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Chapter 11
Chapter 11
M (emu/cm3)
diamagnetism
H (Oe) H (Oe)
Magnetic susceptibility per unit volume
M
χ≡ M : magnetization, magnetic moment per unit volume
H B : macroscopic magnetic field intensity
CGS
e
Bohr magneton µB = = 9.27 × 10-24 J/T; 1T = 1Vs/m 2
2m
Electronic g-factor go=2.0023
µ
electron I v
4
L and S are quantum operators with no basis in classical physics.
Theory of diamagnetism
was first worked out by Paul Langevin in 1905.
Negative magnetism present in an applied field
even though the material is composed of atoms
that have no net magnetic moment.
N A ρ e2 Z
I r χ =− R 2
A 6mc 2
µ
[emu/Oe-cm3]
5
H
The change in moment of a single orbit :
Emf A dH π r 2 dH r dH
E= =− =− =−
dt 2π r dt 2 dt
dv eE er dH er
a= =
dt mc
=−
2mc dt ∫ ∫ − 2mc dH
dv =
er
∆v = − H
2mc
er e2r 2 the plane of the orbit is perpendicular
∆µ = ∆v = − 2
H
2c 4mc to the applied field
χ =−
(
6.02 ×10 23 2.22g/cm 3 ) ( )
2
4.80 ×10 −10 esu 6
(0.7 ×10 −8
cm )
2
12.01g ( )(
6 9.11×10 − 28 g 3 ×1010 cm/s )
2
7
= −1.5 ×10-6 emu/Oe − cm 3 Experimental value : -1.1×10-6 emu/Oe-cm3
The agreement between calculated and experimental values for other
diamagnetic materials is generally not that good, but it is at least within
an order of magnitude.
Negative susceptibility
magnitude : 10-5 ~10-6 cm3/mole
C C'
χ= χ= in general
T T −θ
Curie law Curie-Weiss law (1907)
9
Quantum theory of diamagnetism
1 Q
2
Hamiltonian H= p − A + QV
2m c
Terms due to the applied field B = ∇ × A
H '=
ie
2mc
(
∇ • A+ A•∇ + ) e2
2mc 2
A 2
In the uniform magnetic field B = Bk̂
∂
∇ × A = î +
∂ ∂
(
ĵ + k̂ × Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Az ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
= − î + − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
yB xB
One solution A = − î + ĵ + 0k̂
2 2
ieB ∂ ∂ e 2 B2 2
H '= x − y +
4mc ∂y ∂x 8mc 2
( x + y 2
)
~ 10
Lz
z-component of angular momentum
~ ∂ ∂
L z = −i x − y paramagnetism
∂y ∂x
For diamagnetic materials with all electrons in filled core shells,
the sum ∑ L z + 2Sz over all electrons vanishes
2 2
For a spherically symmetric system x +y
2 2
= r
3
2 2
e 2 B2 2 e r
the additional energy E ' = x + y 2
= B 2
8mc 2 12mc 2
2 2
∂E ' e r
the associated magnetic moment µ = − =− B
∂B 6mc 2
11
Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM)
14
A unit volume material contains n atoms with a magnetic moment µ each.
H E = − µ • H = − µH cosθ
Let the direction of each moment be presented by a vector,
θ
and let all vectors be drawn thru. the center of the sphere.
µ E µH cos θ
−
dn = KdA e k BT
= K 2π sin θdθ e k BT
# at angle θ θ+dθ
µH cos θ
π
n = ∫ dn = K 2π ∫ dθ sin θ e k BT
total #
0
µH cos θ
n π
M = ∫ dnµ cosθ = K 2πµ ∫ dθ cosθ sin θ e k BT
0 0
π
nµ ∫ dθ cosθ sin θ e a cosθ
Let a = µH/kBT, M = 0
π
a cos θ
∫ dθ sin θ e
0
−1
nµ ∫ dx xe ax
e a + e −a 1 1
= 1
−1
= nµ a −a
−
= nµ coth (a ) −
∫ dx e
ax e −e a a
15
1
Langevin function L(a)=coth(a)-1/a
L(a) can be expressed in series,
a a 3 2a 5
L(a) = − + − ...
M/Mo
3 45 945
When a is small (<0.5),
L(a) is a straight line w/. a slope 1/3.
a=µH/kBT
Two conclusions :
(1) Saturation will occurs at large a implying that at large H and low T the
alignment tendency of field is going to overcome the randomizing
effect of thermal agitation.
