors work based on the change in resistance of a potentiometer within the
sensor by the turning of a pulley or a spring-loaded shaft.

Bubbler sensors, on the other hand, measure water level by detecting the pressure of
air-filled tubes with an open, submerged bottom end. The static pressure at the end of
the tubes is more when the water level is high, and therefore more air pressure is
required to fill the tube.

The WS10 series water sensor developed by Pall Corporation is an efficient,

inexpensive sensor that measures dissolved water content in insulating, lubricating and
hydraulic fluids. It is designed for use in harsh and remote industrial environments, and
includes a high pressure option of up to 100 bar.

The major advantages of WS10 series water sensor include:

 Simple and flexible installation

 Easy to operate
 Robust sensing probe design.

The following are the major applications of WS10 series water sensor:

 Automotive
 Petrochemicals
 Power generation
 Pulp, paper and metal industries.

WA600 Water Level Alarm Sensor

Global Water's WA600 water level alarm sensor is one type of water sensor on the
market with typical applications in drainage ponds, water tank levels and water spills.
This particular sensor is made up of two stainless steel electrodes that are used to help
identify the desired point for liquid detection. A relay within the sensor generates the
signal when the fluid is detected.

The key benefits of WA600 water level alarm sensor include:

 Robust and durable design

 Less maintenance
 Fully submersible.

The main applications of WA600 water level alarm sensor are listed below:

 Water level control

 Precision level detection
 Submersible marine low level indication
  Monitoring surface water.

The WS10 series water sensor developed by Pall Corporation is an efficient,

inexpensive sensor that measures dissolved water content in insulating, lubricating and
hydraulic fluids. It is designed for use in harsh and remote industrial environments, and
includes a high pressure option of up to 100 bar.

The major advantages of WS10 series water sensor include:

 Simple and flexible installation

 Easy to operate
 Robust sensing probe design.

The following are the major applications of WS10 series water sensor:

 Automotive
 Petrochemicals
 Power generation
 Pulp, paper and metal industries.

Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids, including slurries,
granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface. Substances that flow become
essentially horizontal in their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity
whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be measured can
be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement
can be either continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a
specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level
sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point. Generally the
latter detect levels that are excessively high or low.

There are many physical and application variables that affect the selection of the optimal level
monitoring method for industrial and commercial processes.[1] The selection criteria include the
physical: phase (liquid, solid or slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric
constant of medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or
electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also important are the
application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance, response rate, ease of calibration or
programming, physical size and mounting of the instrument, monitoring or control of continuous
or discrete (point) levels. In short, level sensors are one of the very important sensors and play
very important role in a variety of consumer/ industrial applications. As with other types of
sensors, level sensors are available or can be designed using a variety of sensing principles.
Selection of an appropriate type of sensor suiting to the application requirement is very
important.

Vibrating point

Principle of vibration point probe

These detect levels of very fine powders (bulk density: 0.02 g/cm3 – 0.2 g/cm3), fine powders
(bulk density: 0.2 g/cm3 – 0.5 g/cm3), and granular solids (bulk density: 0.5 g/cm3 or greater).
With proper selection of vibration frequency and suitable sensitivity adjustments, they can also
sense the level of highly fluidized powders and electrostatic materials.

Single-probe vibrating level sensors are ideal for bulk powder level. Since only one sensing
element contacts the powder, bridging between two probe elements is eliminated and media
build-up is minimized. The vibration of the probe tends to eliminate build-up of material on the
probe element. Vibrating level sensors are not affected by dust, static charge build-up from
dielectric powders, or changes in conductivity, temperature, pressure, humidity or moisture
content. Tuning-fork style vibration sensors are another alternative. They tend to be less costly,
but are prone to material buildup between the tines,

Magnetic and mechanical float

See also: Float (liquid level), Float switch, and Magnetic level gauge

The principle behind magnetic, mechanical, cable, and other float level sensors often involves
the opening or closing of a mechanical switch, either through direct contact with the switch, or
magnetic operation of a reed. In other instances, such as magnetostrictive sensors, continuous
monitoring is possible using a float principle.

