UNIT 7 A STUDY OF 'T.

HE PJONNE PREESTES
TALE' IT
Structure
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction to the Unit
7 -2 Learning and ~ l l u s i o nin NPT
7.3 Speech, Dialogue, Reflection, Narration and Descritption in the Tale
7.4 Levels of Meaning in NPT
7.5 Contemporary Historical Allusion
7.5.1 Notes
7.5.2 Glossary
7.6 An Outline Survey of Chaucer Criticism
7.7 Suggested Reading
7.8 Let Us Sum Up

7.0 OBJECTIVE

After having read this unit you will be able to:

(a) Translate passpges from the text into modem English prose,
(b) Interpret the text,
(c) Explain passages from it,
(d) Discuss Chaucer's use of learning and allusion
(e) Examine his style and
(0 Be.familiar with the tradition of Chaucer criticism

7.1 INTRODUCTION

In the first unit we described the context of the text, the narrative art of Chaucer with
particular reference to this tale, and the complex formal design of the poem.

In this unit we describe the use of learning, allusion and rhetoric made by Chaucer,
his style, verse and diction, and the meanings of the tale.

The text with translation into modem English verse, notes and glossary is provided.
For a close study you are expected to read it many times in the light of the critical
interpretation provided in the two units.

An outline of Chaucer criticism is given to help you place Chaucer properly in the
English poetic tradition N o m s and values of literary criticism keep changing, but
there is something in art and poetry and the humanistic culture which may be s a ~ dto
be changeless or unalterable, After all, great poets are acknowledged to be great at
all times. The mystery of their charm cannot be fully explained by criticism or
scholarship.

7.2 THE USE OF' LEARNING AND ALLUSION IN NPT

The Tale itself is an adaptation from a French collection of satirical fables, Roman de
Renart. The two dream stories are taken from Cicero, the great Latin prose-writer.
Dionysius Cato on dreams, Macrobius's commentary on the Dream of Scipio, are
refereed to. The dreams of St. Kenelm, Scipio Afiicanus, Daniel and Joseph o f the
Old Testament are mentioned in support of his view by the pedantic cock. All this
reflects Chaucer's interest in the contemporary lore of dream-interpretation.

Analogies and parallels are used to introduce learned allusions to the Iliad, the Greek
epic by Homer. Aeneid, the Latin epic by Virgil, and to an obscure History of the
Trojan war by Dares Phrygius. Allusions to the Christian myth of the loss of
paradise, to the theological debate on free will and predestination, the theory of St.
Augustine, to the consolations of Philosophy by Boethius (which Chaucer had
translated), To Thomas Bradwardine, do all give the tale an atmosphere of learning,
reflection and a philosophical context, appropriate to the narrator who is a priest. The
reference to the Gospel of St. John is important. The cock is made to twist or adapt
the quotation. He mistranslates deliberately. All this illustrates the ironic.method of
the poet. The reference (in line 446) to one of the most romantic knights of the
Arthurian romances-Sir Launcelot de Lakeis sly and ironic.

Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus Christ with a kiss. New Ganelon betrayed his master
Charlemague and caused his defact. Sinon was a greek who tricked the Trojans into
admitting the wooden horse into their city. These three traitors in the spheres of
religion, history and myth are compared with the fox, the villain, in the Tale. The
familiar parallel of Adam, Eve and Satan is there too.

Some obscure references for a 20"' century reader are there. A medieval moralising
treatise on beasts, a Latin bestiary, Physiologus, attributed to Theobaldus, is
mentioned (in line 505) by the Fox. He claims also to have read a song "Daun Bumal
the Asse" (Sir Burnal the Ass) in Nigel Wireker's book.

The author of Poetria Nova, Geoffrey de Viusauf, was regarded in Chaucer's time as
a great authority an rhetoric and poetry. The Priest is made to imitate his rhetorical
manner in lines 581-608. Contrast the rhetorical, hyperbolic style of these lines wit11
the vivid, realistic description of the chase in the following eight couplets.
Astronoiny and astrology were Chaucer's favourite objects. We have some evidence
of that in this tale too. The Peasant's Revolt of 1381- a contemporary historical
event- and one of its leaders- Jack straw- are mentioned in the tale (lines 627-630).
The noise that was made in chasing the fox is compared to the noise made by the
crowds in the said rebellion.

The use of learning by major English poets like the metaphysical poets, particularly
John Donne;,John Milton, Alexander Pope and T.S. Eliot is like, and unlike
Chaucer's.

The metaphysical poets wrote for a sinall circle of readers. Milton too was interested
in finding "fit audience, though few". Besides, he reflects the conflict as well as the
compromise of the Renaissance with the Reformation in his poetry. Classicism and
Christianity were undivided in Chaucer's time, but his humanism has a secular bias,
which is a inark of his originality. The classicism of Dryden and Pope is imitative
and the theme of their poetry is contemporary society, particularly, inen of letters and
the state of letters in their time. This is something of a late development in the
history of English poetry. It may be described as the narrowing down of the subject
of poetry to poetry itself-a circularity. The Waste Land by T,S.Eliot was first
received as a very obscure and pedantic poem. Modernisnx-an ainalganl of
symbolism, imagism, romanticism and classicism- appeared with this poem.
Chaucer's use of learning is rnost creative. Only Shakespeare may be said to have
assimilated it better.

Chaucer's allusions to the poetic, mythological and philosophical traditions of Europe

show that he is most European of English poets. Dryden and Pope were mere
imitators of the ancients. T.S. Eliot was an American and with him the Trans-
Atlantic modem English poetry had emerged. Milton's Christianity, unlike Dante's,
was sectarian and reflected a spiritual c'onflict between reason and faith. Byronisrn
Tlte Medieval Poet idolised Byron. Homer, Virgil, Dante and Shakespeare are perhaps the greatest
Cllaucer European poets, but Shakespeare's "Englislmess" is at once more insular and
universal than Chaucer's classical simplicity or Milton's Latinism. Of Chaucer,
Shakespeare and Milton, the last is most exotic, the first is wanting in the depth and
range of Shakespeare. Perhaps the freedom from French influence was not complete.

7.3 SPEECH, DIALOGUE, REFLECTION, NARRATION

AND DESCRIPTION IN NPT

NPT is a dramatic tale. The action here is more verbal than non-verbal. The debate
on dreams, the play of wit between the hero (chauntecleer) and the villain (colfox),
the reflections of the priest, the dramatic story-teller, are all verbal action.

The non-verbal action of of two types here. The dream is a psychic event, hardly
'action'. The only physical action is the fox seizing the cock by the nzck and running
to the forest. The 'action' on the part of the hero, apart from his interpretation of
dreams including his own, is wooing, dalliance and enjoyment (see lines 391-437)
and play of wit in resolving a crisis.

