CHAPTER TWO

CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

CHILLED WATER SYSTEM CHAPTER 2

2.CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

2.1. Introduction
Chilled Water System, also called as Hydronics is one of the major requirement nan
Centralized Air-Conditioning System. Chilled water is a commodity often used to cool a
building's air and equipment, especially in situations where many individual rooms must
be controlled separately, such as a hotel. The chilled water can be supplied by a vendor,
such as a public utility or created at the location of the building that will use it, which has
been the norm.
Chilled water cooling is very different from typical residential air conditioning where a
refrigerant is pumped through an air handler to cool the air. Regardless of who provides it,
the chilled water (between 4° and 7°C) is pumped through an air handler, which captures
the heat from the air, then disperses the air throughout the area to be cooled.
The condenser water absorbs heat from the refrigerant in the condenser barrel of the water
chiller and is then sent via return lines to a cooling tower, which is a heat exchange device
used to transfer waste heat to the atmosphere. The extent to which the cooling tower
decreases the temperature depends upon the outside temperature, the relative humidity and
the atmospheric pressure. The water in the chilled water circuit will be lowered to the Wet-
bulb temperature or dry-bulb temperature before proceeding to the water chiller, where it
is cooled to between 4° and 7°C and pumped to the air handler, where the cycle is repeated.
The equipment required includes chillers, cooling towers, pumps and electrical control
equipment. The initial capital outlay for these is substantial and maintenance costs can
fluctuate. Adequate space must be included in building design for the physical plant and
access to equipment.
The chilled water, which absorbed heat from the air, is sent via return lines back to the
utility facility, where the process described in the previous section occurs. Utility generated
chilled water eliminates the need for chillers and cooling towers at the property, reduces
capital outlays and eliminates ongoing maintenance costs. The physical space saved can
also become rentable, increasing revenue.
Utility supplied chilled water has been used successfully since the 1960s in many cities,
and technological advances in the equipment, controls and trenchless installation have
increased efficiency and lowered costs.
The advantage of utility-supplied chilled water is based on economy of scale. A utility can
operate one large system more economically than a customer can operate the individual
system in one building. The utility's system also has back-up capacity to protect against

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sudden outages. The cost of such "insurance" is also markedly lower than what it would be
for an individual structure.
The use of utility supplied chilled water is most cost effective when it is designed into the
building's infrastructure or when chiller/cooling tower equipment must be replaced.
Commercial customers often lower their air conditioning costs from 10-20% by purchasing
chilled water.

Figure 2.1 chiller system components

2.2. Chillers
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) chillers are refrigeration systems that
provide cooling for industrial and commercial applications. They use water, oils or other
fluids as refrigerants. HVAC chillers include a compressor, condenser, thermal expansion
valve, evaporator, reservoir, and stabilization assembly.
Compressing the refrigerant creates a high pressure, superheated gas that the condenser air-
cools to a warm liquid. The thermal expansion valve (TXV) releases refrigerant into the
evaporator, converting the warm liquid to a cool, dry gas. Often, a hot gas bypass is used
to stabilize the cooling output by allowing the hot gas to warm up the evaporator. This
causes a reduction in cooling efficiency but stabilizes the chilled water temperatures. When
water is pumped from the reservoir to the compressor, the chilling cycle begins again.