With magnetically actuated float sensors, switching occurs when a permanent magnet sealed
inside a float rises or falls to the actuation level. With a mechanically actuated float, switching
occurs as a result of the movement of a float against a miniature (micro) switch. For both
magnetic and mechanical float level sensors, chemical compatibility, temperature, specific
gravity (density), buoyancy, and viscosity affect the selection of the stem and the float. For
example, larger floats may be used with liquids with specific gravities as low as 0.5 while still
maintaining buoyancy. The choice of float material is also influenced by temperature-induced
changes in specific gravity and viscosity – changes that directly affect buoyancy.[5]

Float-type sensors can be designed so that a shield protects the float itself from turbulence and
wave motion. Float sensors operate well in a wide variety of liquids, including corrosives. When
used for organic solvents, however, one will need to verify that these liquids are chemically
compatible with the materials used to construct the sensor. Float-style sensors should not be used
with high viscosity (thick) liquids, sludge or liquids that adhere to the stem or floats, or materials
that contain contaminants such as metal chips; other sensing technologies are better suited for
these applications.
A special application of float-type sensors is the determination of interface level in oil-water
separation systems. Two floats can be used with each float sized to match the specific gravity of
the oil on one hand, and the water on the other. Another special application of a stem type float
switch is the installation of temperature or pressure sensors to create a multi-parameter sensor.
Magnetic float switches are popular for simplicity, dependability and low cost.

A variation of magnetic sensing is the "Hall effect" sensor which utilizes the magnetic sensing of
a mechanical gauge's indications. In a typical application, a magnetism-sensitive "Hall effect
sensor" is affixed to a mechanical tank gauge that has a magnetized indicator needle, so as to
detect the indicating position of the gauge's needle. The magnetic sensor translates the indicator
needle position into an electrical signal, allowing other (usually remote) indication or signalling.
[3]

Pneumatic

Pneumatic level sensors are used where hazardous conditions exist, where there is no electric
power or its use is restricted, or in applications involving heavy sludge or slurry. As the
compression of a column of air against a diaphragm is used to actuate a switch, no process liquid
contacts the sensor's moving parts. These sensors are suitable for use with highly viscous liquids
such as grease, as well as water-based and corrosive liquids. This has the additional benefit of
being a relatively low cost technique for point level monitoring. A variation of this technique is
the "bubbler", which compresses air into a tube to the bottom of the tank, until the pressure
increase halts as the air pressure gets high enough to expel air bubbles from the bottom of the
tube, overcoming the pressure there. The measurement of the stabilized air pressure indicates the
pressure at the bottom of the tank, and, hence, the mass of fluid above.

Conductive

Conductive level sensors are ideal for the point level detection of a wide range of conductive
liquids such as water, and is especially well suited for highly corrosive liquids such as caustic
soda, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, ferric chloride, and similar liquids. For those conductive
liquids that are corrosive, the sensor’s electrodes need to be constructed from titanium, Hastelloy
B or C, or 316 stainless steel and insulated with spacers, separators or holders of ceramic,
polyethylene and Teflon-based materials. Depending on their design, multiple electrodes of
differing lengths can be used with one holder. Since corrosive liquids become more aggressive as
temperature and pressure increase, these extreme conditions need to be considered when
specifying these sensors.

Conductive level sensors use a low-voltage, current-limited power source applied across separate
electrodes. The power supply is matched to the conductivity of the liquid, with higher voltage
versions designed to operate in less conductive (higher resistance) mediums. The power source
frequently incorporates some aspect of control, such as high-low or alternating pump control. A
conductive liquid contacting both the longest probe (common) and a shorter probe (return)
completes a conductive circuit. Conductive sensors are extremely safe because they use low
voltages and currents. Since the current and voltage used is inherently small, for personal safety
reasons, the technique is also capable of being made "Intrinsically Safe" to meet international
standards for hazardous locations. Conductive probes have the additional benefit of being solid-
state devices and are very simple to install and use. In some liquids and applications,
maintenance can be an issue. The probe must continue to be conductive. If buildup insulates the
probe from the medium, it will stop working properly. A simple inspection of the probe will
require an ohmmeter connected across the suspect probe and the ground reference.

Typically, in most water and wastewater wells, the well itself with its ladders, pumps and other
metal installations, provides a ground return. However, in chemical tanks, and other non-
grounded wells, the installer must supply a ground return, typically an earth rod.