Speeches, dialogue and reflection, therefore, are more important in this tale than
'action' of the other type. The tale is, thus, remarkable for psychic and mental action.
It is more literary or linguistic than might appear on the surface.

The speech of the fox addressed to the cock ( 5 18-555) is highly rhetorical and fi.111 of
dramatic irony. Compare it with Iago's speeches to Othello in the play of that name
by Shakespeare, or Satan's in Milton's Paradise Lost. Evidently, this is a mock-
heroic tale in contrast with the serious tragedy and the solemn epic. Tlie brief
dialogue between the cock and the fox is crucial action. The cock takes his revenge
in a speech of seven lines (three and a half couplets 641-47) and the fox falls in the
trap through a speech of half a line (648).

The morals drawn by the participants in the action state the impo1tanc.e of vision (one
should keep one's eyes open) and silence (one should not talk when one should hold
one's peace). Silence, after all, is golden, while speech is silver. We notice the use
and abuse of language -to conceal and to reveal motive. Truth and falsehord in
verbal behaviour are to be distinguished by intelligence.

In the debate on dreams, the hen is matter of fact and scientific. She uses expository
language or style. Her speech of more than sixty lines (142-203) reflects a skilful
control or organisation of feeling and idea.

The cock is long-winded and pedantic in his reply. He is given two hundred lines
(204-405) in which he tells two dream stories and refers to many famous dreams in
scripture and the classics, implying a correspondence between them and his own. He
argues that dreams signify joy or trouble and his own "avision" foretells adversity,
His proud, pedantic and amorous character is adumbrated in his mistranslation of a
Latin sentence from the gospel according to St. .John. He wins the argument but
forgets its purpose. He behaves like a smug fatalist ignoring the warning of the
dream.

The priest is using the tale as an exemplum. His story is a contemplative and didactic
sermon. His reflection on the theological problem of freewill and predetermination
relates this tale to the knight's Tale and to Troilus and Creside. And in all the three
"Chaucer's balance in his just comprehension of tragedy and his gentle sense of
humour" may be seen. Poetry and philosophy are united dramatically. In this
respect, Chaucer is second only to Shakespeare. among great English poets.
 The priest's reflection on women or man-woman relationship is curiousIy less ' NPT-IT
objective. Consider the passage (421-48) where the transition form a solemn,
rhetorical tofie to satiric- ironical is remarkable. The paradisal happiness of the cock
(434-37) before the fox enters the scene is pastoral or romantic. Notice the word
"pasture" used in line 4 19. But the correspondence with the myth of Adam-Eve-
Satan is coloured with antifeminine feeling. The priest's ironic statement that his
story is "true" as is the book of Launcelot de Lake reveals the subjective feeling of
the narrator author. And a little later he turns again to the topic of woman's counsel
to man. His evasive and timid tone is characteristic and tells the story of his own
dubious love-hate relation with his mistress prioress.

Chaucer's view of rhetoric is reflected in the priest's reference to Geoffrey de

Vinsauf, whose guidance was blindly accepted by poets and rhetoricians of Chaucer's
- time. Chaucer's poetic technique is more remarkable for irony, satire and realism
than for rhetoric and romance. He juxtaposed the plain style with the high style in the
tale, creating an ironic effect. In the description of the paradise of married love
. dramatilly rendered (391-420) the poet uses a rhetorical method but not without
irony. The realistic style of the chase (609-635) may be contrasted with it.

Chaucer's narrative art combines description, reflection and narration in an aesthetic

complex. The narrative has all the qualities that a good narrative requires: (a) the
pace and movement of the story, (b) suspense and crisis, (c) Transitions from the
serious to the gay tone and back, (d) drama (e) action, (f) contemplating or reflecting
on the action, and (g) artistic control of the matrial of experience. Tradition and
individual talent are perfectly blended.

Description is poetic at places, e.g. the description of Chauntecleer's voice and

appearance. It is not always so poetic. It is matter-of-fact in tone more frequently.
The use of poetic devices like the simile and rhetorical devices 1ike.exclamalions may
be noticed for particular consideration.
?
I
In the use of similes, Chaucer is the supreme English poet, as Shakespeare is in the
b use of metaphors. The Homeric similes of Milton are equally remarkable. The
E comparisons and similes of lines 85-98 are brilliant. Figure them out.
I
,I The most important aspect of Chaucer's style is that the tale is a verse narrative.
b'
!
Modeni fiction is normally written in prose. Verse contrasts with prose in many
respects. It is more regular and rhythmic. The verse of Chaucer's poems is radically
%'
different from the traditional alliterative verse of his age. The influence of Chaucer
on the later English poets is immeasurable because they found the syllabic verse
8.
I pattern introduced by him more congenial then the old alliterative verse.

The music of the heroic couplets of NPT should be appreciated. The initial difficulty
of middle English pronunciation can be easily overcome. The syllabic structure of
words is somewhat different, especially because the final-e is sounded and adds an
extra syllable to the word in many cases.

Chaucer's diction is not 'poetic' in the way in which, according to Wordsworth, that
of late 18" century English poetry is. In the General Prologue Chaucer defended.his
plain style (lines 725-742). His argument is that rudeness, vulgarity or even
obscenity of speech may be dramatically proper on the ground of realism. Secondly,
sincerity and honesty require that there should be no reserve (or euphesim) and that
words must correspond to action. He mentions both Christ and Plato-the two
fountainheads of European culture-in support of his argument. In all this Chaucer
was being only half serious. His comic and ironic. vision is reflected in his poetic
manner.
Chaucer 7.4 LEVELS OF MEANING IN NPT

"On the primary level the Nun's priest's Tale is a brilliant and complex exposure of
vanity, self-esteem, and self-indulgence through the mock-heroic treatment of a beast
fable. On the secondary level, the Nun's Priest joins the discussions of the Pilgrims
on poverty (Man of Law, Wife of Bath), women's advice (Merchant), rhetoric (Host
and squire), and marriage. He is also presenting in the contrast between the widow
and Chantecleer a veiled comment on his position vis-a-vis the Prioress. Finally, on
the level of involuntary revelation, be falls into the pedantry that he is ridiculing and
uncovers for a moment in his confusion the feelings of a misogyist dependent on a
woman. In this moment there is revealed a second conflict, the conflict between the
artist, building with the materials of his art a world where his feelings achieve
symbolic and universal expression, and the man, expressing his feelings directly."