(2) At small a, L(a) depends linearly on a implying that M varies linearly
16
with H.
The Langevin theory also leads to the Curie law.
For small a, nµa nµ µH
M= =
3 3 k BT
nµ 2
M nµ 2 C C=
χ= = = 3kB
H 3 k BT T
Oxygen is paramagnetic and obeys the Curie law w/. χ=1.08×10-4emu/gOe.
Typically, a =
µH
=
(2.64 ×10 erg/Oe )(10000Oe)
−20
= 0.0064
kB T (1.38 ×10 erg/K )(300K )
−16
<0.5
17
smaller enough L(a)=a/3
The Langevin theory of paramagnetism which leads to the Curie law, is
based on the assumption that individual carrier of magnetic moment do
not interact with one another, but are acted on only by applied field and
thermal agitation.
However, many paramagnetic materials obey the more general law,
C
χ= Curie-Weiss law (1907)
T− θ
considering the interaction between elementary moments.
Weiss suggested that this interaction could be expressed in terms of
a fictitious internal field, “molecular field HM”. In addition to H.
M C C
χ= = =
H T − Cγ T − θ
θ
Intercept reveals information of θ
θ (FeSO4)<0, θ (MnCl2)>0
θ>0 indicates that the molecular field aids the applied field, makes
elementary moments align with H, and tends to increase χ.
θ<0 indicates that the molecular field opposes the applied field, makes
elementary moments disalign with H, and tends to decrease χ. 19
Precession of atomic magnetic moments about H, τ = µ×H
like gyroscope, angular momentum in the presence of gravitation.
dL
τ = r × mg =
dt
21
The orbital and spin magnetic moments for an electron
eh e h e
µ orbit = = =− p orbit
4πmc 2mc 2π 2mc
eh e 1 h e
µspin = = =− p spin
4πmc mc 2 2π mc
In general
e where g is spectroscopic splitting factor, or g-factor
µ = −g p
2mc g=1 for orbital motion and g=2 for spin
N1 exp( µH/k BT )
= lower level Total number of atoms
N exp( µH/k BT ) + exp( − µH/k BT ) is conserved.
N2 exp( − µH/k BT )
= upper level N = N1+N2 = constant
N exp( µH/k BT ) + exp( − µH/k BT )
23
The resultant magnetization for N atoms per unit volume
ex − e−x µH
M = (N1 − N 2 ) µ = Nµ x −x
= Nµ tanh (x ) where x =
e +e k BT
µ 2H
For x<<1, tanh(x)~x and M ≅ Nµ x = N
k BT
For a system with known g and J,
Potential energy of each moment in H U = −m J gµ B H
− U/k BT m J gµ B H/k BT
The probability of an atom w/. energy U e =e
m J gµ B H/k BT
∑ m J gµ B e Boltzmann statistics
M=N
mJ
Therefore, m gµ
∑ e J B H/k B T mJ : J, J-1, … , -(J-1), -J
mJ
2J + 1 (2J + 1)x 1 x
M = NgJµ B coth − coth
2J 2J 2J 2J
= NgJµ B BJ (x) gJµ B H24
where x =
Brillouin function k BT
The saturation magnetization M o = N µ H = N gJµ B
Number of atoms The maximum moment of each
per unit volume atom in the direction of H
M 2J + 1 (2J + 1)x 1 x
= B J (x) = coth − coth Brillouin function, 1927
Mo 2J 2J 2J 2J
= tanh (x )
M x<<1 x
Mo
2 2 µBH µ 2H
2
M ≅ Nµ H x = Ng J =N
k BT k BT
25
KCr(SO4)12H2O
The Brillouin function, like the Langevin, is zero for x equals to zero
and tends to unity as x becomes large. The course of the curve in
between depends on the value of J for the atom involved.
µH gJµ B H µ H H
classical x =
k BT
≠ quantum x =
k BT
=
k BT
µ : net magnetic moment in
26
the atom
When H is large enough and T low enough, a paramagnetic can be saturated.
The data is well described by the quantum model with J=S=3/2 and g=2 .
L=0 no orbital component
3 3
µ = gJμ B = g J(J + 1)μ B = 2 ( + 1)μ B = 3.87μ B
2 2
“Spin-only” moment
27
metals
Gd(C2H3SO4)3•9H2O
28
What magnetic moment a metal should have?
incorporate coupling of magnetic moment to determine
Hund’s rule
the magnetic state
29
2S+1 L : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Magnetic state LJ S, P, D, F, G
Examples
(1) Full shells : L=0, S=0, and hence, J=0
30
Eg. Cs3+ 4f15S25P6 Eg. Pr3+ 4f25S25P6
(n=4, =3) (n=4, =3)
3 3
2 2
1 2 1 3
0 State F5/2 0 State H4
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
L=3 and S=1/2 L=5 and S=1
J=L-S=5/2 J=L-S=4
Eg. Dy3+ 4f95S25P6
(n=4, =3)
3
2
1 6
0 State H15/2
-1
-2
-3
L=5 and S=5/2
31
J=L+S=15/2
Rare earth ions
In the iron group ions the 3d shell, the outermost shell, is responsible
for the paramagnetism and experiences the intense inhomogeneous
electric field produced by neighboring ions.
called “the crystal field” breaking L-S coupling (J is meaningless)
splitting 2L+1 sublevels (diminishing the 33
contribution of orbital motion to magnetic moment)
An atom w/. L=1 is placed in the uniaxial crystalline electric field of
two positive ions along the z-axis. Take S=0 to simplify the problem.
x − iy
R n (r)Y1−1 (θφ ) ∝ f(r)
2 34
In a crystal of orthorhombic symmetry the charges on neighboring
ions will produce an electrostatic potential ϕ about the nucleus,
eϕ = Ax 2 + By 2 − (A + B)z 2
Non-diagonal elements U x eϕ U y = U y eϕ U z = U z eϕ U x = 0
Diagonal elements
= A(I1 − I 2 )
35
U y eϕ U y = ∫ f(r) y 2 [Ax 2 + By 2 − (A + B)z 2 ]dxdydz
2
= B(I 1 − I 2 )
U z eϕ U z = ∫ f(r) z 2 [Ax 2 + By 2 − (A + B)z 2 ]dxdydz
2
= (A + B)(I 2 − I1 )
Crystal field splits the original degenerate states into non-magnetic states
separated by energies >> µH.
Fermi-Dirac distribution
• Pauli pointed out that only electrons near EF (±kBT) can flip over.
1.1
1.0
kBT H=0 H≠0
0.9
0.8
0.7
f(ε,T)
T=0
0.6
0.5 T≠0
εεFF
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
εF ε
37
k BT T
Fraction of electron participating =
εF TF
T µ B2 H nµ B2 H
M = n = independent of temperature
TF k BT k BTF
Consider the density of states D(ε) in the presence of H
Spin ↑ electrons lowered in energy by µH in H ↑ ε
Spin ↓ electrons raised in energy by µH in H ↑ flip spins
ε ε
µH
εF ↓ ↓
H
↑
↑
2µH
µH
DOS DOS
38
The concentration of electrons w/. magnetic moment parallel to H
ε ε
1 F 1 F 1
N ↑ = ∫ dεD(ε + µH) ≅ ∫ dεD(ε ) + D(ε F ) µH
H↑, 2 − µH 20 2
T=0K
The concentration of electrons w/. magnetic moment antiparallel to H
ε ε
1 F 1 F 1
N ↓ = ∫ dεD(ε − µH) ≅ ∫ dεD(ε ) − D(ε F ) µH
2 µH 20 2
Pauli spin magnetization
M = (N ↑ − N ↓ )µ = µD(ε F ) µH =
3N 2 3N
µ H= µ 2H
2ε F 2k BTF
39
References :
Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th Ed., Ch.11-12, 2005.
S = k B ln Z
where Z is the partition function
N
m=I
εM
Z = ∑ exp
m = -I k BT
41
a
c
b
B/T
Entropy for a spin ½ system depends only for the population distribution.
a→b : the system is magnetized isothermally.
b→c : the magnetic field is turned off adiabatically.
H
Tf = Ti ∆ where H∆ is the effective field
H
µH
If we start at H=5T and Ti=10mK ≈ 0.5 Tf ~10-7K
k BT
The first nuclear cooling was done on Cu, Ti=20mK Tf ~1.2×10-6K
42
Cu nuclei in the metal
3.1
Tf = Ti
B
where B∆=3.1Oe.
1.2 µ K
Rd
The present record for a
spin temperature is about
280pK. PRL70, 2818 (1993).
43