Ultrasonic[edit]
Ultrasonic level sensor used in a water treatment plant

Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly viscous liquids, as well
as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water treatment applications for pump control and
open channel flow measurement. The sensors emit high frequency (20 kHz to 200 kHz) acoustic
waves that are reflected back to and detected by the emitting transducer.[3]

Ultrasonic level sensors are also affected by the changing speed of sound due to moisture,
temperature, and pressures. Correction factors can be applied to the level measurement to
improve the accuracy of measurement.

Turbulence, foam, steam, chemical mists (vapors), and changes in the concentration of the
process material also affect the ultrasonic sensor’s response. Turbulence and foam prevent the
sound wave from being properly reflected to the sensor; steam and chemical mists and vapors
distort or absorb the sound wave; and variations in concentration cause changes in the amount of
energy in the sound wave that is reflected back to the sensor. Stilling wells and waveguides are
used to prevent errors caused by these factors.

Proper mounting of the transducer is required to ensure the best response to reflected sound. In
addition, the hopper, bin, or tank should be relatively free of obstacles such as weldments,
brackets, or ladders to minimise false returns and the resulting erroneous response, although
most modern systems have sufficiently "intelligent" echo processing to make engineering
changes largely unnecessary except where an intrusion blocks the "line of sight" of the
transducer to the target. Since the ultrasonic transducer is used both for transmitting and
receiving the acoustic energy, it is subject to a period of mechanical vibration known as
"ringing". This vibration must attenuate (stop) before the echoed signal can be processed. The
net result is a distance from the face of the transducer that is blind and cannot detect an object. It
is known as the "blanking zone", typically 150 mm to 1 m, depending on the range of the
transducer.

The requirement for electronic signal processing circuitry can be used to make the ultrasonic
sensor an intelligent device. Ultrasonic sensors can be designed to provide point level control,
continuous monitoring or both. Due to the presence of a microprocessor and relatively low
power consumption, there is also the capability for serial communication from to other
computing devices making this a good technique for adjusting calibration and filtering of the
sensor signal, remote wireless monitoring or plant network communications. The ultrasonic
sensor enjoys wide popularity due to the powerful mix of low price and high functionality.

GSM
GSM is short for Global System for Mobile communication system. It provides three main
services of short message, speech communication and data communication. Because service of
short message makes the wireless communication module more popular to be used, wireless
communication module is also called GSM short message module.GSM short message service
has the character of always online, no dialing, low price, large coverage and etc. For GSM
technology, short message service is the only one that needn’t set up end-to-end channel and also
provide service when the mobile device is in point-to-point communication. Short message
service is asynchronous communication for sending only one sentence per each message. In
GSM system, each message is handled as individual time and transmitted by SMSC (Short
Message Service Center). GSM can offer speed of 9.6 Kbps data communication service when
on-line whereas GPRS can offer speed of 100Kbps.Considering the feature of circuit breaker
data acquisition and the cost for communication, GSM short message service is suitable to use
for transmitting data in large-scale field measurement system.

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation
(2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets. It was
first deployed in Finland in December 1991.[2]By the mid-2010s, it became a global standard for
mobile communications achieving over 90% market share, and operating in over 193 countries
and territories.[3]

2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks. The
GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex
voice telephony. This expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-
switched transport, then by packet data transport via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) UMTS standards, followed by fourth-
generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards, which do not form part of the ETSI GSM standard.

"GSM" is a trade mark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the (initially) most
common voice codec used, Full Rate.

Base station subsystem

GSM cell site antennas in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany

GSM is a cellular network which means that cell phones connect to it by searching for cells in
the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—
macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to
the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base
station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average rooftop level. Micro cells are
cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; they are typically used in urban areas.
Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used
indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and
connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are
used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and propagation
conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance
the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several
implementations of the concept of an extended cell,[18] where the cell radius could be double or
even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain, and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base
station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to
deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna
system. These are typically deployed when significant call capacity is needed indoors, like in
shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also
provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from any nearby cell.

GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into GSM
frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks
operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated, the
850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United
States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries
because they were previously used for first-generation systems.
For comparison most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. For more
information on worldwide GSM frequency usage, see GSM frequency bands.