7.5 CONTEMPORARY HISTORICAL ALLUSION

A touch-and-go allusion to contemporary historical events and personages is made in

the Tale. J.L. Hotson suggested so in 1924. According to him, Colfox of the Tale Is
based on Nicholes Calfox. The real Colfox was one of those who were responsible
for the killing or gloucester, a prince of England and youngest son to Edward 111.
Chaucer likens the Colfox to famous traitors. The other historical event to which
Chaucer seems to have referred is the duel at coventry between Hemy Bolingbroke,
then Duke of Hereford, and Thomas Mowbray Duke of Norfolk. King Richard
stopped the proceeding just before blows were struck, and exiled the antagonists:
Henry for ten years, and Mowbray for ever. "Such an heroic encounter, ending a bit
ingloriously, but without hurt, for both combatants, furnishes ar excellent occasion
for a sympathetic, humorous fable, done in a grave and gay mock-heroic style". A
striking similarity between chauntecleer's colours and Henry's arms is noticed. And
the striking likeness between the fable and the duel is brought out.
Check Your Progress 6
1, Write a note on Chauntecleer's use of learning, distinguishing it from the
Priest's and the Poet's.
2. Comment on
a) Chaucer's attitude to rhetoric
b) His use of rhetoric
I
3. Compare Chaucer as a learned poet with some other English poets.
4. Write a critical note on Chaucer's use of language. I
5. tudy the essay "Colfox Vs Chanticleer by J. Lesley Hotson included in
Chaucer: Modern Essays in criticism (1959) edited by Edward
I
WAGErnNECHT
Do you find the argument of Hotson convincing or merely curious?
6. How are poetry and history related? A great critic suggested that poetry is
less abstract and more concrete than philosophy and less concrete and more
abstrasct than history. How is this the advantage of poetry?
7. Bring out the poetic features of the style of Chaucer.
What makes Chaucer the greatest master of narrative in English verse. '
L?,
8.
9. Discuss Dryden's description of Chaucer as "the father of English poetry"

7.6 AN OUTLINE SURVEY OF CHAUCER C R T T I C I S ~

Chaucer was admired by his contemporaries and imitated by the poets of the
succeedii~ggenerations in the fifteenth century A.D. The following eulogy by John
Skeleton is among the first:
1 0 Noble Chaucer, Whos pullissh yd eloquence
Oure Englysshe rude so fresshely hath set out.
That bounde ar we with all dew reverence,
With all our strength that we can bring about,
To owe to you our servye, and more if we mowte.. .

Hoccleve praised Chaucer as "the first finder of the English language". Henry VIII
exempted his works from his ban on "forbidden" books. Ascham approved of him,
and Spenser acknowledged him as "master" from whose "well of English undefyled"
he drank deep. Ben Jonson had read Chaucer, and Milton 's comments on Chaucer
are respectful.

It may be seen that the critical acclaim during the first two centuries after Chaucer
focussed on language. Then the language became old and obscure. The
transformation of English from Middle English to Modem English was complete.

' Joseph Addison's lines on Chaucer in the sixth miscellary (1694) show the new
attitude of unfamiliarity with the language."

.
. . Chaucer first, a merry bard, arose,
And many a story told in rhyme and prose,
But age has rusted what the poet writ,
Worn out his language and obscur'd his wit.
In vain he jests in his unpolish'd strain,
And tries to make his readers laugh in vain.
Alexander Pope said:

Authors, like Coins, grow dear as they grow old;

It is the rust we value, not the gold.
Chaucer's worst ribaldry is leam'd by rote,
And beastly Skelton Heads of Houses quote:

But Dryden was much more balanced. However, the general Tendency of the 18"'
century, or the age of neo-classicism, was to dismiss Chaucer's verse and language.
In fact, the unfamiliarity with Chaucer's language continued till Matthew Arnold,

But Dryden held Chaucer "in the same degree of veneration as the Grecians held
Homer, and the Romans Virgil." He called Chaucer" the father of English Poetry"
and described him in a fine phrase as "a perpetual fountain of good sense." In
Chaucer's verse, however, he found only nine syllables in place of the actual ten,
because he did not count the final-e as syllabic in works like "aboute" and "withoute"
in lines 81-2 of our text. They rhyme as well, But his appreciation of Chaucer's art
of characterisation is more than fair.

"Chaucer followed Nature everywhere, but was never so bold to go beyond her.. . we
have our forefathers and great-grand-dames all before us, as they were in Chaucer's
days: their general characters are still remaining in mankind, and even in England."

Rewriting or translating Chaucer started with Dryden. A Pope and William

Wordsworth also rewrote parts of Chaucer. Nevi1 Coghill's translation is less free
and closer to the original both in language and spirit.

In the mid-19" century the Chaucer society was founded, and towards the end of the
century Skeat's editionrof Oxford Chaucer started appearing. But Matthew Amold
was, it seems, not aware, of the new wave of Chaucer scholarship. His famour
criticism of Chaucer as lacking in "high seriousness" derived, partly, from his own
lack of humour and, generally, from the romantic aesthetic which regards the arhst as
her and takes art more seriously than is done in real life and society.
The Medieval Poet Since the middle of the nineteenth century Chaucer studies have been steadily
Charicer growing on both sides of the Atlantic. Some prominent American scholars like
kithedge, Manly, Root, Lowes and John Speirs have contributed much to the revival
of interest in Chaucer's poetry. It is true that Chaucer studies till about 1920 had
strong historical bias. Ever since then Chaucer criticism has emerged and developed
as a special branch of English literary criticism.
The texts of Chaucer's poems have been authoritatively edited by F.N. Robinson,
J.M. Manly, Edith Rickert, and their pioneer W.W. Skeat. A Chaucer Bibliography
with a supplement covering the period 1908-63 and A companion to Chaucer studies
(1968) are indispensable to scholars and researchers.
Chaucer's Life-Records, Chaucer's World, Five Hundred years of Chaucer Criticism
and Allusion are valuable books of reference.
The outline given above shows that Chaucer has always been accepted as a great
master of English poetry, but during the last three centuries and a half his language
seems to have proved a stumbling block to the reader and the critic.
The emergence of linguistics, particularly Histoiical linguistics, or Comparative
Philology as it was earlier known, made it possible for scholars to appreciate the
difference of Chaucer's East Midland Dialect of Middle English from the standard
English of today. Secondly, historical scholarship recreated Chaucer's England and
his social and literacy context. The last six decades have seen the publication in
books and journals of studies of Chaucer's verse, language, poetry, style etc. and his
place in the English poetic and literary tradition.
The historical approach of the late 191hcentury and early 201hcentury Chaucer
scholarship interpreted fiction as fact, mistaking.realismfor reality. The latest view
in this respect is that the description of reality in language can only be realistic and
must involve the subjective bias or prejudice of the describer. Secondly, Arnold's
complaint that "high seriousness" was wanting in Chaucer is now seen in its
historical critical perspective. It is accepted that Arnold's view derived partly from
his ignorance of Chaucer's language and unfamiliarity with Chaucer's poetic output
as a whole, and, more important, from the romantic aesthetic which regarded poets as
prophets or legislators of mankind. Poetry, said W.H.Anden, a poet, can make
nothing happen. Miles Burrows, a less known poet talken in a poem of two types of
poets-the arch poet and the minipoet and concluded, in a poem entitled "minipoet"
but most of us prefer the minipoet
for the sort of j'ourneys we make now a days.
In India, however, pilgrimages like the one undertaken by Chaucer's pilgrims in the
Canterbury Tales are still common. Journeys are always of all sorts, but there is of
course a great difference between Chaucer's England and our India.
What is of universal interest in the poetry of Chauer which is illustrated in NPT at its
best is the wealth of experience, the firm grasp of human nature in its great variety,
and above all the easy mastery of the art of poetry and a rare assimilation of the
tradition of learning.