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Figure 2.2 chiller

HVAC chillers vary in terms of condenser cooling method, cooling specifications and
process pump specifications. - They are classified as Air-Cooled & Water-Cooled on basis
of condenser cooling methods. - They can be placed in series or parallel arrangement as
required.
Air-cooled devices use a fan to force air over the condenser coils. By contrast, water-cooled
devices fill the condenser coils with circulating water. Remote air or slit systems locate the
main part of the chiller in the application area and position the condenser remotely, usually
outdoors. Cooling specifications for HVAC chillers include cooling capacity, fluid
discharge temperature, and compressor motor horsepower. Typically, cooling capacity is
measured in kilowatts or tons of refrigeration. Compressor motor horsepower is a nominal
value. Process pump specifications include process flow, process pressure, and pump
rating.
HVAC chillers include a local or remote-control panel with temperature and pressure
indicators. Some devices include microprocessor controls, emergency alarms, and an
integral pump.
In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is pumped through
process or laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled cooling of
products, mechanisms and factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They are often
used in the plastic industry in injection and blow molding, metal working cutting oils,
welding equipment, die-casting and machine tooling, chemical processing, pharmaceutical
formulation, food and beverage processing, paper and cement processing, vacuum systems,
X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power generation stations, analytical equipment,
semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are also used to cool high-heat
specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals, hotels and campuses.

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Chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where a single chiller serves multiple
cooling needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each
approach has its advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both centralized
and decentralized chillers, especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some
applications or points of use, but not all.
Decentralized chillers are usually small in size and cooling capacity, usually from 0.2 tons
to 10 tons. Centralized chillers generally have capacities ranging from ten tons to hundreds
or thousands of tons.
Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial,
industrial, and institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled,
or evaporatively cooled. Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which
improve the chillers' thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This
is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet-bulb temperature rather than the higher,
sometimes much higher, dry-bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer higher
efficiencies than air-cooled chillers but lower than water-cooled chillers.
Water-cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation and are
cooled by a separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to
expel heat to the atmosphere.
Air-cooled and evaporatively cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and
operation. Air-cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically
circulated directly through the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere.
Evaporatively cooled machines are similar, except they implement a mist of water over the
condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling, making the machine more efficient than a
traditional air-cooled machine. No remote cooling tower is typically required with either
of these types of packaged air-cooled or evaporatively cooled chillers.
Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly
for cooling, place or supplement cooling towers. The Deep Lake Water Cooling System in
Toronto, Canada, is an example. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn
are used to cool city buildings via a district cooling system. The return water is used to
warm the city's drinking water supply, which is desirable in this cold climate. Whenever a
chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling
function, very high thermal effectiveness is possible.

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2.3. Chillers components

2.3.1. Chiller evaporator
The evaporator section of a water chiller is a shell-and-tube, refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger. Depending on the chiller’s design, either the refrigerant or the water is
contained within the tubes.
• In a flooded shell-and-tube evaporator, cool, liquid refrigerant at low pressure enters
the distribution system inside the shell and moves uniformly over the tubes,
absorbing heat from warmer water that flows through the tubes.

Figure 2.3 shell-and-tube evaporator

• In a direct-expansion (DX) shell-and-tube evaporator, warmer water fills the shell

while the cool, lower-pressure liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes.

Figure 2.4 direct-expansion evaporator

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In either design, there is an approach temperature, which is the temperature difference

between the refrigerant and exit water stream temperatures. The approach temperature is a
measure of the heat transfer efficiency of the evaporator.
2.3.2. Compressors
There are four basic types of compressors used in packaged water chillers. These are:
• Reciprocating
• Rotary
• Centrifugal
In addition to these three, there are absorption chillers which are a thermal compression
process. Each of these four categories of equipment are described in greater detail in the
paragraphs that follow.
2.3.2.1. Reciprocating
A reciprocating compressor may be a positive displacement machine that works very
similarly to an automobile engine. A piston is driven through a pin and connecting rod
from a crankshaft, which is driven by a motor. As the piston moves down, the resulting
suction opens a valve and allows the refrigerant to be drawn into the cylinder. On the
upward stroke the increased pressure closes the suction valve. When the cylinder pressure
exceeds the pressure in the discharge line, the discharge valve opens, and the hot gas is
released to the discharge pipe.
Typically, the cooling capacity of reciprocating compressors are controlled by:
• cycling them on/off, with or without multiple compressors;
• using cylinder unloaders;
• using hot gas bypass (HGBP); or
• all three methods.
2.3.2.2. Rotary
There are many types of rotary compressors used in the HVAC industry including scroll,
single blade (fixed vane), rotating vane, and screw (helical-rotary). Single blade and
rotating vane compressors are generally used in smaller applications and will not be
discussed further here. Scroll compressors are largely replacing reciprocating compressors
for the smaller chiller sizes (although there are scroll machines up to 400 tons in capacity).
In packaged water chillers the most commonly used compressor is the screw. There are
two types in use today: the single screw and the multiple screw.
2.3.2.3. Centrifugal
Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compression devices (as opposed to positive
displacement) that on a continuous basis exchange angular momentum between a rotating

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mechanical element and a steadily flowing fluid. Like centrifugal pumps, centrifugal
chillers have an impeller that rotates at high speed. The molecules of refrigerant enter the
rotating impeller in the axial direction and are discharged radially at a higher velocity. The
dynamic pressure of the refrigerant obtained by the higher velocity is converted to static
pressure through a diffusion process that occurs in the stationary discharge or diffuser
portion of the compressor just outside the impeller.
A centrifugal compressor can be single stage (having only one impeller) or it can be
multistage (having two or more impellers). On a multistage centrifugal compressor, the
discharge gas from the first impeller is directed to the suction of the second impeller, and
so on for each stage provided. Like the rotary compressor, multiple stage centrifugal can
incorporate economizers, which take flash gas from the liquid line at intermediate pressures
and feed this into the suction at various stages of compression. The result is a significant
increase in energy efficiency.

2.3.2. Condensers
There are a number of different kinds of condensers manufactured for the packaged water
chiller. These include water-cooled, air-cooled, and evaporative-cooled condensers. (Air-
cooled and evaporative condensers will be discussed later in this chapter with cooling
towers and heat rejection devices.) Numerous types of water-cooled condensers are
available including shell and tube, double pipe, and shell and coil. This discussion focuses
on the condenser most commonly used on packaged water chillers—the shell and tube heat
exchanger.
A horizontal shell and tube condenser has straight tubes through which water is circulated
while the refrigerant surrounds the tubes on the outside. Hot gas from the compressor enters
the condenser at the top where it strikes a baffle. The baffle distributes the hot gas along
the entire length of the condenser. The refrigerant condenses on the surface of the tubes
and falls to the bottom where it is collected and directed back to the evaporator. The bottom
tubes are usually the first pass (coldest) of the condenser water and are used to sub cool the
refrigerant. Often the condenser is used as the refrigerant receiver where it is stored when
not in use.
The tubes can be enhanced (ribbed) on both the inside and outside. However, since the
condenser water often comes from an open cooling tower, the inside of the condenser tubes
may become fouled and require mechanical cleaning. Inside enhancement—usually with
straight or spiral grooves—may be problematic because the grooves will be the first areas
to become fouled. Research indicates that fouling becomes a problem when concentrations
of dissolved solids increase greatly above recommendations and when tube velocities drop
below 3 feet per second. Even considering decreased performance of the enhanced

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condenser tube due to fouling, the heat exchange effectiveness with the enhanced tube may
still be greater than a smooth bore tube.
High water velocity is recommended in the condenser tubes as it increases the heat transfer
effectiveness and reduces fouling. Water velocities of at least 3 feet per second and a
maximum of 12 feet per second are recommended. A minimum flow is needed to maintain
flows above the laminar range and the maximum flow protects the tubes from erosion and
keeps pressure drops to a minimum. In the HVAC industry, water pressure drops through
the condenser are seldom over 25 to 30 feet of water column.
Water-cooled condensers are usually multiple pass, with 4 pass being most common but
up to 8 pass available. On positive displacement compressors it is not uncommon for the
condenser to be split into two circuits. The condenser waterside can be split into two
separate tube bundles to accommodate a heat recovery mode or to add a level of
redundancy in the event the tubes need cleaning while the machine is still operational.
2.3.2.1. Air Cooled condenser:
Air-cooled chillers have many advantages over water-cooled equipment. While it is true
that water-cooled equipment can offer better performance, by the time the condenser
pumps and water cooling tower fans are included, the performance difference is not as big
as you might think. In fact, at part load conditions, there might not be any difference
at all. The biggest advantage of using air cooled chillers is that they do not require cooling
towers or condenser water pumps. While this has traditionally made air-cooled chillers
very popular with small to medium projects, it is becoming more common to see large
plants (2,000 tons and larger) that use air-cooled chillers.
Another advantage of air-cooled chillers is they do not require a mechanical room for the
chiller. This frees up considerable space for occupant use. Like all products, air-cooled
chillers have special needs when applying them in a design. The following are several of
the key items that should be addressed to achieve a proper operating chiller plant and a
satisfied customer.

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Figure 2.5 Air Cooled Chillers

Air Circulation: Air-cooled chillers generate a lot of heat. Consider a 400-ton air-cooled
screw chiller. That is equivalent to 4,800,000 Btu/hr. The heat of rejection from the
compressors adds another 1,400,000 Btu/hr for a total of 6.2 Million Btu/hr of heat that
must be rejected to atmosphere. Air-cooled products use a sensible heat transfer process so
the refrigerant condensing temperature must be higher than the ambient temperature. The
performance of a chiller can be given at many different ambient temperatures, but the
industry norm is to use 95°F.
2.3.2.2. Water Cooled condenser:

Figure 2.6 Water Cooled condenser

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To cool a building or process, the transferred heat must ultimately be rejected outdoors or
to another system (heat recovery). The total amount of heat rejected includes the sum of
the evaporator load, the compressor work, and the motor inefficiency. In a hermetic chiller,
where the motor and compressor are in the same housing, these loads are all rejected
through the condenser. In an open chiller, where the motor is separate from the compressor
and connected by a shaft, the motor heat is rejected directly to the surrounding air. The
evaporator load and the compressor work are rejected through the condenser, and the motor
heat must be taken care of by the equipment room’s air-conditioning system.

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2.3.2.3. Air-cooled versus water-cooled condensers

Air Cooled Condenser Water Cooled Condenser

Available from 7.5 to 500tons (25 to 1580kW) Available from 10 to 3000tons (35 to 10500kW)
Packaged System - Reduced design time, Additional requirement of condenser-water piping,
simplified installation, higher reliability & single pump, CT & associated controls.
source responsibility.

Better low-ambient operation (i.e. below freezing Cooling tower require special control sequences,
weather conditions) basin heaters or even an indoor sump for safe
operation in freezing weather

Elimination of cooling tower Cooling tower in the system

Lower Maintenance - Eliminates concerns & Maintenance requirements associated with water
maintenance requirements related to cooling treatment, chiller condenser-tube cleaning, tower
tower mechanical maintenance, freeze protection &
availability of makeup water with its quality

Reduce Operating Costs of cooling tower Additional Costs of cooling tower & condenser
pump.
Air Cooled Condenser Water Cooled Condenser
Refrigerant Condensing temperature is higher Refrigerant Condensing temperature is lower due
due to dependent on DBT. to dependent on condenser-water temperature,
which is dependent on WBT.
Higher condensing temperature & therefore Greater Energy Efficiency due to lower
higher condensing pressure means compressor to condensing temperature & pressure
do more work & consume more energy.
More preferable at Part load conditions because Less preferable to work at part load conditions
DBT tends to drop faster than WBT in a day
(from day to night).
Efficiency advantage lessen at part load condition Efficiency advantage much less due to additional
cost of CT & pump.
Life approx. 15 to 20 yrs. (Outdoor installation) Longer equipment life 20 to 30 yrs. (Indoor
Installation & water as condensing fluid operate at
lower pressures)

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