Regardless of the frequency selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for individual
phones. This allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency.
These eight radio timeslots (or burst periods) are grouped into a TDMA frame. Half-rate
channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is
270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM 850/900 and
1 watt in GSM 1800/1900.

Voice codecs

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 7 and 13 kbit/s.
Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used,
called Half Rate (6.5 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based on linear
predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it
easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize
and better protect these parts of the signal. GSM was further enhanced in 1997[19] with the
enhanced full rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full-rate channel. Finally, with the
development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband,
which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full-rate channels, or less
robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channel.

GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It has considered the user authentication using
a pre-shared key and challenge-response, and over-the-air encryption. However, GSM is
vulnerable to different types of attack, each of them aimed at a different part of the network.[21]

GSM security

The development of UMTS introduced an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module

(USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually
authenticating the network and the user, whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network
(and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but
limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream
ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a
stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other
countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in
real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in January 2007, The Hacker's Choice started the
A5/1 cracking project with plans to use FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow
table attack.[22] The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher
with a stronger one.

Since 2000 different efforts have been made in order to crack the A5 encryption algorithms. Both
A5/1 and A5/2 algorithms have been broken, and their cryptanalysis has been revealed in the
literature. As an example, Karsten Nohl developed a number of rainbow tables (static values
which reduce the time needed to carry out an attack) and have found new sources for known
plaintext attacks.[23] He said that it is possible to build "a full GSM interceptor...from open-
source components" but that they had not done so because of legal concerns.[24] Nohl claimed
that he was able to intercept voice and text conversations by impersonating another user to listen
to voicemail, make calls, or send text messages using a seven-year-old Motorola cellphone and
decryption software available for free online.[25]

GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like browsing the web.
The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in 2011.[26]

The researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1 and GEA/2 ciphers and published
the open-source "gprsdecode" software for sniffing GPRS networks. They also noted that some
carriers do not encrypt the data (i.e., using GEA/0) in order to detect the use of traffic or
protocols they do not like (e.g., Skype), leaving customers unprotected. GEA/3 seems to remain
relatively hard to break and is said to be in use on some more modern networks. If used with
USIM to prevent connections to fake base stations and downgrade attacks, users will be
protected in the medium term, though migration to 128-bit GEA/4 is still recommended.

GSM open-source software

Several open source software projects exist that provide certain GSM features:

gsmd daemon by Openmoko

OpenBTS develops a Base transceiver station

The GSM Software Project aims to build a GSM analyzer for less than $1,000

OsmocomBB developers intend to replace the proprietary baseband GSM stack with a free
software implementation

YateBTS develops a Base transceiver station

Issues with patents and open source

Patents remain a problem for any open-source GSM implementation, because it is not possible
for GNU or any other free software distributor to guarantee immunity from all lawsuits by the
patent holders against the users. Furthermore, new features are being added to the standard all
the time which means they have patent protection for a number of years.[citation needed]

The original GSM implementations from 1991 may now be entirely free of patent encumbrances,
however patent freedom is not certain due to the United States' "first to invent" system that was
in place until 2012. The "first to invent" system, coupled with "patent term adjustment" can
extend the life of a U.S. patent far beyond 20 years from its priority date. It is unclear at this time
whether OpenBTS will be able to implement features of that initial specification without limit.
As patents subsequently expire, however, those features can be added into the open-source
version. As of 2011, there have been no lawsuits against users of OpenBTS over GSM use.

DC Motor

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces produced by
magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either
electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the
motor.

DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered from existing
direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a
wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its
field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can
operate on direct current but is a lightweight brushed motor used for portable power tools and
appliances. Larger DC motors are currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and
hoists, and in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current electrical power
into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields.
Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types
produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line. DC
motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing direct-current
lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a wide range,
using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field windings.
Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances.The universal motor can operate on
direct current but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC
motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel
rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC
motors possible in many applications.

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor
by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and rotating
electromagnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control
of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses.
Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric
current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for
transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor
inside the motor.

Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added dispersed copper to
improve conductivity. In use, the soft brush material wears to fit the diameter of the commutator,
and continues to wear. A brush holder has a spring to maintain pressure on the brush as it
shortens. For brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a flying lead will be molded
into the brush and connected to the motor terminals. Very small brushes may rely on sliding
contact with a metal brush holder to carry current into the brush, or may rely on a contact spring
pressing on the end of the brush. The brushes in very small, short-lived motors, such as are used
in toys, may be made of a folded strip of metal that contacts the commutator.

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC
electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and shunt/parallel)
and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque
profiles/signatures.[1]

Series connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common D.C.
power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature
current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2)
behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for
starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic
is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when
unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.

A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series motor,
the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field winding is weak, and
so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply
voltage. The motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the armature
voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be produced in the
same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on AC supply when
compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC.[3]Since the
speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous
speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a
valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are
usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal
motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks
to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a common
D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load varies, but
does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for industrial,
adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.

Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor.[5] This motor is
used when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be
connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically
operated at constant speed.

Working principle of DC Motor

A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by F = BIL Newton.

The working of the AC motor (Induction motor and Synchronous Motor) is different from the
DC motor.

There is no basic difference in the construction of a DC generator and a DC motor. In fact, the
same DC machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor.

Like generators, there are different types of DC motors which are also classified into shunt-
wound, series-wound and compound-wound dc motors. DC motors are seldom used in ordinary
applications because all electric supply companies furnish alternating current.

However, for special applications such as in steel mills, mines, and electric trains, it is
advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in order to use dc motors. The
reason is that the speed/torque characteristics of DC motors are much more superior to that of
AC motors.
A machine that converts DC electrical power into mechanical power is known as a Direct
Current motor.

DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.

The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude is given by;

F = BIL Newtons

According to Flemings left-hand rule when an electric current passes through a coil in a
magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque which turns the DC motor. The direction of
this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field. Therefore, it is not surprising
to note that for industrial drives, DC motors are as popular as three phase induction motors.

Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the figure below. When the terminals of
the motor are connected to an external source of DC supply:

The field magnets are excited developing alternate North and South poles the armature
conductors carry currents.All conductors under North-pole carry currents in one direction while
all the conductors under South-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

The armature conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper (denoted as ⊗
in the figure). And the conductors under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper
(denoted as ⨀ in the figure).
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field, a
mechanical force acts on it.

On applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate
the armature in the anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving
torque which sets the armature rotates.

When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is
reversed. At the same time, it comes under the influence of the next pole which is of opposite
polarity. Consequently, the direction of the force on the conductor remains the same.

It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator.
By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a
continuous and unidirectional torque.

Power supply

A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct
voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes
referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of
equipment, while others are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter
include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Other
functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to safe
levels, shutting off the current in the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent
electronic noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction,
and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary interruption in
the source power (uninterruptible power supply).

All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in the form of electric
current from a source, and one or more power output connections that deliver current to the load.
The source power may come from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy
storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar power converters,
or another power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired circuit connections, though
some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer to power their loads without wired
connections. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions
such as external monitoring and control.

Power conversion method

Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power converters
process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components operating in their
linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to
DC pulses before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes
(e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted
to heat) when components operate in their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters
are usually more efficient than linear converters because their components spend less time in
linear operating regions.Power conversion method

Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power converters
process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components operating in their
linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to
DC pulses before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes
(e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted
to heat) when components operate in their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters
are usually more efficient than linear converters because their components spend less time in
linear operating regions.

Types

DC power supply

A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load. Depending on its
design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from an AC source such as the
power mains.

AC-to-DC supply

Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply, showing (from L-R) transformer, full-wave bridge
rectifier, filter capacitor and resistor load

DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power supplies will
employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is
used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed
through an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.

The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC voltage is
known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering
that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is tolerated and
therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging applications it is
possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer
and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit charging current.

Switched-mode power supply

Main article: Switched-mode power supply

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and then
filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high
frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass through
a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high frequency (typically
10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors that are much
smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains
frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and
filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-
frequency transformer, the output will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is
often essential for safety.

Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage constant,
the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by the load. The
switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.

SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help protect
the device and the user from harm.[1] In the event that an abnormal high-current power draw is
detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down
before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power good signal to the
motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are
present.

Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output.[2] They are only able to
output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition
the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated
transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power
spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down
when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power
resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load
attached.