7.7. SUGGESTED READINGS

A Criticism of Chaucer as a whole

1. The Canterbury Tales:

A selection of critical Essays J.J. Anderson (ed)
2. A Reader's guide lo Geoflrey Chaucer Muriel Bowden
The Medieval Poet Since the middle of the nineteenth century Chaucer studies have been steadily
Cha14cer growing on both sides of the Atlantic. Some prominent American scholars like
kithedge, Manly, Root, Lowes and John Speirs have contributed much to the revival
of interest in Chaucer's poetry. It is true that Chaucer studies till about 1920 had
strong historical bias. Ever since then Chaucer criticism has emerged and developed
as a special branch of English literary criticism.
The texts of Chaucer's poems have been authoritatively edited by F.N. Robinson,
J.M. Manly, Edith Rickert, and their pioneer W.W. Skeat. A Chaucer Bibliography
with a supplement covering the period 1908-63 and A companion to Chaucer studies
(1968) are indispensable to scholars and researchers.
Chaucer's Life-Records, ~haucer'sWorld, Five Hundred years of Chaucer Criticism
and Allusion are valuable books of reference.
The outline given above shows that Chaucer has always been accepted as a great
master of English poetry, but during the last three centuries and a half his language
seems to have proved a stumbling block to the reader and the critic.
The emergence of linguistics, particularly Histo~icallinguistics, or Comparative
Philology as it was earlier known, made it possible for scholars to appreciate the
difference of Chaucer's East Midland Dialect of Middle English fiom the standard
English of today. Secondly, historical scholarship recreated Chaucer's England and
his social and literacy context. The last six decades have seen the publication in
books and journals of studies of Chaucer's verse, language, poetry, style etc. and his
place in the English poetic and literary tradition.
The historical approach of the late 19Ihcentury and early 20Ihcentury Chaucer
scholarship interpreted fiction as fact, mistaking realism for reality. The latest view
in this respect is that the description of reality in language can only be realistic and
must involve the subjective bias or prejudice of the describer. Secondly, Arnold's
complaint that "high seriousness" was wanting in Chaucer is now seen in its
historical critical perspective. It is accepted that Arnold's view derived partly fiom
his ignorance of Chaucer's language and unfamiliarity with Chaucer's poetic output
as a whole, and, more important, from the romantic aesthetic which regarded poets as
prophets or legislators of mankind. Poetry, said W.H.Anden, a poet, can make
nothing happen. Miles Burrows, a less known poet talken in a poem of two types of
poets-the arch poet and the minipoet and concluded, in a poem entitled "minipoet"
but most of us prefer the minipoet
for the sort of j'ourneys we make now a days.
In India, however, pilgrimages like the one undertaken by Chaucer's pilgrims in the
Canterbury Tales are still common. Journeys are always of all sorts, but there is of
course a great difference between Chaucer's England and our India.
What is of universal interest in the poetry of Chauer which is illustrated in NPT at its
best is the wealth of experience, the firm grasp of human nature in its great variety,
and above all the easy mastery of the art of poetry and a rare assimilation of the
tradition of learning.

7.7. SUGGESTED READINGS

A Criticism of Chaucer as a whole

1. The Canterbury Tales:

A selection of critical Essays J.J. Anderson (ed)
2. A Reader's guide to Geoflrey Chaucer Muriel Bawden
 3. Chaucer in His Time Derek Brewet

4. Thepoet Chaucer Nevi11 Coghill

5. Chaucer and His world F.E. Halliday

6. Chaucer and His Poetry G.L. Kittredge

7. Chaucer and the Rhetoricians J.M. Manly

8. Chaucer and the shape of creation R.O.Payne

9. Chaucer's Prosody Ian Robinson

10: The Poetry of Chaucer R.K. Root

1 1. Chaucer Criticism Richerd J. Scheeck

(2 volumes) &
Jerome Taylor
(edd)
12. Chaucer the Maker John speirs

13. Critics on Chaucer Sheila Sulivan (ed)

14. Chaucec Modern Essays in Criticism Edward Wagenknecht

(ed)
15. On the Sources of the Nun 's Priest's tale K.O.Peterson

Note: Either A.W. Pllard's or F.W Robinson's edition of the text should be used.
Nevi1 coghill's translation into modem English verse should help the student translate
passages from the text into modem English prose.

Works of Reference

1. Sources and Analogues of Chaucer 's

Centerbury Tales W. F. Bryan
and
Germaine Dempster

2. Chaucer 's Life-Records M.Y.Crow and

C.C.Olsen (edd)

3, A Bibliography of Chaucer D.D. Griffith

I .

1908-53
(Supplement' 1954-63 by W.R.Crawford)
i '

4. Companion to Chaucer Studies Beryl Rowland (ed)

5. Five Hundred Years of Chaucer Caroline F.E.Spurgeon

Criticism and Allusion

Notes:

1, A Brief Note on Chaucer' s g;in,mar

Tlie Medieval Poet The middle English dialect (East Midland) of Chaucer forms the basis of modern
Chnucer English. Therefore, the vocabulary and grammar of this dialect are far less strange
than those of the other dialects of his time, e.g. that of Langland's Piers Plowman.

The spellings in the text indicate both orthographic and phoretic differences. The
difference in the quality of vowels and some consonants has been partly
reconstructed or1 the basis of the spellings which were far from standardised in
Chaucer's time. The printing press was introduced soon after Chaucer by Caxton
who published Chaucer for the first time.

Word- endings like-e, -en, -n and -es were pronounced in Chaucer's time. The
genitive singular is normally fonned in -es, -s: Poules, Goddes, Nonnes. Plurals
were formed in fully sounded -es the -en suffix was also used : eyen, doghtren.
Some plurals had zero inflection: nyght in "seven nyght oold". Adjectives possessed
a fully sounded -e final independent of inflection: "muche fold". "poure estaat" The
definite use of adjectives had an e-final in the singular: the brighte sune, faire
PerteIote. His sweete preest. The indefinite use had no e-final in singular a greet
disese. Adjective in the plural inflection were formed with the final -e, fresshe
flowers. The predicative use had no final -e as in "neither whit no reed"
comparatives and superlatives doubled the final consonants : redder

Adverbs with final -e: faire, poore, aboute.

