Theorem on Vandermonde’s determinant

Prove:

1 1 1 ⋯ 1 1 1 1 ⋯ 1
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 xn x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 xn
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−1 x 2n x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−1 x 2n
| | | |
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
x n−2
1 x2n−2 ⋯ x n−2 n−2
n−1 x n x n−2
1 x2n−2 ⋯ x n−2 n−2
n−1 x n
n

x n1 x n2 ⋯ x nn−1 x nn x n−1 x n−1 ⋯ x n−1 n−1 ∑ xk

= 1 2 n−1 x n ¿ k=1

Proof:

1 1 1 ⋯ 1
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 xn
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−1 x 2n
| |
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
x n−2
1 x2n−2 ⋯ x n−2 n−2
n−1 x n

Let
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n ) = x n1 x n2 ⋯ x nn−1 x nn

1 1 1 ⋯ 1
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 xn
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−1 x 2n
| |
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
x n−2
1 x2n−2 ⋯ x n−2 n−2
n−1 x n

Let
B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n ) = x n−1
1 x n−1
2 ⋯ x n−1 n−1
n−1 x n

n
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n ) = B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n )×∑k =1 x k
The theorem can be restated as:
n
P P A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n ) = B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n )×∑k =1 x k
Let k n ≡ for n ≥ 2
 x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1
1 1 ⋯ 1 1
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−2 x 2n−1
| ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ |
|⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ |
n−2
x1 n−2
x2 n−2 n−2
⋯ x n−2 x n−1 x n−3
1 x n−3
2 ⋯ x n−3
n−2 x n−3
n−1

One difference between 1 2 xn n−2 xn n−1 ⋯ xn

and 1 2 xn n−2 n−1x n−1 x n−1 ⋯ x n−1 x n−1
is
that each item in the second determinant is raised to a power that is one less than the corresponding
2
item in the first determinant. For example, x 1 in the second determinant, corresponds to x 1 in the first
determinant.

x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1 1 1 ⋯ 1 1
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−2 x 2n−1 n−1 x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1
| ⋮
n−2
x1
⋮
n−2
x2
⋯ ⋮
n−2
⋮ |
n−2
⋯ x n−2 x n−1
( ) ∏ x k | n−3
k=1
⋮
x1
⋮
n−3
x2
⋯ ⋮
n−3
⋮ |
n−3
⋯ x n−2 x n−1

Hence,
x n1 x n2 ⋯ x nn−2 x nn−1 ¿
x n−1
1 x n−1
2 ⋯ x n−1 n−1
n−2 x n−1

n−1
¿ (∏ )
k =1
xk
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n−1 )

A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn ) ≡
Expanding

1 1 1  1
x1 x2  xn 1 xn
x12 x22  xn21 xn2
    
n2 n 2 n2 n2
x1 x2  x n 1 xn
n n n n
x 1 x 2  x n 1 x n
with respect to the last column gives:

x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 1 1 ⋯ 1

| | | |
2 2 2
x12 x22 2
⋯ x n−1 x1 x 2 ⋯ x n−1
1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ (−1)1+n + x n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ (−1)2+ n +
n −2 n−2
x n−2
1 x n−2
2 ⋯ x n−2
n x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2
n

x1 n
xn2 ⋯ xn x n1 x n2 ⋯ xn
n−1 n−1
 1 1 ⋯ 1 1 1 ⋯ 1

|
xn ⋮
x1

n −2
x1
x1n
x2
x2
⋮
n−2

x n2
⋯ x n−1
⋮
⋯ x n−2
⋯ xn
n

n−1
| |
⋮ (−1)3+n + ⋯ ⋯ + x nn
x1
⋮
n −3
x1
n −2
x1
x2
⋮
n −3
x2
x2n−2
⋯ x n−1
⋮
⋯ x n−3
n
⋯ x n−2
n−1
|
⋮ (−1)2 n

1 1 ⋯ 1 1
n−1 x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1
1 1 ⋯ 1
( )
∏ x k | n−3

| |
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ | x 2
x2 2
k=1 n−3 n−3 n−3 1 2 ⋯ x n−1
(−1) 1+n x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2 x n−1 xn ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ (−1)2+ n
x n−1 x n−1 ⋯ x n−1 n−1
xn1 −2 n−2
1 2 n−2 x n−1
x2 ⋯ x n−2
n
¿ + +
x1
n
x2
n ⋯ xn
n−1

1 1 ⋯ 1 1 1 ⋯ 1

|
x ⋮
n
x1

xn1 −2
x n1
x2
⋮
n−2
x2
x n2
⋯ x n−1
⋮
⋯ x n−2
⋯ xn
n

n−1
| |
⋮ (−1)3 +n + ⋯ ⋯ + x nn
x1
⋮
n −3
x1
n −2
x1
x2

x2
⋮
n −3

x2n−2
⋯ x n−1
⋮ ⋮
⋯ x n−3
n
⋯ x n−2
n−1
|
1 1 ⋯ 1

| |
n−1
¿ (∏ )
k =1
xk
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n−1 )
x
(−1)1+n + x n ⋮
2
1 x
⋮
2
2

⋮
2
⋯ x n−1
⋮ (−1)2+n +
xn1 −2 n−2
x2 ⋯ x n−2
n

x n1 x n2 ⋯ xn
n−1

1 1 ⋯ 1 1 1 ⋯ 1

|
xn ⋮
x1

n −2
x1
x1n
x2
x2
⋮
n−2

x n2
⋯ x n−1
⋮
⋯ x n−2
⋯ xn
n

n−1
|
⋮ (−1)3+n + ⋯ ⋯ + x nn
| x1
⋮
n −3
x1
n −2
x1
x2

x2
⋮
n −3

x2n−2
⋯ x n−1
⋮ ⋮
⋯ x n−3
n
⋯ x n−2
n−1
|
 1 1 ⋯ 1

| |
n−1
x 21 x 22 2
¿ (∏ )
k =1
xk
(−1)1+n
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n−1 ) + xn ⋮ ⋮
⋯ x n−1
⋮ ⋮ (−1)2+ n +
n −2 n−2
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−2
n

x1 n
x n2 ⋯ xn
n−1

1 1 ⋯ 1

|
xn ⋮
x1

n −2
x1
x1n
x2
x2
⋮
n−2

x n2
⋯ x n−1
⋮
⋯ x n−2
⋯ xn
n

n−1
|
⋮ (−1)3+n + ⋯ ⋯ + x nn B( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n−1)

A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn )
Hence, is a polynomial of degree n in x n with coefficients depending on
x 1 ,x 2 ,⋯,x n−1 .

This polynomial vanishes if x n takes on any of the values 1 2

x ,x ,⋯,x
n−1 since the determinant would
then have two identical columns. Any determinant with two identical columns has the value zero.
n −1
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn ) A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn )
Hence the polynomial is divisible by ∏ ( x n−x k ) and can be
k =1
n−1
expressed in the form [C+ D x n ] ∏ ( x n−x k ).
k=1

n−1
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn ) ¿ [C+ D x n ]∏ ( x n−x k )
We now equate coefficients on both sides of
k=1

n−1 n−1

The coefficient of the term

( ) ∏ xk
k =1 from the expansion of
[C+ D x n ]∏ ( x n−x k ) (−1)n−1
k=1 is C
n−1 n−1

Therefore,
(−1)n−1
C
(∏ ) (∏ )
k =1
xk ¿
k =1
xk (−1)1+n A ( x , x ,⋯ x )
1 2 n−1

C=A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn−1 )

Hence,
 n−1
n−1
The coefficient of the term x n from the expansion of [C+ D x n ] ∏ ( x n−x k ) is D x n.
k=1

Since D x nn = x nn B ¿, x n−1), it follows that D=B( x 1 , x 2 , ⋯ , x n−1 )

n−1
∴ A ( x1 , x2 , ⋯ , x n ) ≡ [ A ( x 1 , x 2 , ⋯ , x n−1 ) + B ( x1 , x2 , ⋯ , x n−1) x n ] ∏ ( x n −x k )
k=1

1 1 1 ⋯ 1
x1 x2 ⋯ x n−1 xn
x 21 x 22 ⋯ x 2n−1 x 2n
| |
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
x n−2
1 x2n−2 ⋯ x n−2 n−2
n−1 x n

If we expand
B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n ) = x n−1
1 x n−1
2 ⋯ x n−1 n−1
n−1 x n using the last column we see that

B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n ) x 1 ,x 2 ,⋯,x n−1 .

is a polynomial of degree n−1 in x n with coefficients depending on

This polynomial vanishes if x n takes on any of the values 1 2

x ,x ,⋯,x
n−1 since the determinant would
then have two identical columns. Any determinant with two identical columns has the value zero.
n−1 n −1
B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n )
Hence, is divisible by [C+ D x n ] ∏ ( x n−x k ) ∏ ( x n−x k ).
k=1 k =1

B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n ) n−1
If we expand using the last column we see that the coefficient of x n in the
n −1
B ( x1 ,x 2 ,⋯x n−1 )
expansion of ∏ ( x n−x k ) is .
k =1

n−1
B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n−1 ) ∏ ( x n−x k ) = B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n )
Hence, we can write: k =1 .

We now continue inductively.

1 1
n=2 A ( x 1 , x 2 )=| |=( x 2 + x1 )( x 2−x 1 ) =B ( x 1 ,x 2 )×( x2 +x1 )
For :
x21 x 22

Hence P2 is true.

Assume Pn is true. We need to prove that this implies that Pn+ 1 is true.
n
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n ) = B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n )×∑k =1 x k
Let
 n

Now
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯ x n , x n+1 ) = ( A ( x , x ,⋯ x ) + B ( x , x .⋯ x ) x ) ∏ ( x
1 2 n 1 2 n n+1
k =1
n+1 −x k )
n
n

[
∴ A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n+1 ) = B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n ) ×∑ k =1 x k +B ( x1 . x 2 ,⋯, x n ) x n+1
]∏ (
k =1
x n+1 −x k )

n
B ( x1 , x 2 ,⋯x n ) ∏ ( x n+1 −x k ) = B ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n+1 )
However, k =1

Hence
[
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn+1 ) = B ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯x n , x n+1 ) ×∑k =1 x k +B ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, x n+1 ) x n+1
]
n
≡ A ( x 1 , x 2 , ⋯ , x n+1 )=B ( x 1 , x 2 , ⋯ , x n+1 ) [ ∑ x k + x n+1
k=1
]
n+1

¿
[
A ( x 1 , x 2 ,⋯, xn+1 ) = B ( x 1 , x2 ,⋯x n , x n+1 ) ×∑k=1 x k ]

This completes the proof by induction, for all n≥2

This is an exercise from the book ‘Linear Algebra” by George Shilov.

It is from chapter one in the book, but I found it quite difficult to think through it, so I made sure to keep
a permanent record of my solution.