The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low power factors and
have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced power line harmonics and
transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage may distort the line voltage
waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result in poor power quality for other
utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires and distribution equipment.
Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when operating lower power factor loads. To
circumvent these problems, some computer switch-mode power supplies perform power factor
correction, and may employ input filters or additional switching stages to reduce line
interference.

AC power supplies

An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and uses a
transformer to step up or step down the voltage to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take
place as well. In some cases, the source voltage is the same as the output voltage; this is called an
isolation transformer. Other AC power supply transformers do not provide mains isolation; these
are called autotransformers; a variable output autotransformer is known as a variac. Other kinds
of AC power supplies are designed to provide a nearly constant current, and output voltage may
vary depending on impedance of the load. In cases when the power source is direct current, (like
an automobile storage battery), an inverter and step-up transformer may be used to convert it to
AC power. Portable AC power may be provided by an alternator powered by a diesel or gasoline
engine (for example, at a construction site, in an automobile or boat, or backup power generation
for emergency services) whose current is passed to a regulator circuit to provide a constant
voltage at the output. Some kinds of AC power conversion do not use a transformer. If the output
voltage and input voltage are the same, and primary purpose of the device is to filter AC power,
it may be called a line conditioner. If the device is designed to provide backup power, it may be
called an uninterruptable power supply. A circuit may be designed with a voltage multiplier
topology to directly step-up AC power; formerly, such an application was a vacuum tube AC/DC
receiver.

In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three phase systems.
"The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the constancy of
delivery." [3] AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as well as the
voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their products for use in
other countries. 230 V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.
AC adapter

Switch-mode mobile phone charger

An AC adapter is a power supply built into an AC mains power plug. AC adapters are also
known by various other names such as "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such
as "wall wart". AC adapters typically have a single AC or DC output that is conveyed over a
hardwired cable to a connector, but some adapters have multiple outputs that may be conveyed
over one or more cables. "Universal" AC adapters have interchangeable input connectors to
accommodate different AC mains voltages.

Adapters with AC outputs may consist only of a passive transformer (plus a few diodes in DC-
output adapters), or they may employ switch-mode circuitry. AC adapters consume power (and
produce electric and magnetic fields) even when not connected to a load; for this reason they are
sometimes known as "electricity vampires", and may be plugged into power strips to allow them
to be conveniently turned on and off.

Rain sensor
A rain sensor or rain switch is a switching device activated by rainfall. There are two main
applications for rain sensors. The first is a water conservation device connected to an automatic
irrigation system that causes the system to shut down in the event of rainfall. The second is a
device used to protect the interior of an automobile from rain and to support the automatic mode
of windscreen wipers. An additional application in professional satellite communications
antennas is to trigger a rain blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to remove water droplets
from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and dry air inside the wave-guides.
Irrigation system
Rain sensors for irrigation systems are available in both wireless and hard-wired versions, most
employing hygroscopic disks that swell in the presence of rain and shrink back down again as
they dry out — an electrical switch is in turn depressed or released by the hygroscopic disk stack,
and the rate of drying is typically adjusted by controlling the ventilation reaching the stack.
However, some electrical type sensors are also marketed that use tipping bucket or conductance
type probes to measure rainfall. Wireless and wired versions both use similar mechanisms to
temporarily suspend watering by the irrigation controller — specifically they are connected to
the irrigation controller's sensor terminals, or are installed in series with the solenoid valve
common circuit such that they prevent the opening of any valves when rain has been sensed.

Automotive sensors

General Motors automatic rain sensor installed on a 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air convertible.

In 1958, the Cadillac Motor Car Division of General Motors experimented with a water-sensitive
switch that triggered various electric motors to close the convertible top and raise the open
windows of a specially-built Eldorado Biarritz model, in case of rain. The first such device
appears to have been used for that same purpose in a concept vehicle designated Le Sabre and
built around 1950–51.General Motors' automatic rain sensor for convertible tops was available as
a dealer-installed option during the 1950s for vehicles such as the Chevrolet Bel Air.[1]
For the 1996 Model Year, Cadillac once again equipped cars with an automatic rain sensor; this
time to automatically trigger the windshield wipers and adjust their speed to conditions as
necessary.[citation needed] In December 2017 Tesla started rolling out an OTA update
(2017.52.3) enabling their AP2.x cars to utilize the onboard cameras to passively detect rain
without the use of a dedicated sensor.

Most vehicles with this feature have an "AUTO" position on the control column Some irrigation
rain sensors also contain a freeze sensor to keep the system from operating in freezing
temperatures, particularly where irrigation systems are still used over the winter.

Physics of rain sensor

A diagram showing the operation of an optical rain sensor

The most common modern rain sensors are based on the principle of total internal reflection. At
all times, an infrared light is beamed at a 45-degree angle into the windshield from the interior. If
the glass is dry, the critical angle for total internal refraction is around 42°. This value is obtained
with the total internal refraction formula

approximate value of the glass refraction index, also for infrared [3]. In that case, since the
incident angle of light is 45°, all the light is reflected and the detector receives maximum
intensity.

If the glass is wet, the critical angle changes to around 60° because the refraction index of water
is higher than air ({\displaystyle n_{1}=1.3}{\displaystyle n_{1}=1.3})[4]. In that case, because
the incident angle is 45°, total internal reflection is not obtained. Part of the light beam is
transmitted through the glass and the intensity measured for reflection is lower : the system
detects water and the wipers turn on

Chapter-6
Working process
The block diagram of the system as shown in Figure 1. A rechargeable battery was used as the
power supply, which can be plugged into a solar-powered charging point. The sensors were
interfaced to the Arduino Uno as indicated in the figure and described in the following sections.

Construction of Physical Model

A model of an automatic slide roof was made using plywood. The scale is of ratio1:10 and this
was chosen to make the model look close to reality, for mobility sake and base on the material
used for the opening system in this project. The length is 55cm, height 30cm and the width is
30cm. The materials used in joining the plywood are top-bond, glue, tack nail and pieces of
woods. The roof is made of medium density sheet.
RESULT AND COMPONENT ANALYSIS

The components were first connected on the bread board (since no soldering is required on the
bread board), it is easy to change connections and replace the components used. By virtue of first
placing the components on breadboard, the components will not be damaged so they will be
available for reuse, to test how well the components will function as a unit and to transfer the
connection to a board for permanent connection.
CONCLUSION

This is real time model which is used to automatic rain water and crop saving system protects
crops from excess amount of rain water and also saves water from wastage. By using arduino
operations of the entire system is going to be controlled these system saves the electricity,
maximizes the productivity during both rainy season and sunny season. Solar energy is also the
best outcomes of this project. Controlling of system on users virtue can also be achieved through
device like GSM. hardware implementation are reliable and cheap of this project.

REFERENCES
 [1] Oladunmoye M. &Oluwatomi A.A.:Design And Construction Of An Automatic Sliding
Door Using Infrared Sensor,Computing, Information Systems, Development Informatics &
Allied Research Journal Vol. 5 No. 4. December 2014

[2] AHM FazleElah; Mohammad ShafiurRehman; Intelligent Windshield For Automotive

Vehicles 17th International Conference On Computer And Info. Technology 22-23 December
2014. International university, Dhaka bangladesh

[3] R. Balathandapani, D. Boopathi, S. Jotheeshwaran, G. Arundeva, C. Saranya: Automatic

Rain Water And Crop Saving System Using Embedded Technology,International Journal of
Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR) Volume 4, Issue 3, March 2015.

[4] KadakiaNishant, A Kothari, Mohit A Shah, Amit V Patel Vipul R:Automatic Rain Operated
Wiper System in Automobile, International Journal for Scientific Research & Development Vol.
3, Issue 02, 2015.

[5] Sumit P Patil, Jignesh R Dhabuwala, Liyakat Ali Patel;Automatic Sliding

Window,International Journal Of Science And Research (IJSR) Issn (Online): 2319-7064

[6] LumithaSeemaCutinha, Manasa K, VenkateshPai, Sadhana B;Automatic Cloth Retriever

System, International Research Journal Of Engineering And Technology (IRJET) Volume: 03
Issue: 03 Mar-2016

[7] PrabhakarHegade, Sunil Nayak, ParashuramAlagundi, Kiran M R:Automatic Protection of

Clothes from Rain,International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication
Engineering Vol. 5, Issue 4, April 2016.