Pronouns: Here appears as hir or hire, and in the accusative or dative as here. Them
is usually hem and their here but also her and hir. That has its plural tho, the plural of
this is thise. Which is used for all genders, and is inflected when adjectival.

Verbs: 1st singular is formed with a final -e:

I gesse, I seye
31d singular is formed by -eth, -th.

The plural of all persons is formed in -en, -n or the weakened form -e: men han been
... WE all desiren, That werken, dreams been to drede, they been etc.
Strong verb conjugation:ladde, sent, foond, eet, lette, shente, hadde etc. The
imperative present in the plural takes -eth: Beth. Also telle war, redeth etc,, dredeth.
Infinitives end in -en,-n, or -e:
*
To goon, To doon, to telle, to gone, to han, to tellen

Strong verb past participle form:,end in -en, -e: fallen, understonde, shente but maad
Weak vers in -ed, -d attamed,

Wakened, mordred, dremed

Both strong and weak verbs frequently have the prefix y-

The most remarkable features of the vocabulary of Chaucer are:

(a) Obsolete words like eek, quod, sooth, clap, wot, noot, woot, mete, somdeel,
sweven, steven, cleped, hight, sikerly, stape, ywis, avantour, mote, gargat,
gabbe wlastsom, biknewe, gladsom etc.
(b) Compounds and Derivatives which are obsolete.

namoore -
- no more
nevaradeel - never a deal
nas -- was not
noot -- know not (n+woot)
 nere -
were it not
n'apoplexie no apoplexy
thilke the same
evericlion every+each+one

(c) Change of form and meaning in certain words

1. Hevinesse = Seriousness, sadness

NOWthe word i s used in the literal physical
sense more than in this metaphorical sense.

2. disese = the present-day rneanihg has narrowed down to

"illness"

3. Think = seem, appear in Chaucer's use. Consider the sentence,

it thinketh me= it thinks me= it seems to me ~

I 4. lust = Chaucer's meaning "desire" has no sexual

connotation.

1 5. recche = reckon, interpret, read

1 Syntactic features
A. 1. That = What -See line 2
2. for to telle =for telling or to tell
for to bewaille = to bewail
3. But for = But because
4. Whan that = When (see line 122)

B. Double negatives - e.g. I noot revere . ..

(line 17)
no wyn ne drank seh
(line 76)
nas no man in no region (line 544)

Notes to the text

Line 1 The Prologue to NPT links it with the preceding Monk's Tale. The
Knight (Who has the pride of place among the pilgrims) interrupts
the monk. The monk, in his tale, has recounted universal tragedy -
human and superhuman. Lucifer, Adam, Samson, Hercules, Nero,
Alexander and Julius caesar are some of the great tragic figures
presented by the Monk. He interprets their various tragedies in the
light of his faith in destiny or predetermination.

From a tragic tale to a comic is a transition designed by the foet

whose art and vision are essentially serio-comic.

NPT is followed by the Physician's Tale in which a father kills his

daughter to save her honour.

Line 14 St. Paul's Cathedral in London. At the end, too, (line 675) there is a
reference to St. Paul, This gives the tale some of its form-rounding
off.

Line 16 The phrase "Fortune'covered with a clowde" refers to the Monk's

conclusion to his tale as follows:
The Medieval Poet How fortune, ever fickle, will assail
Chaucer With the sudden stroke the kingdoms of the proud.
And when men trust in her she than will fail
And cover her bright face as with a cloud . . .
(Nevi1 coghill's translation)

Notice the theme of Destiny versus free will is retained in NPT, but
the tone is comic and ironical.

Line 90 The equinoctical was a great circle of the heavens in the plane of the
earth's equator. Chaucer's interest in ~ s 6 o n o m
is ~well-known.
According to, medieval astronomy, the equinox made a complete
daily revolution, so that fifteen degree would pass, or ascend, every
hour. The cock kneh this instinctively and would crow precisely
every hour.

Notice the unity of time being observed in the tale. The action starts
at dawn with the groaning of the cock. The hen warns him against
going out in the ascending sun, but he goes out at 9 a.m. Later
"undren" (line 456) indicates time from 9 am to 12 noon. The rest of
the action, particularly the chase, seems to take place in the
afternoon.

Secondly, Astrology, the science of medicine, psychology

(particularly the theory of humours) and astronomy were all
interrelated. Knowledge in Chaucer's time was more general and
interdisciplinary then in our time.

Lines 93-98 The colours of the cock's physical appearance as well as those of the
colfox (lines 136-38) have a poetic and rhetocial effect. Moreover,
they have a historical connotation, as out by J.L. Hotsun (see
suggested Reading List)

130 The line should be paraphrased: Now may God (make) my dream
mean (read) well.

Line 148-51 The ideal husband of his age of chivalry and romance is mocked by
the poet in a manne reminicscent of Restoration comedy. Compare
this with Millamant mocking the romantic ideal of a husband in The
Way of the World.

Lines 157-72 Notice the connection between the theory of humours classifying
humans into four psychological types, the interpretation of dreams,
and the medical advice given by Pertelote, An impressive display of
learning as by a court lady: The comic and mock-heroic tone is
apparent.

174 Dionysius Cato, the author of a Latin book of maxims

218 The author is Cicero, the famous Latin author known for his prose
style and learning. Divination and Valericus Maximus are the two
books by him both or either of which may be the source of the two
dream stories of the cock.

344-355 The story of the lifl of St. Kenelm is told in the Golden Legend
translated by Caxton.
 After the death of his father kenulphus in 821 A.D. Kenelm became
the king of Mercia at the age of seven. But his aunt, Quenedreda got
him murdered. Later he was made a saint.

This vision of a stately tree stretching to the stars and with branches
covered with flowers is sublime. The tree was ablaze with lamps.
He saw himself standing on the top, and three parts of the earth
bending towards him reverentially. While he was appreciating the
magnificent spectacle, some of his relatives cut the tree down. Rut
he was transformed into a little white bird. The allegorical vision is
.
poetic.

Macrobius, who interpreted the dream of the worthy scipio of A'frica,

confirms that dreaw are significant. His classification of dreams
together with plr;l.rsophical and astrological explorations attracted
medieval re -'t,;s. The SOMNIUM SCIPIONIS of Circero,
originalli a chapter of De Republica, Book VI was edited with a .
comr;..jdtary by Macrobius about 400 A.D.

