DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF MICROCONTROLLER BASED DOMESTIC

REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM

BY

AKINLEYE ABIODUN OLAMILEKAN

N/CTE/07/227 RH20110344

THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA

AUGUST, 2013.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project was written by Akinleye Abiodun Olamilekan with

matriculation number RH20110344 of the department of Computer Engineering faculty of

Engineering The Federal Polytechnic Ilaro. In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of National Diploma in Computer Engineering.

………………………… …………………………….
Engr. C.U OKOYE Date
Project Supervisor

…………………………….. …………………………….
Engr. C.U. OKOYE Date
Head of Department
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project report to God Almighty for his infinite mercy that he has granted to me

through my studies and I also dedicate this work to my parents Mr & Mrs Akinleye for their

financial and moral supports throughout my day in school May God bless them and sustain

their help to reap the fruit of their labor.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

All glory goes to our Almighty God who led me to this extent May all glory, honour

and Adoration be unto thy Name…..Amen. my special thanks go to my supervisor Engr. C. U.

OKOYE for his guide line in achieving a successful report.

I wish to thank my lovely parents Mr & Mrs Akinleye who contributed immensely

through their financial support and guidance during my project research.

 ABSTRACT

The need for a remote control system that can control domestic appliances and various

lighting points and sockets has often been a concern for uses at times uses find it inconvenient

and time they are leaving the house for work it has also often led to damage of appliances due

to the fact that an appliances was not timed off before leaving the house.

The objective of putting up. This project therefore is to design equipment that can

facilitate a convenient and easy way of controlling our domestic appliances lighting points and

sockets especially in powering by ourselves. This objective will be accomplished using various

components which include a microcontroller project together with other component.

 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective of Project 1
1.2 Justification of Project 1
1.3 Scope of Diagrams in Project 10
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

The need for a remote control alert system that can control domestic appliances and
various lighting points and sockets has often been a concern for users. At times users find it
inconvenient and time consuming to go around turning their appliances on or off each time
there is power outage or each time they are leaving the house for work. It has also often led to
damage of appliances due to the fact that an appliance was not turned off before leaving the
house.
The Objective of putting up this project, therefore, is to design an equipment that can
facilitate a convenient and easy way of controlling our domestic appliances, lighting points and
sockets especially in powering them, without always going to appliances physically by
ourselves.
This objective will be accomplished using various components which include a
Microcontroller (AT89C51) which acts as the backbone of the project together with other
components.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF PROJECT

The ease of putting our appliances, lighting points and sockets on or off has made it
necessary to develop this system in order to control our appliances, lighting points and sockets
from a central point using a remote control. The issues of always forgetting our appliances ON
when leaving the house has often caused fire outbreak and explosion in homes and this is
another reason that led to designing and construction of this project.

1.3 SCOPE OF DIAGRAMS IN PROJECT

In this project report, the diagrams will range from simple block diagrams to complex
circuit diagrams which will comprise mostly of common electrical and electronics symbols.
Some of the diagrams that will feature in this report will be used as the main block on which
certain parameters will be explained upon. Relevant electronic components will also be shown
and described.
This project report will also contain an outline of the circuit diagram as it is seen
physically. The package design diagram will be included showing the width, height in
millimeter (mm).
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

POWER
SUPPLY

CONTROL 1

INFRARED CONTROL 2
RECIEVER

CONTROL 3

CONTROL 3

MICRCONTROLLER
CONTROL 3

INFRARED
TRANSMITTER

POWER
SUPPLY MICROCONTROLER

Fig 1.0: Block diagram

PUSH
BUTTONS
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

One of the earliest examples of remote control alert was developed in 1893 by Nikola
Tesla. With the invention of Relays previously in 1835 by Joseph Henry it became possible to
use remote controls to drive other devices. This is because of the ability or relays to serve as a
switch that can control devices when energized by electricity. Again with the invention of
Integrated Circuits like 555 timers and Microcontrollers, more functionality was added to
whole concept of Remote control alert.

The first remote intended to control a television was developed by Zenith radio
Corporation in the early 1950’s and made use of wire to connect to the television set. The
remote — unofficially called "Lazy Bones" — used a wire to connect to the television set. To
improve the cumbersome setup, a wireless remote control alert was created in 1955. The
remote called "Flashmatic" worked by shining a beam of light onto a photoelectric cell.
Unfortunately, the cells did not distinguish between light from the remote and light from other
sources. The Flashmatic also required that the remote control be pointed accurately at the
receiver. In 1956 Robert Adler developed "Zenith Space Command", a wireless remote. It was
mechanical and used ultrasound to change the channel and volume. When the user pushed a
button on the remote control it clicked and struck a bar, hence the term "clicker". Each bar
emitted a different frequency and circuits in the television detected this noise. The invention of
the transistor made possible cheaper electronic remotes that contained a piezoelectric crystal
that was fed by an oscillating electric current at a frequency near or above the upper threshold
of human hearing, though still audible to dogs. The receiver contained a microphone attached
to a circuit that was tuned to the same frequency. Some problems with this method were that
the receiver could be triggered accidentally by naturally occurring noises, and some people,
especially young women, could hear the piercing ultrasonic signals. There was even a noted
incident in which a toy xylophone changed the channels on these types of TVs since some of
the overtones from the xylophone matched the remote's ultrasonic frequency.

The impetus for a more complex type of television remote control alert came in the late 1970s
with the development of the Ceefax teletext service by the BBC. Most commercial remote
controls at that time had a limited number of functions, sometimes only four: next station,
previous station, increase or decrease volume. This type of control did not meet the needs of
teletext sets where pages were identified with three-digit numbers. A remote control to select
teletext pages would need buttons for each number from zero to nine, as well as other control
functions, such as switching from text to picture, and the normal television controls of volume,
station, brightness, colour intensity and so on. Early teletext sets used wired remote controls to
select pages but the continuous use of the remote control alert required for teletext quickly
indicated the need for a wireless device. So BBC engineers began talks with one or two
television manufacturers which led to early prototypes in around 1977-78 that could control a
much larger number of functions. ITT was one of the companies and later gave its name to the
ITT protocol of infrared communication. In the early 1980s, when semiconductors for emitting
and receiving infrared radiation were developed, remote controls alert gradually switched to
that technology which, as of 2006, is still widely used. Remotes using radio technologies, such
as Bose Audio Systems and those based on Bluetooth also exist.

By the early 2000s, the number of consumer electronic devices in most homes greatly
increased. According to the Consumer Electronics Association, an average American home has
four remotes. To operate a home theater as many as five or six remotes may be required,
including one for cable or satellite receiver, VCR or digital video recorder, DVD player, TV
and audio amplifier. Several of these remotes may need to be used sequentially, but, as there
are no accepted interface guidelines, the process is increasingly cumbersome. Many specialists,
including Jakob Nielsen [2], a renowned usability specialist and Robert Adler, the inventor of
the modern remote, note how confusing, unwieldy and frustrating the multiplying remotes have
become. Most modern remote control alert systems for appliances use infrared diode to emit a
beam of light that reaches the device or equipment.

Therefore the concept of remote control is further expanded in another form by

applying it in a circuit that is used to power many appliances automatically by pressing buttons
on the remote control.

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT

This project is basically a device used to control our domestic appliances, lighting
points and sockets. It is a remote control alert based system which is used to power our
appliances, lighting points and sockets ON or OFF.
 The project consists of two sections which are; the Transmitting side and the Receiving
side. The receiving side consists of a power supply section, a microcontroller and Relays. It
also houses the Infrared Receiving Sensor circuit.
The transmission side is a smaller component which is inform of a hand held
component. It has a power supply section that is powered using a 9v battery. The transmission
side also has a microcontroller which coordinates the various button inputs. The last major
component contained in the transmitter side id the Infrared emitter/sender which transmits
signals received from the input buttons to the receiving side of the system. This transmission is
accomplished wirelessly through the Infrared emitter/sender on the Transmitter section.

2.3 USE OF PROJECT

This Project is intended generally for everyone and especially for users of various
domestic appliances including lights, fans, televisions etc. This project will be used to power
any of these appliances at any desired time.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INFORMATION GATHERING

The source of information used in putting up this design includes:
o the information super-highway (Internet)
o the electronics data sheet
o textbooks
o previous works and
o general intuition
They play a major role in the actualization of this design by providing ready and
accessible information at any time.

3.2 HARDWARE COMPONENTS ANALYSIS

In this section, we have to discuss the principal electronic
components and devices that were put together in designing the hardware
of this project. There functions, mode of operation and other features that
they have will be compared against other electronic component that could
do the same job in the design.

3.2.1 Transformers
A transformer is a device consisting of two closely coupled coils
(called primary and secondary). An ac voltage applied to the primary
appears across the secondary, with a voltage multiplication proportional to
the turns ratio of the transformer and a current multiplication inversely
proportional to the turns ratio. Power is conserved. Figs 3.1 shows the
c i r c u i t s y m b o l f o r a l a m i n a t e d - c o r e t r a n s f o r m e r ( t h e k i n d us e d i n t h i s
d e s i g n - 5 0H z a c p o w e r c o n v e r s i o n ) .

Figs 3.0. Circuit symbol of a Transformer

 Transformers are quite efficient (output power is very nearly equal to
input power); thus, a step-up transformer gives higher voltage at lower
current. A transformer of turns ratio n increases the impedance by n2.
There is very little primary current if the secondary is unloaded.

Transformers serve two important functions in electronic

instruments:
 t h e y c h a n g e t h e a c l i n e v o l t a g e t o a u s e f u l ( us u a l l y l o w e r ) v a l u e t h a t
can be used by the circuit, and
 they “isolate” the electronic device from actual connection to the
power line, because the windings of a transformer are electrically
insulated from each other.
P o w e r t r a n s f o r m e r s ( m e a n t f o r us e f r o m t h e 2 2 0 V p o w e r l i n e ) c o m e i n a n
enormous variety of secondary voltages and currents: output as low as 1
volt or so up to thousand volts, current ratings from a few milliamps to
hundreds of amps.

3.2.3 Diodes

Diodes are semiconductor devices which might be described as passing current in one
direction only. The latter part of that statement applies equally to vacuum tube diodes. Diodes
however are far more versatile devices than that. They are extremely versatile in fact.

Diodes can be used as voltage regulators, tuning devices in rf tuned circuits, frequency
multiplying devices in rf circuits, mixing devices in rf circuits, switching applications or can be
used to make logic decisions in digital circuits. There are also diodes which emit "light", of
course these are known as light-emitting-diodes or LED's. As we say diodes are extremely
versatile.

Schematic symbols for Diodes

A few schematic symbols for diodes are:

Figure 3.4 - schematic symbols for diodes

Types of Diodes

The first diode in figure 1 is a semiconductor diode which could be a small signal diode
of the 1N914 type commonly used in switching applications, a rectifying diode of the 1N4001
(400V 1A) type or even one of the high power, high current stud mounting types. You will
notice the straight bar end has the letter "k", this denotes the "cathode" while the "a" denotes
anode. Current can only flow from anode to cathode and not in the reverse direction, hence the
"arrow" appearance. This is one very important property of diodes.

The second of the diodes is a zener diode which are fairly popular for the voltage
regulation of low current power supplies. Whilst it is possible to obtain high current zener
diodes, most regulation today is done electronically with the use of dedicated integrated
circuits and pass transistors.

The next of the diodes in the schematic is a varactor or tuning diode. Depicted here is
actually two varactor diodes mounted back to back with the DC control voltage applied at the
common junction of the cathodes. These cathodes have the double bar appearance of capacitors
to indicate a varactor diode. When a DC control voltage is applied to the common junction of
the cathodes, the capacitance exhibited by the diodes (all diodes and transistors exhibit some
degree of capacitance) will vary in accordance with the applied voltage. A typical example of a
varactor diode would be the Philips BB204G tuning diodes of which there are two
enscapsulated in a TO-92 transistor package. At a reverse voltage Vr (cathode to anode) of
20V each diode has a capacitance of about 16 pF and at Vr of 3V this capacitance has altered
to about 36 pF. Being low cost diodes, tuning diodes have virtually replaced air variable
capacitors in radio applications today.

The next diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube or valve. It simply has the old cathode and
anode. These terms were passed on to modern solid state devices. Vacuum tube diodes are
mainly only of interest to restorers and tube enthusiasts.

The last diode depicted is of course a light emitting diode or LED. A led actually doesn't emit
as much light as it first appears, a single LED has a plastic lens installed over it and this
concentrates the amount of light. Seven LED's can be arranged in a bar fashion called a seven
segment LED display and when decoded properly can display the numbers 0 - 9 as well as the
letters A to F.

Rectifying Diodes

The principal early application of diodes was in rectifying 50 / 60 Hz AC mains to raw

DC which was later smoothed by choke transformers and / or capacitors. This procedure is still
carried out today and a number of rectifying schemes for diodes have evolved, half wave, full
wave and bridge rectifiers.

Figure 3.5 - rectifying diodes

As examples in these applications the half wave rectifier passes only the positive half of
successive cycles to the output filter through D1. During the negative part of the cycle D1 does
not conduct and no current flows to the load. In the full wave application it essentially is two
half wave rectifiers combined and because the transformer secondary is centre tapped, D1
conducts on the positive half of the cycle while D2 conducts on the negative part of the cycle.
Both add together. This is more efficient. The full wave bridge rectifier operates essentially the
same as the full wave rectifier but does not require a centre tapped transformer.

A further application of rectifying diodes is in the conversion or detection of Rf modulated

signals to audio frequencies. Typical examples are AM modulated signals being detected and
early detection schemes for FM also used diodes for detecting modulation.

Voltage Regulating Diodes

For relatively light current loads zener diodes are a cheap solution to voltage regulation.
Zener diodes work on the principle of essentially a constant voltage drop at a predetermined
voltage (determined during manufacture). An example is a Philips BZX79C12 type with a
regulation range between 11.4V and 12.7V but typically 12V and a total power dissipation of
500 mW in a DO-35 package. The dissipation can be extended by using a series pass transistor.
Notice in figure 3 there is a resistor to minimize current drawn but mainly as an aid to dropping
the supply voltage and reducing the burden on the zener diodes.

Fig 3.6 - zener voltage regulation diodes

In the second schematic of figure 3 we have three zener diodes in series providing
voltages of 5V, 10V, 12V, 22V and 27V all from a 36V supply. This configuration is not
necessarily recommended especially when the current being drawn is seriously mismatched
between voltages.

Varactor or Tuning Diodes

These types of diodes work on the principle that all diodes exhibit some capacitance.
Indeed the zener diode BZX79C12 quoted above has, according to the data book, a capacitance
of 65-85 pF at 0V and measured at 1 Mhz.

For AM Radio band applications a specific diode has been devised. The Philips BB212
in a TO-92 case is one such type. Each of the diodes has a capacitance of 500 - 620 pF at a
reverse bias of 0.5V and <22 pF at 8V. This diode's capacitance ratio is quoted at 22.5:1 which
could not be achieved easily if at all with an air variable capacitor. This type of diode is
depicted in figure 1 above.

Several obvious advantages come immediately to mind, a small transistor type package,
very low cost, ease of construction on a circuit board, can be mounted away from heat
generating devices, frequency determining circuitry entirely dependent upon resistor values
and ratios, DC voltage control can be either from frequency synthesiser circuits or perhaps a
multi-turn potentiometer. Such a potentiometer aids band spreading and fine tuning if two
potentiometers are used. The only real limitation is your imagination and the calculations
involved.

3.2.4 Capacitors

A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of
closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When voltage is applied to the capacitor, electric
charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate.

Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to
differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals and this makes them useful in
electronic filters.

Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers.

The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate
for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:

C = Q/V

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a
potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of
capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF).

The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the
dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.

Stored energy

As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a
voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever-
increasing work must be done against this ever-increasing electric field as more charge is
separated. The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of
work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field. The
energy stored is given by:

E stored =1/2cv2 = 1/2(Q2/C) = 1/2VQ

where V is the voltage across the capacitor.

The maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular capacitor is limited by the
maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand before it breaks down. Therefore, all
capacitors made with the same dielectric have about the same maximum energy density (joules
of energy per cubic meter).

Circuits with DC sources

Electrons cannot easily pass directly across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the
other as the dielectric is carefully chosen so that it is a good insulator. When there is a current
through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the
other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor -- even though the
capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor results in
the separation of electric charge, rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This
separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor
giving rise to voltage across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of
charge separated Q. Since the current I through the capacitor is the rate at which charge Q is
forced through the capacitor (dQ/dt), this can be expressed mathematically as:

I = dQ2/dT = C dV/dt

For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot
exceed the voltage of the source. (Unless the circuit includes a switch and an inductor, as in
SMPS, or a switch and some diodes, as in a charge pump). Thus, an equilibrium is reached
where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero.
For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current.

Circuits with AC sources

The capacitor current due to an AC voltage or current source reverses direction periodically.
That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other. With
the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero
at all times during a cycle. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC
current. However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates, unless the
dielectric breaks down or becomes excessively 'leaky'. In this case it would probably overheat,
malfunction, burn out, or even fail catastrophically possibly leading to an explosion.

Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine
waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current
leading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in
quadrature with the AC current through the capacitor. That is, the voltage and current are 'out-
of-phase' by a quarter cycle. The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the
current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C.

Capacitor networks

Series or parallel arrangements

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). Their
total capacitance (Ceq) is given by:

Ceq = C1 + C2 + …..+ Cn

The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total amount of charge stored. In
other words, increasing the capacitance also increases the amount of energy that can be stored.
Its expression is:

Estored = 1/2CV2

The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor
can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.
Their total capacitance is given by:
In parallel the effective area of the combined capacitor has increased, increasing the overall
capacitance. While in series, the distance between the plates has effectively been increased,
reducing the overall capacitance.

In practice capacitors will be placed in series as a means of economically obtaining very high
voltage capacitors, for example for smoothing ripples in a high voltage power supply. Three
"600 volt maximum" capacitors in series, will increase their overall working voltage to 1800
volts. This is of course offset by the capacitance obtained being only one third of the value of
the capacitors used. This can be countered by connecting 3 of these series set-ups in parallel,
resulting in a 3x3 matrix of capacitors with the same overall capacitance as an individual
capacitor but operable under three times the voltage. In this application, a large resistor would
be connected across each capacitor to ensure that the total voltage is divided equally across
each capacitor and also to discharge the capacitors for safety when the equipment is not in use.

Another application is for use of polarized capacitors in alternating current circuits; the
capacitors are connected in series, in reverse polarity, so that at any given time one of the
capacitors is not conducting.

3.2.6 Light Emitting Diode

Light emitting diodes, commonly called LED’s are real unsung
heroes in the electronics world. They do dozens of different jobs and are
found in all kinds of devices. Among other things, they form the numbers
on digital clocks, transmit information from remote controls, light up
watches and tell you when your appliances are turned on. Collected
together, they can form images on a jumbo television screen or illuminate a
traffic light.

Basically, LED’s are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical
circuit. But unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they don't have a filament
t h a t w i l l b u r n o u t , a n d t h e y d o n ' t g e t es p e c i a l l y h o t . T h e y a r e i l l u m i n a t e d
solely by the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material, and they
last just as long as a standard transistor.
Many circuits use a LED as a visual indicator of some sort even if only as
an indicator of power supply being turned on.

M o s t L E D ’ s o p e r a t e a t 1 . 7V a l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e a n d i t i s
wise to check. The dropping resistor is simply the net of supply voltage
minus the 1.7V led voltage then divided by the led brightness current
expressed as "amps" ( ohms law). Note the orientation of both cathode and
a n o d e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e g r o u n d e n d a n d t h e s u p p l y e n d . Usually with a led the
longer lead is the anode

3.2.7 Resistors

Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow of electric current.
Energy is used up as the voltage across the component drives the current through it and this
energy appears as heat in the component.

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .

1 is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in k and M .
1k = 1000     1 M = 1000000 .

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as high as 10 M .

Resistors connected in Series

Fig 3.14: Resistors connected in Series

 When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to the
individual resistances added together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in
series their combined resistance, R, is given by:

Combined resistance in series:   R = R1 + R2 This can be extended

for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ... Note that the combined resistance in series
will always be greater than any of the individual resistances.

Resistors connected in Parallel

When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less than any of
the individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two
resistors R1 and R2:

For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be used. This
adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the combined
resistance, R:

The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!

Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of the individual
resistances.

3.2.8 MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip used to control electronic devices. It

is a type of microprocessor emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a
general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). A typical microcontroller contains all
the memory and interfaces needed for a simple application, whereas a general purpose
microprocessor requires additional chips to provide these functions.
 A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit with the following key features:

 central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 8-bit processors to
sophisticated 32- or 64-bit processors
 input/output interfaces such as serial ports
 peripherals such as timers
 RAM for data storage
 ROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program storage
 clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit

This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and Printed
Circuit Board (PCB) space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate
chips.

The Atmel AT89 series is an Intel 8051-compatible family of 8 bit microcontrollers (µCs)
manufactured by the Atmel Corporation. Based on the Intel 8051 core, the AT89 series
remains very popular as general purpose microcontrollers, due to their industry standard
instruction set, and low unit cost. This allows a great amount of legacy code to reused without
modification in new applications.

3.2.9 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating
crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency.
This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide
a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters.

Using an amplifier and feedback, it is an especially accurate form of an electronic oscillator.

The crystal used therein is sometimes called a "timing crystal". On schematic diagrams a
crystal is sometimes labeled with the abbreviation XTAL
Crystals and frequency

Fig 3.16 :Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an oscillator

The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz
resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and
contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the
crystal.

A regular timing crystal contains two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork
of quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During startup, the circuit around the crystal
applies a random noise AC signal to it, and purely by chance, a tiny fraction of the noise will
be at the resonant frequency of the crystal. The crystal will therefore start oscillating in
synchrony with that signal. As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the
crystal's frequency will become stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator.
Natural resistance in the circuit and in the quartz crystal filter out all the unwanted frequencies.

One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can exhibit very low
phase noise. In other words, the signal they produce is a pure tone. This makes them
particularly useful in telecommunications where stable signals are needed, and in scientific
equipment where very precise time references are needed.

The output frequency of a quartz oscillator is either the fundamental resonance or a multiple of
the resonance, called an overtone frequency.

A typical Q for a quartz oscillator ranges from 104 to 106. The maximum Q for a high stability
quartz oscillator can be estimated as Q = 1.6 × 10 7/f, where f is the resonance frequency in
MHz.
Environmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the
resonant frequency of a quartz crystal, but there are several designs that reduce these
environmental effects. These include the TCXO, MCXO, and OCXO (defined below). These
designs (particularly the OCXO) often produce devices with excellent short-term stability. The
limitations in short-term stability are due mainly to noise from electronic components in the
oscillator circuits. Long term stability is limited by aging of the crystal.

Due to aging and environmental factors such as temperature and vibration, it is hard to keep
even the best quartz oscillators within one part in 10−10 of their nominal frequency without
constant adjustment. For this reason, atomic oscillators are used for applications that require
better long-term stability and accuracy.

Although crystals can be fabricated for any desired resonant frequency, within technological
limits, in actual practice today engineers design crystal oscillator circuits around relatively few
standard frequencies, such as 10 MHz, 20 MHz and 40 MHz. Using frequency dividers,
frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is possible to synthesize any desired
frequency from the reference frequency.

Care must be taken to use only one crystal oscillator source when designing circuits to avoid
subtle failure modes of meta stability in electronics. If this is not possible, the number of
distinct crystal oscillators, PLLs, and their associated clock domains should be rigorously
minimized, through techniques such as using a subdivision of an existing clock instead of a
new crystal source. Each new distinct crystal source needs to be rigorously justified, since each
one introduces new, difficult to debug probabilistic failure modes, due to multiple crystal
interactions, into equipment.

3.2.10 TRANSISTOR

Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic components.

They are used in a variety of circuits and you will find that it is rare that a circuit built in a
school Technology Department does not contain at least one transistor. They are central to
electronics and there are two main types; NPN and PNP. Most circuits(e.g. this project design)
tend to use NPN. There are hundreds of transistors which work at different voltages but all of
them fall into these two categories.
Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor
material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this
is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors.

Fig 3.17: Transistor circuit symbols

The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C)

and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are
usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties.

Transistor currents

The diagram shows the two current paths through a transistor. The small base current
controls the larger collector current. When the switch is closed a small current flows into the
base (B) of the transistor. It is just enough to make LED B glow dimly. The transistor amplifies
this small current to allow a larger current to flow through from its collector (C) to its emitter
(E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C light brightly.
 Fig 3.18 : Transistor Currents

When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches off the collector
current. Both LEDs are off. A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch.

This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the
controlled circuit (collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most widely used
arrangement for transistors.

Functional model of an NPN transistor

Fig 3.19: Functional Model of a transistor

The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain and understand in terms of its internal
structure. It is more helpful to use this functional model:

 The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.

 A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across the base-emitter junction is
0.7V or more.
 The small base current IB controls the large collector current Ic.
 Ic = hFE × IB   (unless the transistor is full on and saturated)
hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a typical value for h FE is 100 (it has
no units because it is a ratio)
 The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the base current IB:
o IB = 0   RCE = infinity   transistor off
o IB small   RCE reduced   transistor partly on
 o IB increased   RCE = 0   transistor full on ('saturated')

Additional notes:

 A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the base current I B
and prevent the transistor being damaged.
 Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating.
 The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the same type!
 A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'.
 When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is reduced to almost 0V.
 When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the supply
voltage and the external resistance in the collector circuit, not by the transistor's current
gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a saturated transistor is less than the current gain hFE.
 The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.

The Transistor as a Switch

Because a transistor's collector current is proportionally limited by its base current, it

can be used as a sort of current-controlled switch. A relatively small flow of electrons sent
through the base of the transistor has the ability to exert control over a much larger flow of
electrons through the collector.

Suppose we had a lamp that we wanted to turn on and off by means of a switch. Such a
circuit would be extremely simple:

Fig 3.20: Transistor as switch

For the sake of illustration, let's insert a transistor in place of the switch to show how it can
control the flow of electrons through the lamp. The controlled current through a transistor must
go between collector and emitter. Since it's the current through the lamp that we want to
control, we must position the collector and emitter of our transistor where the two contacts of
the switch are now. We must also make sure that the lamp's current will move against the
direction of the emitter arrow symbol to ensure that the transistor's junction bias will be
correct:

Fig 3.21

In this example I happened to choose an NPN transistor. A PNP transistor could also have been
chosen for the job, and its application would look like this:

Fig 3.22

The choice between NPN and PNP is really arbitrary. All that matters is that the proper current
directions are maintained for the sake of correct junction biasing (electron flow going against
the transistor symbol's arrow).

Going back to the NPN transistor as in former circuit above, we are faced with the need to add
something more so that we can have base current. Without a connection to the base wire of the
transistor, base current will be zero, and the transistor cannot turn on, resulting in a lamp that is
always off. Remember that for an NPN transistor, base current must consist of electrons
flowing from emitter to base (against the emitter arrow symbol, just like the lamp current).
Perhaps the simplest thing to do would be to connect a switch between the base and collector
wires of the transistor like this:
 Fig 3.23

If the switch is open, the base wire of the transistor will be left "floating" (not connected to
anything) and there will be no current through it. In this state, the transistor is said to be cutoff.
If the switch is closed, however, electrons will be able to flow from the emitter through to the
base of the transistor, through the switch and up to the left side of the lamp, back to the
positive side of the battery. This base current will enable a much larger flow of electrons from
the emitter through to the collector, thus lighting up the lamp. In this state of maximum circuit
current, the transistor is said to be saturated.

Fig 3.24

Of course, it may seem pointless to use a transistor in this capacity to control the lamp. After
all, we're still using a switch in the circuit, aren't we? If we're still using a switch to control the
lamp -- if only indirectly -- then what's the point of having a transistor to control the current?
Why not just go back to our original circuit and use the switch directly to control the lamp
current?

There are a couple of points to be made here, actually. First is the fact that when used in
this manner, the switch contacts need only handle what little base current is necessary to turn
the transistor on, while the transistor itself handles the majority of the lamp's current. This may
be an important advantage if the switch has a low current rating: a small switch may be used to
control a relatively high-current load. Perhaps more importantly, though, is the fact that the
current-controlling behavior of the transistor enables us to use something completely different
to turn the lamp on or off. Consider this example, where a solar cell is used to control the
transistor, which in turn controls the lamp:
 Fig 3.25

Or, we could use a thermocouple to provide the necessary base current to turn the transistor on:

Fig 3.26

Even a microphone of sufficient voltage and current output could be used to turn the transistor
on, provided its output is rectified from AC to DC so that the emitter-base PN junction within
the transistor will always be forward-biased:

Fig 3.27

The point should be quite apparent by now: any sufficient source of DC current may be
used to turn the transistor on, and that source of current need only be a fraction of the amount
of current needed to energize the lamp. Here we see the transistor functioning not only as a
switch, but as a true amplifier: using a relatively low-power signal to control a relatively large
amount of power. Please note that the actual power for lighting up the lamp comes from the
battery to the right of the schematic. It is not as though the small signal current from the solar
cell, thermocouple, or microphone is being magically transformed into a greater amount of
power. Rather, those small power sources are simply controlling the battery's power to light up
the lamp.

3.2.12 INFRA RED TRANSMITTERS AND RECIEVERS

Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than that

of visible light, but shorter than that of radio waves. The name means "below red" (from the
Latin infra, "below"), red being the color of visible light of longest wavelength. Infrared
radiation spans three orders of magnitude and has wavelengths between approximately
750 nm and 1 mm. Infra-red light is just below the red portion of the visible spectrum, and so
is invisible to the human eye.

Infrared transmitters are the devices that transmit signals through Infrared and these
signals are received by Infrared recievers. Infrared recievers are signal sensors which are
capable of receiving infrared rays and is able to transform this rays to an intended function.

3.3 CHOICE OF DESIGN

The benefits of a automated solution was recognized from the start. The reason for making this
choice of design is that it is programmable and can easily be modified. This reason, thus,
makes it possible to improve on its features.
3.5 THE PROCESS FLOW CHART

START

SCAN FOR BUTTON PRESS

IS
BUTTON NO
PRESSED?

YES

COMPUTE
ACTUAL
PIN

SEND
SIGNAL

END

Fig 3.29 : Remote Control Transmitter flow chart

 START

SEARCH
FOR SIGNAL

IS
SIGNAL
FOUND?

COMPUTE
SIGNAL

ISSUE
CONTROL

END

Fig 3.30 : Remote Control receiver side flow chart

 CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN

4.1 THE HARDWARE SUBSYSTEMS

The design of the essential interfaces and sub sections that makes the 2 sections of the
project are treated here. There function and mode of operation, which are not treated in chapter
3, will be presented here.
Let start with the power supply design. Basically, it employs a 5V regulated power
supply that powers the microcontroller which needs nothing but a 5V and the NPN transistors
used. A 12V supply is also used in the design which is meant to power a 12V relay.

4.1.0 Basic Power Supply Design

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A
power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Fig 4.0: Block diagram of power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a graph
of their output:

 Transformer only
 Transformer + Rectifier
  Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Transformer only

Fig 4.1

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier

Fig 4.2

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for
electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

 Fig 4.3

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Fig 4.4

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

4.2 Microcontroller (AT89C51)

Description

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of

Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured
using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the
industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip
Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional
nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a
monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-
flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K

bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-
level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In
addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters,
serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down Mode saves the
RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next
hardware reset.

It has the following Features:

• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products

• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Pin Configuration of AT89C51

Fig 4.5: Microcontroller Pin Configuration
 Fig 4.6 : Internal Block Diagram of AT89C51

Pin Description

VCC
Supply voltage.

GND
Ground.

Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an
Output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins
can be used as high impedance inputs.
Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order
Address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has
internal pull-ups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming,
and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during
program verification.

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups.
The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used
as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups.
The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used
as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches
from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit
addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting
1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2
emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.
The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by
the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features
of the AT89C51 as listed below:

Table 2: Port pins and their alternate functions

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming

and verification.

RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while
the oscillator is running resets the device.

ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation
can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only
during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the
ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external
data memory.

EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA
should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt
VPP.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz
crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source,
XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2. There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal
clocking circuitry
is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time
specifications must be observed.

Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain
active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special
functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by
any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset.
It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the device normally
resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal
reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event,
but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write
to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes
Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.

Fig 4.7. Oscillator Connections

Note: C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals
= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators
 CHAPTER FIVE

SYSTEM TESTING, IMPLEMETATION AND EVALUATION

5.1 SYSTEM TESTING

Testing is a vital process in the development and realization of any design, be it

hardware based, software based or both. The various components and their circuitry has to be
tested to ensure that all the components on board are certified okay and in good working
condition. The components that did not give the required output specification where isolated
and troubleshooted to determine the nature and cause of the component failure through careful
analysis, that is examination of the working principles of the component(s).
Here also during the testing analysis, modularization and Interface design were also
tested. Each module in case of the software were tested to know whether it performs the
functions assigned to it and also to know whether each of the module can interact as Required
by transferring and returning data in form of a signal.

5.1.0 Test Plan

The test plan specifies the steps taken in checking and testing each of the module that
constitute the whole system design. The essence of this is to check for the functionality of the
system in question for optimal performance. Some of the steps taken are as follows:-

5.1.1 Test Data

The functionality of the system depends to some extent on the

correctness of the exact signal(s) being produced by different modules.
Here the test data includes signal that emanates from each module for
performing its intended task.
The test data are as follows: -
 The signal that comes out when the sensitive switches are being
pressed or activated.
 The signal that comes out from the power supply unit
 The signal coming out from the AT89C51 microcontroller module
of the transmitter and receiver units to their respective infrared
transmitters and nfrared receiver sensors.
 The signal coming out from the AT89C51 microcontroller module to the relays.
The above-mentioned test data was used to test for the functionality
of the systems.

5.2 CHOICE OF PROGRAMING LANGUAGE

The Programming language used in programming the AT89C51 microcontroller IC is
C language.

5.3 EXPECTED TEST RESULTS

The design of the microcontroller based domestic remote control for appliances,
lighting points and sockets is meant to be a system that is used to control the powering of our
domestic appliances, lighting points and sockets in ours homes when a user presses a button
on the hand held remote control transmitter. To effectively carry out an intensive test, it is a
good practice to run or retest the project as many times as possible to make sure that the
desired design specification is met. The results that are expected is for the hand held remote
control to be able to send infrared signals which will activate the relays and power our
appliances. The expected test results where obtained as the infrared transmitter communicated
successfully with the receiver on the receiver section of the remote control system.
The signal received was then able to activate the relay and control the attached
appliance and lighting points successfully.

5.4 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The performance of the remote control system proved satisfactory and is working according to
expectations.
 CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
6.1 SUMMARY
For a project to be executed, one has to reason out what the design is and how the
design can be carried out and also be able to implement the design in order to achieve the aims
and objectives of the project.
In the design and implementation of this project ”domestic remote control for fans,
lighting points and sockets, the 89C51 microcontroller is programmed to coordinate the whole
function of the design from the input when the button is pressed to the processing and sending
of signals to the receiver sensor from where this signals are processed appropriately and
transferred to the relay which are connected to outputs inform of our domestic appliances,
lighting points, etc. This project is designed so as to be able to control our domestic appliances
using a central remote control.

6.2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

In the course of the design and implementation of this project,
some problems were encountered. They are -
 Low finance during Implementation.
 Difficulty when writing programs, debugging and interfacing
 Component Failures
 Short Circuitry
 Inadequate and epileptic power supply.
The aforementioned problems were later taken care of during the
design processes and implementation of this project.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER IMPROVEMENT

This project is a viable one in the sense that it will go a long way in making it more
convenient easier for users to easily control their appliances, lighting points and even sockets
from a central point in their home using a remote control which has buttons for controlling
each appliance connected to the system. Because of its importance as a household need, efforts
must be geared towards designing a viable project like this one. I strongly recommend that the
department should see this project as a priceless possession and should endeavor to provide
financial assistance and more research works relating to this project to support
and encourage students embarking on this type of project so as to be used to be used not only
in homes but also in offices, schools etc.

6.3 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this project is a design which should be encouraged
and put into large scale manufacturing because of its various advantages.
 REFERENCES

Wiky, J. and Sons (1977) Practical Digital Design New York.

Horowitz, P. (1986) The art of Electronics 2nd Edition.

Schuler, A.C. (1999) Elections Principles and Application. 5th Edition.

Tokhein, R.L. (1995) Digital Electronics Principles and Application 5th

Edition.