362 The Book of Daniel in the old Testament of the Bible states Daniel's
belief that dreams are significant.

364 Joseph in the Book of Genesis in the Bible also asserts that dreams
are significant. The dreams of the Egyptian Pharaoh, his baker and
butler were indicators of' coming events.

3 72-74 Croesus, King of Lydia, dreamt that he was seated on a high tree,.
where he was made wet by hlpiter and dried by Phoebus. His
daughter, Pania, interpreted the dream as reaning that he would be
captured and hanged on a cross, whcr, tfio :.,in would moisten him
and the sun would dry him. h . 2 the dream came true.

Hector, a Trojan hero, was killed by the greek warrior Achilles in the
war of Tray. This story is taken from the Greek epic Iliad by Homer.
But Homer does not mention any dream of Andromache, Hector's
wife. Chaucer's source for this was the History of the Trojan war by
Dares Phrygius.

All the learned allusions made in the context of the dream lore have
two main sources: (a) Greek and Roman classics and (b) Christian
scripture. Chaucer is fairly representative in his use of learning in
poetry. After the Renaissance, a split between the Christain and the
classical surfaced, most prominently in Milton's Paradise Lost.
Scholars have traced a conflict in Milton's psyche between conscious
and unconscious pulls. There is no such conflict in Chaucer.

In Principio are the first words of the Gospel of St. John. Here this
Latin phrase means "as surely as in the beginning" (when Eve
tempted Adam). The Latin sentence means "woman is man's ruin."
But Chauntecleer deliberately mistranslates it.

421 An implicit reference to a common Hebrew tradition, according to

which creation tookplace at the time of vernal equinox B.C. 3761.

424 May 3 is the date, because thirty days of April and two days of May
had passed.

The time is 9 0' clock in the morning. 117

The Medieval Poet May 3 is significant in Chaucer's poetry. (a) In the Knight's Tale, it
Charrcer is soon after midnight on May 3 that Palamon breaks out of prison.
(b) In Troilus and criseyde, after a sleepless night on May 3,
Pandarus urges Criseyde to listen to the suit of Troilus. It appears
that May 3 was traditionally regarded as an unlucky day. Or was
some autobiographical reference hinted?

428-29 The zodiac is an imaginary circular band found the heavens, and the
sun's annual course is the middle of this band. This band is divided
into twelve signs of the zodiac of which Taurus is the second. 360
degres of the circle divided by twelve yields 30. This is how months
and days of the year were astroi~omicallycalculated. The sun was
supposed to begin its course in the first sign of Aries on 12"'March.
30 days for the thirty degrees of Aries plus 2 1 days for the twenty
one degrees of Taurus bring is to 2ndMay. "Somewhat more" (line
423) brings us to the 3rdMay.

43 0 I hc cock knew all this by nature or instinct, not by any other "Iore"
01. learning.

43 3 The daily motion of the sun is referred to . Forty one degrees and a
fraction makes 9 0' clock.

Thus it is nine am on the third of May. The progress of the action

under a unity of time scheme makes it dramatic.

446 Launcelot, a prominent knight of King Arthur's Round Table in the

Arthurian romances. A French version by walter Map known for its
untruthfulness was held by women in great esteem. Chaucer was
referring particularly to this "book."

Colfox = coal-black fox. col-here is M.E. col = Coal; a variety of Sox

chiefly distinguished by a geater admixture of black in its fur.

"Colfox, as a common noun, occurs only in this passage. But Colfox

is also a proper name, a surname; and is found in England from
Chaucer's time to ours". Hotsun (1924). Nicholas Colfox and
Richard Colfox; two contemporaries known at court, were punished
and pardoned by Henry IV. Nicholas Colfox had been involved in
the murder of the Duke of Gloucester. It was worse than murder; it
was treason.

The emphasis on the themes "Mordre wol out" (lines 284-91) and
treason (lines 460-63) is interpreted by Hotsun as reflecting
Chaucer's attitude to Nicholas Colfox.

The partial resemblance of Chauntedeer with Henry Bolingbroke and

of Colfox with Nicholas Colfox as well as Thomas Mowbray is not a
complete allegory. But their duel at Covei~trystYgped just before
blows were struck is faintly reflected in the encounter between the
cock and the fox.

456 "Undren of the day" is the time from 9 a.m to 12 noon"

461-62 Judas Iscariot betrayed christ with a kiss, new Ganelon was an officer
under Charlemague, and by his treachery causcd his master's defeat,
and the death of Roland, for which he was tom to pieces by horses.
Sinon was a Greek who tricked Trojans into admitting the wooden
horse into their city. Thus, these are three traitors in the spheres of
religion, llistory and myth.
Apart from a rhetorical mock heroic effect, these lines also have a
historical overtone, as Holsun shows.

bulte it to the bren-separate the flour from the chaff, the truth from
falsehood or fiction

St. Augustine was regarded as the representative of the orthodox

doctrines on the subject. He believed in predestination.

Boethius (470-525 A.D) treats the topic in De Consolatione

Philosophie in a passage which distinguishes between "simple"
necessity and "conditional" necessity. Chaucer translated the book
into English.

Thomas B r a d w z ~ h ea, lecturer at Oxford and later Arcbitshop of

Canterbury : 1 A49 wrote a Latin book De Causa Dei defending
predestin-tion or predetermination.

The story of Adam, Eve and the serpent in Paradise is one of the
basic myths of Christianity. The concept of original sin is derived
from it. And the relation between character and destiny depends on
it.

Physiologus is the title of Latin bestiary, a medieval moralising

treatise on beasts, attributed to Theobaldus. The priest refers to it not
without humour.

Boethius wrote a book on milsic in T.ain,De Musica. He belonged to

the mathematical school of music of Pythagoras. His music did not
have musch feeling. The comparison ;A '-;.?:,bolic, comic, mock-
heroic and ironical.

The story here alluded to is found in a poem entitled Bumellus Sen

Speculum Stultoruin written by Nigel Wireker in the time of Richard
I. Master Brunedl the ass, is the hero of the book, a 12"' century satire
on the vices and corruption of society in general and of the religious
orders in particular, under the guise of a narrative of thc adventures
of the ass who wanted a longer tail. The story referred to is briefly
this: A youi~gman named Gundulfus broke a cock's leg by flinging a
stone at it. The cock took his revenge by omitting to crow in the
morning on the day when Gundulfus was to be ordained a priest and
to receive a benefice. The result was that Gundulfus and all his
family overslepl, he lost the benefice and become a beggar while his
parents died of grief.

Friday is a day dedicated to Venus. It is traditionally associated with

bad luck.

Gaufred was Geoffrey de Vinsauf, author of the Poetria Nova, Which

was long recognised as an authoritative treatise on poetry, containing
instuctions for composing poetry in different styles the passage
referred to is an example of lamentation, and deals with king
Richard's death.

Chaucer is somewhat ironic of the plaintive style. He has used

rhetoric in this tale at important points in tbe action, consider lines
441-48,460-64,527-30 and many other passages.
' The Medieval Poet 590-93 Pyrrhus had seized king Priam by the beard and slain him as the
Chaucer Latin epic Aeneid by virgil tells us. To compare the crisis of the
cock with the fall of Try is mock-heroic

597-602 Hasdrubal was the king of Carthage when the Romans burnt it in 146
B.C. Hasdrubel slew himself; and his wife and two sons burnt
themselves in despair.

604-607 Emperor Nero's burning of the city of Rome was cruel fun. Nero, a
Roman emperor A.D. 54-68, is proverbial for his brutal tyranny. He
is said to have been fiddling while Rome was burning.

The reference here is to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. Jack straw

was one of the leaders of the revolt. He and his men killed many
flemings to whom the English workers were hostile in self-interest.
He was subsequently beheaded.

GLOSSARY

Abrayde = woke up with a start anon = at once

accord = musical harmony anyght = at night
accordant = in keeping with anoye = annoy
actes = records appothe = cane chemist,
aferd = afraid one who sells medicines
afright = frightened aright = rightly
ageste = terrified asure = azure
agayn = toward, back atones = at once
agon = gone past attamed = started, began
agrief = unkindly, as a grevance atte = at the
agu = ague attempree = temperate
a1 = quite autorite = authority
al-be-it = although auctour = author
alday = continually aungel= angel
als = also avantour = boaster,braggart
altercation = controversy aventure = luck, chance
anhanged = hanged avysion = vision, dream

Bad=bade, commanded biknewe = acknowledged, confessed

bak = back biwaille = bewail, lament
bane = death, destruction biwreye = betray
bar = bore, conducted blithe = merry
battailled = indented like bole = bull
a castle wall bord = table
bame = beam, perch bour = hall
bene = bean, a trifle . brast = burst
benedicitee = God bless us, bren = bran, husk
a benediction brend(e) = burnt
benefice = benefice, living briddes = birds
beth = plural of be bulte = separate, sift
betwixe =between burned = burnished
bifel = happened byde = wait, vide
bifom = before . byle = bill, beak
bigyle = beguile, cheat, trick
 Cas = case, circumstance, clomben = climb
happening closs = closed
catel = property, possession close = enclosure
centaure = the herb called centaur= colera = choler
certes = certainly (one of the four humours)
chaf = chaff, husk commune = common
cherl = rustic, peasant cote = cottage
clappe = to talk countrefete = imitate
clepe = call cours =journey, voyage
clerk = a scholar, a learned cronycle = chronicle
person, a student of
philosophy

Damoysele = damsel dissymilour = dissembler

dar = dare divyne = guess
daun = sir doghtren = daughters
debonaire = gracious doke = duck
dede = deed donge = dung
dede = dead drecched = distressed
deel = bit, part dreynt = drowned
deign = please dystaf = stick, clef stick,
desport = amusement, sport part of spinning
deye = dairy woman wheel, distaff

Ech = each Ech = each equinoxial = celestial equator

eeris = ears er = ere, before
eet,ete = eat, ate erst = before
eke = also eschewed = avoided
ellebour = hellebore ese = ease
elles = else, otherwise estaat = state, condition
endite = compose evexmo = ever more
engendren = originate expown = expound, make clear
engyned = tortured .ey = egg
ensample = example eyle = ail, afflict
entente = intention, motive

-
Faire fairly, fair
fayn = willingly
faren = gone, fared
feend = fiend
felonye = crime fer = far
fil = befell, happened flatour = flatterer
+
flaugh = past tense of fly flour = flower
fley flew
foond = found forncast = pre-ordained
fors = count, heed forslewthn = lose by idleness
forwytying = fore-knowledge forwoot = foreknows ,,
for = against foul = dirty
fro = from fume = vapour
furnetere = funitory, the name of fyn = fine
a plant
The Medieval Poet
Charrcer
Gabbe = boast, speak wildly
gape = open the mouth
gentillesse = gentleness,
graciousness
gilt = guilt, sin
glade = gladden
grace = good fortune
greve = grove
grote=four penny piece
Habundant = abundant
happe = happen
harrow = a cry for help
(interjection)
heeld = held
heere = hear, here
heet = heated
hele = hide
hente = sized
herkneth = harken, listen
hewe = hue, colour
hir selven = herself
holden = esteem, consider
hostelrie = inn, hotel
hoten=command, promise
housbondre=economy
hyder=hither
hym=him
In = inn
Jade = Poor horse
Jape = mockery
Jolif = happy, jolly
Kan = can
keep = notice, take heed
koude = could
kynde =nature, instinct,
kind (noun)
Ladde = led
lat = let (v)
lawriol = spurge lawrel
gan = began
gargat = throat
gesse = guess, suppose
gladsome = gladdening
gon = go
gaunt = great, many, much
gone.= groan
grym=fierce, grim
han = have
hardy = bold
hath = has
heele = health
heeries = hairs
hegge = hedge
hem = them
herbergage = harbourage,
accommodation, lodging
hevyness = sadness, sorrow
hir, hire = her, hers
hight = called
hoo-ho-hoold = safe keeping
hostlier = inn-keeper,
hotelier
housbonde = husband
howp = whoot
hydous = hideous
iniquitee = iniquity, wickedness .
jangle = chatter, talk idly
jeet =jet
katapuce = catapuce
kepe = guard, protect
kyn = cows
lak = lack, shortage
latter = later, final
leere = learn
 leme = flame leoun.= lion
lese = lose leste = hinder
lette = let leve = leave
levere = rather leye = bet
lif = dear liggen = lie in ambush
list = please, want wish lite = little
litel = little lith = Iimb,lies (v)
logge = lodging l~ggyng= lodging
loken = locked, held fast loove = learning, advice
lorn = lost losengeour = deceiver, flatterer
Lust = desire lyte = little

, Mad= made maister = master

maisfow = mayest thou maked = made
malencolye = melancholy maner = kind of, sort of
mateere = matter maugree = in spite of
maze = muddled thought mente.= meant
mercy = thanks mervaille = marvel, wonder
mery = merry, cheerful meschaunce = misfortune
meschief = trouble messe = mass
mette = dreamed meynee = crowd, mob
ministre = officer moot = may
moralite = moral lesson mordre = murder
mordred = murdered morwe = morning
morwenynge = morning moste = must
muche = much multiply = increase
murie = merry myrie = merry
Myddel = middle myrthe = mirth

Namo = no more namoore = no more

narwe = narrow nas = was not
nat =not natheless = nevertheless
natureely = naturally ne = not, nor
neded = needed nedely = necessarily
nedes (adv) = needs, necessarily neer = nearer
nere = were it not nought = not at all
nones = occasion nonne = nun
noon = none norice = nurse
notabilitee = n notable thing nothyug (adv) = not at all
noys = noise ny = near
nyce = foolish nygard = niggard, mean person
I
, 1 nys = is not

' - Ofter = ofener ones = once

oold = old oonly = only
oother = other orgon = organ
orlogge = clock out (interjection) = come out help
outsterte = staded out, rushed outerly = utterly
came out
owene = own owle = owl

Paramour = lover pardee (interjection) = by god

parfit = perfect passe = pass on, surpass
The Medieval Pod Peer = pees = peace
Cliaucer pekke = peck, pick peyne =to take pains
physik = medicine pitous = piteous, pitiable
plesannce = pleasure, will plesen = please
pleyn = complain, mourn point = detail
bewail
poure = poor poweer = power
powpe = to blow, puff preeste = priest
preeve = proof preye = pray
prively = secretly, privately prow = benefit
prime = nine 0' clock in pyne = tormented
the morning

Quelle = kill quod = said

rage = 5enzy ravysshed = delighted

real = royal, regal recche = interpret, reckon
head
reccheless = reckless, heedless rede = red, read(v)
regardless reme = realm
reeke = care, mind rente = income
rennen = run repleccioun = over eating
repaire = retire repletion
repleet = over full report = relate
retor = rhetor, orator reulen = govern, control
revers = reverse, opposite rewe = regret
roghte = cared roial = royal
rome = roam roune = ran
roore = roar

Saufly = safely secree = secret

see = sea ' seken = seek, search
sely = silly,simple, innocent sente = sent
sentence = meaning, judgment sette = consider worth
sewe = pursue, follow seyn = say
seynd = singed, toasted shaltow = shalt thou
shende = harm, punish sholde = should
shoon = shone shortly = in short
shrewe = curse(v) shrihte = shrieked
shul = shall signe = sign
signification = forewarning sik = sick
siker = sure sikerly = certainly
sire = sir sith = since
sklendre = slender, frugal skrike = screech
sleen = slay slepen = sleep
sly = cunming snout = muzzle
sodeyn = sudden solas = comfort, solace
somdel = somewhat somtyme = occasionally
sond = sand sondry = sundry, various
sone = son sonne = sun
soore = sorely sooth = truth
soothfastness = truth soothly = tmly
soverayn = sovereign, supreme soverepl y = especially
sterten = start up . steven = voice
stikke = stick sterte = started
stonden = stand stoor = store
strecche= stretch streit = narrow
streyn = strain, compel stynte = stop, end
substance = ability subtiltee = cunning
suffisaunce = sufficience, suffre = allow
satisfaction
suspecioun = suspicion sustre = sister
swerd = sword swevene = dream
swich = such syn = since
syngen = sing

taak = take talking = discourse

tarie = wait techen = guide, teach
terciane = t d a n , tespye = to espy
running every third day thanne = then
thee = prosper therwith = in addition to
ther-as = where thilke = the same
therewithal = moreover thise =these .
thinken = think thogh ='though
tho = those ' thridde = third

thre = three thritty =thirty

thyn = thine . thurgh = through
toon,toos = toes tiptoon = tiptoes
tribulation = sorrow tome = turn
tyde = time, hour twies = twice

Understoden = understood undiscreet = taetless

undren=time before midday unto = in addition to
upright = face upwards . .

Venyrn = posion verray = very .

vers = verse veyn = vain
viage = voyage vileynye = wickedness, evil .
VOYS = voice

War = aware wende = go

wex = grow weylawey(interjection)= alas!
whan = when whatso = whatever
what though = although - wheeras = where
wheither = whether3. whelp = dog
whilom = foxmerll whit = white
right = person .. wikke = wicked
yilfully = deliberately wise = manner(n), wise (adj)
witying = knowing . . wlatsom = loatheome, hateful
WO = woe wode = wood
wol = wish, will wltestow = wilt thou
wonder = wonderful, strange woned = lived.
wont = accustomed
The Medieval Poet wook = woke woot = know
Cliancer wort = root, cabbage wys = ciertainly

Yaf = gave ybeen = been

ydoon = done yeerd = yard
yere = year yeve = give
yfounde = found ygon = gone
yis = certainly ymaginacioun = imagination
yn = in, down ynough = enough
yollen = yelled ywis = certainly
ywrite = written

7.8 SUMMING UP

In this unit, we have concentrated on the study of the text. We have the modern
English verse translation together with the Middle English text in the Appendix. We
have learnt how to translate passages from the text into modern English prose with
the help of the verse translation. We have also tried to understand and interpret the
text. The notes and glossary help us in explaining learned allusions and learning the
meanings of obscure words. We have noticed the use of learning, allusion and
rhetoric in the tale. We have also viewed the tradition of Chaucer criticism and the
changing taste of readers and critics of Chaucer. For further studies, we have a short
list of suggested reading material. We have considered the poetic style of Chaucer
and appreciated the dramatic nature of the narrative.

Check your Progress

1. What are the main themes of NPT?

2. Consider the rhetorical features of the tale. Discuss in particular the similes.
3. Discuss Chaucer's art of characterisation.
4. Write a note on the criticism of Chaucer made by
(a) Dryden and
@) Matthew Arnold.
5. What has been the contribution of the twentieth century to Chaucer criticism?
 APPENDICES
I

THE CANTERBURY TALES

Fragment I (Group A)

General Prologue

Here bygynneth the Book of the Tales of Caunterbury.

Whan that April1 with his shoures soote

The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halve cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen a1 the nyght with open ye
(So priketh hem nature in hir corages);
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
And specially from every shires ende
Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly b l i s l l martir for to seke,
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.
Bifil that in that seson on a day,
In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage
To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
At nyght was come into that hostelrye
We1 nyne and twenty in a compaignye,
.Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle
In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.
The chambres and the stables weren wyde,
And we1 we weren esed atte beste.
And shortly, whan the some was to reste,
So hadde I spoken with hem everichon
That I was of hir felaweshipe anon,
And made forward erly for to ryse,
To take oure wey ther as I yow devyse.
But nathelees, whil I have tyme and space,'
Er that I ferther in this tale pace,
Me thynketh it acordaunt to resoun
To telle yow a1 the condicioun
Of eoh of hem, so as it semed me,
And whiohe they weren, and of what degree,
And eek in what array that they were inne;
And at a knyght than wol I first bigynne.
A K N Y G HT ther was, and that a worthy man,
That fro the tyme that he first bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalrie,