2  Research
methods 1
STEPS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Much of what psychologists know about behaviour
and mental processes comes from psychological
research that has been conducted using a scientific
method. Scientific method is a series of systematic
and orderly steps which researchers use to plan,
conduct and report research. To be described as
‘scientific’, the research method must involve the
collection of empirical evidence. Using a scientific
method helps ensure that data (information) are
collected and analysed in an appropriate way. It
also helps ensure that the conclusions drawn from
the data are valid (that is, justified by the data) and
reliable (that is, similar data are likely to be obtained
if the research study is repeated).
American psychologist Robert Kraut and his research
colleagues (1998) used a scientific method to study
the effects of using the internet on psychological
wellbeing. Kraut was aware that internet technology
has allowed people to keep in closer touch with distant
family members and friends, find information quickly
and to develop friendships with others from all over
the world. He wanted to know whether use of the
internet was beneficial to people by improving their
psychological wellbeing.
To investigate this topic, Kraut’s research team
studied 169 people from 93 households over a
two-year period. They measured the time spent by
each person on the internet, using an electronic
recording device. They also asked each participant
to rate their level of social activity and emotional
wellbeing on a rating scale, both at the beginning of
the research, then again after one or two years.
The results of this research indicated that, as internet
use increased, the participants reported a decrease in
both the number of social activities in which they were
involved and in the amount of social support they felt.
They also reported feeling more depressed and lonely.
Why would spending time on the internet affect
people’s emotional wellbeing? According to Kraut,
one possible reason is that time spent on the internet
replaces important day-to-day human contact; for
example, ‘a computer can’t give you a hug or laugh at
your jokes’.
Figure 2.1  Psychological research uses the scientific
method to study behaviour such as ways of reducing the
number of accidents caused by red P-plate drivers.
Step 1: identification of
the research problem
The first step in conducting psychological research using
the scientific method is to identify the problem or topic
of interest to be researched. For example, a researcher
might be interested in ways of reducing the number of
accidents caused by red P-plate drivers. To do this, they
may conduct what is known as a literature search to look
for published research reports that have already been
conducted on this topic. For example, they may consider
research that has been conducted on defensive driving
programs such as the Smith System. The Smith System
involves five rules to train the eyes to identify what is
important when driving (see figure 2.3).
1. Aim your vision high (to steer accurately and
anticipate problems)
2. Keep your eyes moving (avoid staring and stay alert)
3. Look at the total driving picture (don’t focus your
eyes on one area of the road)
4. Look for and leave yourself a ‘way out’
5. Look for a position on the road that ensures other
drivers can see you.
Conducting a literature search enables the
researcher to become more familiar with their topic
of research interest. It also enables them to refine
their ideas and propose a relevant research question
that can be tested, such as ‘Does training red P-plate
drivers with the Smith System help to reduce the
number of accidents they cause?’
Chapter 2  Research methods 1  43
 Step 1:
identification of the research problem
Does use of the internet benefit people by improving 1. Aim your vision
their psychological wellbeing? high (to steer
accurately
and anticipate
problems).
Step 2:
construction of a hypothesis
Increase in internet use (as measured by a recording
device) decreases social activity and emotional
wellbeing (as measured by self-report rating scales).

Step 3:
designing the method
Decide who the research participants will be, the 2. Keep your eyes
number to be used and how they will be selected. moving (avoid
Develop a way of accurately measuring time spent on staring and stay
the internet and obtain or construct valid and reliable alert).
rating scales to measure each participant’s estimation
of their social activity and emotional wellbeing.

Step 4:
collecting the data
Data on internet use and each participant’s ratings 3. Look at the total
of their social activity and emotional wellbeing were
driving picture
collected from 169 people in 93 households in
Pittsburgh, USA, over a two-year period. (don’t focus
your eyes on
one area of the
road).
Step 5:
analysing the data
As internet use increased, there was a decrease in
the amount of social support felt by participants and
the number of social activities they were involved in.
Participants also reported feeling more depressed
and lonely.

Step 6: 4. Look for and

interpreting the data
leave yourself a
The results support the hypothesis. Time spent on the ‘way out’.
internet may replace important day-to-day human
contact, resulting in feelings of isolation, loneliness
and depression.

Step 7:
reporting the research findings 5. Look for a
Research published in American Psychologist position on
(September 1998), Vol. 53 (9), 53–9 the road that
ensures other
drivers can see
you.
Figure 2.2 Flow chart of steps in psychological research
using a scientific method

Weblink — video on steps in Figure 2.3 the Smith System involves five rules to identify
psychological research what is important when driving.

44 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Step 2: construction of
a hypothesis
The second step in psychological research is to construct
a hypothesis for the research. A research hypothesis is
a testable prediction of the relationship between two or
more events or characteristics; for example, a prediction
about the relationship between red P-plate driver
training with the Smith System (one event) and the
number of accidents when driving (another event).
The hypothesis is essentially an educated or
thoughtful guess about what the results of the research
will be. It is usually based on knowledge of other
research findings or theories on the topic being studied.
This is why it is often referred to as an educated guess.
The hypothesis is constructed before the research
study is conducted and provides a focus for the
research. A research hypothesis usually has the
following characteristics:
• it is prepared as a carefully worded written
statement (rather than a question)
• it is expressed clearly and precisely (rather than
vaguely and generally)
• it is written as a single sentence
• it is stated in a way that can be tested (it matches
and reflects the procedure used to conduct the
research study for which it has been prepared).
For example, a hypothesis for the research problem
on driving could be ‘red P-plate drivers who receive
defensive driving training will make fewer driving
errors (as measured by a practical driving test in a
driving simulator) than red P-plate drivers who have
not received defensive driving training (as measured
by the same driving test)’.
Figure 2.4 research hypothesis: red p-plate drivers who
receive defensive driving training willl make fewer driving
errors than red p-plate drivers who have not received
defensive driving training.
This hypothesis is a specific prediction based
on theory and previous research findings. It also
has all of the other characteristics described. It
is written as a clear and precise statement, in a
single sentence, and is stated in a way that can
be tested. Furthermore, it refers to the research
procedure or specific method that will be used to
collect data.
Step 3: designing the method
The third step in psychological research is to
determine how the hypothesis is best tested, although
this is also considered when the hypothesis is being
constructed. There are a number of different research
methods available from which researchers can
choose. These include experiments, observational
studies, case studies, surveys, interviews, rating
scales, longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies
and correlational studies. The research method used
will depend on the specific topic and hypothesis of
research interest.
When designing the research method, the
researcher must decide which participants will be
studied, how many participants there will be, how
they will be selected and how they will be allocated,
or assigned, to different groups that may be used in
the study. participants are the people who take part
in the research. The responses of the participants
form the data (results) for the research.
There are advantages and disadvantages of each
type of research method and some methods are more
suited to particular research questions or hypotheses
than others. In some studies it is appropriate to use a
combination of research methods.
In the driving study, the psychologist may
decide to conduct an experiment using a number
of male and female red P-plate drivers with a
similar amount of driving experience and from
a range of areas across Victoria as participants
in the study. Half the participants would receive
a defensive driving training session(s) using the
Smith System method and the other half would
not. Alternatively, the researchers may decide to
conduct a survey whereby they give a questionnaire
to a number of driving instructors who have taught
young people, with and without using the Smith
System, to obtain information based on their
experience as to which of the two methods resulted
in better driving skills. Another option would be to
conduct an experiment and interview the research
participants.
Step 4: collecting the data
The fourth step in psychological research is to
collect the required data. Based on their plans,
researchers organise the participants to be
Chapter 2 research methods 1 45
involved in the research and conduct their study.
Psychologists use a variety of data collection
techniques, including participant and non-
participant observation, questionnaires, one-to-one
or group interviews, standardised tests, physiological
(‘bodily’) recordings and examination of archival
files (‘records’) to obtain their information. These
are summarised in table 2.1.
The data collection technique(s) used depends
on the research question under investigation. In
the driving study, if an experiment was conducted,
the data collection technique would be direct
observation, whereas if a survey were used,
the data collection technique would be through
a questionnaire and/or an interview with the
instructor. At this stage of the research, the data
are referred to as raw data because they have not
been processed; that is, coded or summarised in a
meaningful way.
Table 2.1  Data collection techniques commonly used in
psychological research
Technique Behaviour
Direct observation Watching and recording behaviour as
it happens; a checklist may be used to
record and count the number of times
specific behaviours occur or recording
devices such as videos and cassette
tapes may be used
Questionnaire Using a set of written questions to
obtain information from participants
about thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
opinions, beliefs and aspects
of behaviour
Interview Usually a face-to-face meeting to
obtain information about a participant’s
thoughts, feelings or behaviour; may
sometimes be conducted over the
telephone or via the internet
Psychological test Using a scientifically developed test
to assess characteristics such as
personality, intelligence and other
mental abilities
Recording Using an instrument to detect, monitor
physiological responses and record a specific physiological
(bodily) response of a participant; for
example, a PET scanner or electrodes
for brain activity, ECG for heart rate
Examining archival files Examining files kept by an organisation
(archives) such as medical, educational
and census records
Step 5: analysing the data
Once the data have been collected, the next step
in psychological research is to summarise, organise
and represent the raw data in a logical way to help
determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not
supported.
46  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
Raw data are rarely included in psychological
research reports. Instead, the data are analysed and
summarised in an appropriate way. This usually
involves ‘breaking down’ a large set of numbers
into smaller sets (for example, presenting raw
data summarised into a table or graph) or even a
single number or two (e.g., a mean (average) or a
percentage). The researcher is then able to determine
whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected on
the basis of the results obtained.
Step 6: interpreting the data
Once the data have been analysed, the data need to
be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a
conclusion from the results obtained in the research
study. A conclusion is a judgement about what the
results of a research study mean.
One type of conclusion that is drawn relates
directly to the hypothesis used in the research. The
focus of this conclusion is on whether or not the
results support the hypothesis (rather than ‘prove’ or
‘disprove’ it). Statistical testing involving mathematical
procedures is used by the researcher to help them
decide what the results collected from their research
mean. They allow the researcher to know what
conclusion(s) can legitimately be drawn from the
results and what generalisations can legitimately be
made about the results obtained (research findings).
A generalisation is another type of conclusion.
A generalisation is a judgement about how widely
the findings of a research study can be applied. A
researcher usually studies a relatively small number
of participants who are selected from the bigger
group of interest; for example, 10 male and 10 female
red P-plate drivers aged between 18–21 years, rather
than all red P-plate drivers.
Of particular interest to the researcher when
considering a generalisation is whether the findings
obtained from a limited number of cases (that is,
the red P-plate drivers in the study) can be extended
to apply to the entire group of red P-plate drivers,
to green P-plate drivers or even all drivers. If the
findings can in fact be generalised more widely,
then the research study is said to have external
validity. External validity means that the conclusion(s)
made from the research can be generalised to the
population from which the sample in the study was
drawn. External validity is discussed in more detail in
Unit 2 (see chapter 7, page 283).
With reference to the driving study, if, following
statistical testing, the results for the experiment
indicated that the red P-plate drivers who were
trained with the Smith System made significantly
fewer errors than the drivers who did not receive
the training, then the researcher would interpret
the results as providing support for the hypothesis.
They would conclude that using the Smith System
to teach defensive driving techniques to
drivers reduces the likelihood of red P-plate
drivers having an accident. On the basis of this
conclusion, the researcher may also tentatively
(cautiously) conclude that the finding may be
generalisable to all red P-plate drivers.

Step 7: reporting the

research findings
The final step of psychological research involves
reporting the research findings to others who may
be interested in the research. Typically, researchers
prepare a report that is presented to other
psychologists at a conference and/or submitted to
a professional journal for publication. A journal is
a publication that contains reports of research. The
reports prepared by psychologists for publication in a
journal follow a strict format (see pages 284–5).
The report describes, in detail, the background
information of the research, the way in which the
research study was conducted, the findings (results
and conclusions) of the study, how the findings can
be interpreted and applied, any relevant problems
encountered in conducting the study which may have
affected the findings, and a list of references used in
preparing for the study and writing the report.
Reporting the research and its findings is a very
important part of the research process. It is the way
other researchers find out about research which has
been conducted and the way scientific progress is
achieved. It also enables the general public to benefit
from the findings of research.
Reporting on research places the specific study and
its research procedures under the critical eye of other
psychologists, researchers and even the general public;
for example, to check the accuracy of the findings and Figure 2.5
two of the journals in
to consider alternative conclusions that may be valid. which psychologists publish their
Importantly, reporting research in an appropriate way research reports
enables replication by other researchers.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1

Review questions
1 (a) Define the meaning of the term hypothesis when
used in a research study.
(b) When is the research hypothesis constructed?
(c) List six characteristics of a well-constructed
research hypothesis.
(d) Explain two possible limitations of the following
question if it were to be used as a research
hypothesis:
Does excessive use of a mobile phone by
teenagers cause sleep loss?
(e) Rewrite the question above as a testable
hypothesis.
2 What does ‘design the method’ mean?
3 What are raw data in research?
4 What does data analysis involve?
5 (a) Explain the meaning of the term conclusion in
relation to an empirical research study.
(b) What is the first type of conclusion the researcher
will seek to make?
6 (a) Explain the meaning of the phrase ‘generalising
from the research findings’.
(b) What does external validity mean in relation to a
research study?
7 What are two potential benefits of publishing a
research report in a psychology journal?

Chapter 2 research methods 1 47


LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2
Constructing research hypotheses
Consider the following list of research topics.
1 Does use of good study techniques bring about an
improvement in grades?
2 How does the amount of sleep before an exam
affect exam performance?
3 Does the number of passengers in a car driven by
a red or green P-plate driver affect the way in which
the P-plater drives?
4 Does exercise reduce stress?
Choose two topics and construct a research
hypothesis for each one. Ensure your hypotheses
have all the characteristics referred to in the text.
Options and variations
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.3
Visual presentation — steps
in psychological research
Select one of the following research questions
and outline the steps that could be used to
conduct psychological research on the topic in a
scientific way.
Present your research proposal as a flow chart, such
as that in figure 2.2. You may create fictitious results to
assist your explanation.
research questions
1 Are physically attractive people more popular?
2 Does hairstyle affect success in a job interview?
3 Are males more likely to help a female or a male in
need of assistance?
4 Does level of stress affect performance on an exam?
5 Does the presence of other people affect how well
someone performs a task for the first time?
6 How influential is a friendship group in the behaviour
of adolescents?
7 How well do newborn infants see?
Options and variations
RESEARCH METHODS
Psychologists can choose from a range of different
research methods to scientifically collect data on
a topic of research interest. A research method is
a particular way of conducting a research study
48 Unit 1 introduction to psychology
or investigation to collect data. For example, an
experiment and a survey are different research
methods. In an experiment, the researcher
manipulates and controls a research participant’s
experiences in some way to measure whether this
causes a particular predetermined response from the
participant. For example, a researcher may conduct
an experiment to find out whether learning a list
of previously unseen words by repeating the words
and their definitions aloud three times improves
performance on a test of those words, compared with
learning the words and their definitions by writing
them down three times.
For some research topics, the most appropriate
way of collecting data may be to ask participants
about their thoughts, feelings or behaviour. This is
when a survey may be used. For example, a survey
would be used to ask a large number of participants
questions about their attitudes towards school and
the reasons for their attendance and absences.
The questions may be asked using a questionnaire
for which participants respond to a written set
of questions, or by interviewing participants
and recording their verbal answers in writing or
electronically.
In some cases it may be appropriate to use a
combination of research methods to investigate and
collect data. For example, a researcher conducting
an experiment on different learning techniques
used by students when studying for an exam may
also conduct a survey to find out what motivates
students to study.
These are just some of the many research methods
available to psychologists.
The choice of research methods made by the
researcher depends on which method is most
appropriate for the specific topic of research interest.
This is not unlike the choice made by a motor
mechanic when selecting tools to repair a car engine.
Their selection of tools will depend on the specific
engine problem in need of repair. Each tool will have
a specific use and way of being used. Similarly, each
research method has a particular logic underlying
its use and how it is used. However, despite their
different approaches, the various research methods
have many features in common. One common
feature is they all use scientific principles (‘rules’)
and procedures. Another feature is their use of
a sample of participants who provide data for
the research.
The different research methods that may be used
by psychologists are often classified into different
categories based on whether or not they involve
experimentation and/or the type of data that are
collected. Two categories of research methods are
experimental research and descriptive research.
A third category called correlational research is
considered in Unit 2.

Figure 2.6  A motor mechanic selects the best tools to solve
a mechanical problem, just as a researcher chooses the best
research method(s) to solve a research problem.
Experimental research includes all the different
types of experimental research designs. Each type
of experimental design involves the manipulation
and control of research participants’ experiences.
However, the specific designs differ in terms of their
complexity and how they are actually conducted.
Descriptive research includes all the research methods
that focus on studying aspects of behaviour and
mental processes as they occur in a given time and
place, rather than by manipulating and controlling
participants’ experiences in one or more ways.
Experimental research
One of the most scientifically demanding and
controlled research methods in psychology is the
experiment. An experiment is used to test whether
one variable (or ‘thing’), influences or causes a
change in another variable (or ‘thing’); for example,
whether talking on a hand-held mobile phone
while driving (one variable) influences or causes a
change in driver reaction time (another variable).
Essentially, an experiment enables the researcher
to investigate and find out the causes of things; for
example, if talking on a hand-held mobile phone
while driving actually causes drivers to react more
slowly (and therefore increases the likelihood of an
accident).
There are different ways of designing an
experiment and some experiments have a simpler or
more complex design than others. All experiments,
however, have a number of common features. We
consider the basic characteristics of the psychological
experiment and why the experiment can be used to
investigate causes of behaviour and links between
behaviour and mental processes.
Independent and
dependent variables
In a research study, a variable is
something that can vary (change) in
amount or kind over time. Although
characteristics of a person such
as biological sex, blood type and
ethnic background do not change, in
psychological research they are still
considered to be variables.
If the research study involved
testing whether a particular anger
management technique reduced the
incidence of road rage in people who
had previously been convicted of road
rage, the two variables being tested
would be the anger management
technique and the incidence of road rage. However,
the anger management technique and the incidence
of road rage are two different types of variables called
independent variables and dependent variables.
Independent variable
In an experiment, one variable is manipulated or
changed by the experimenter to observe whether
it affects another variable and what those effects
are. The variable that is manipulated or changed is
called the independent variable (IV). It is called an
independent variable because the experimenter can
independently vary it in some way.
In terms of cause and effect, the IV is said to be
the cause of any changes that may result in the other
variable of research interest. For example, in the
road rage experiment, the IV would be the anger
management technique. The experimenter would have
control over which participants would learn the anger
management technique and which participants would
not, in order to test the effect(s) of the technique on the
incidence or extent of road rage-related behaviour; that
is, the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The variable that is used to observe and measure the
effects of the IV is called the dependent variable (DV).
The dependent variable is often the response(s) made
by a participant(s) in an experiment and it usually
has a numerical value. It is called the dependent
variable because whether or not it changes and the
way in which it changes ‘depends’ on the effects of
the independent variable.
In terms of a cause–effect relationship, the DV is the
effect(s) caused by manipulation of or exposure to the
IV. In the road rage example, the DV is the measured
change in the amount of road rage behaviour displayed
by participants as a result of using or not using the
anger management technique, the IV.
Chapter 2  Research methods 1  49
 Does anger management technique X reduce the incidence of road rage
in people previously convicted of road rage?
Group 1
IV Learn anger
(what is manipulated) management
technique X
DV
(what is measured)
Figure 2.7 Distinguishing between the iV and DV in experimental research investigating a way
to reduce the incidence of road rage
eLesson — experimental research
eles-0242
BOX 2.1 Experimental settings
Experiments can be conducted under strictly controlled
laboratory conditions in a laboratory setting (called a
laboratory experiment ) or outside the laboratory in a
field setting (called a field experiment ). In a field setting,
the conditions of the experiment are usually less strictly
controlled, but it has the advantage of being able to make
observations of participants’ behaviour in a real-world
environment where their behaviour occurs more naturally.
(a) a laboratory setting where behaviour is observed in a
controlled situation established by the researcher
(b) a field setting where behaviour is observed in the
real-world situation of a singles bar, but where less
control of conditions is possible
Figure 2.8
50 Unit 1 introduction to psychology
Group 2
Do not learn anger
management
technique X
Incidence of road rage
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4
Identifying independent and
dependent variables
Identify the independent variable (IV) and dependent
variables (DV) in each of the following examples.
1 Listening to a radio broadcast of a sports event
while studying for a test decreases performance
on the test.
2 Thinking positively when goal shooting improves
accuracy in a match.
3 Smoking cigarettes while driving a car increases
driver alertness.
4 People will behave differently in a crowd from the
way they behave when alone.
5 Reaction time to a visual stimulus is quicker than
reaction time to a sound stimulus.
6 Daydreaming occurs more often when a person
is engaged in a simple task than when they are
performing a complex task.
7 Marijuana use impairs performance on a
memory task.
8 Drinking red cordial increases hyperactivity
in children.
9 Too much stress causes stomach ulcers.
10 Brain wave activity changes during sleep.
Extraneous variables
In an experiment to test whether sleep deprivation
causes headaches, the IV is the amount of sleep obtained
and the DV is the frequency of headaches reported. The
results of this research are described in table 2.2.
The results seem to suggest that the frequency of
headaches is likely to increase if people experience
six or less hours of sleep. However, what would
happen if participants who had eight or more hours
Table 2.2 Frequency of headaches reported and amount
of sleep
Frequency of headaches reported
hours of sleep never Sometimes Often
≥8 40 18 2
7 38 20 6 (b) Why do researchers minimise or control the
≤6 15 35 7 potential effects of extraneous variables?
of sleep also took sleeping pills which reduced the
likelihood of headaches occurring? Or participants
had different definitions of what a headache is? Or
participants who had six or less hours of sleep were
also experiencing considerable stress in their lives?
There are many variables other than the IV
that might influence the DV in an experiment.
Experimenters try to predict what these might be
prior to conducting their experiment. Then, they
design the experiment to control, or minimise
the influence of, as many of these unwanted or
extraneous variables as possible.
In an experiment, an extraneous variable is a
variable other than the IV that can cause a change in
the DV. When one or more extraneous variables are
present in an experiment, they can make it difficult
to conclude with confidence that changes which have
occurred in the DV have resulted because of the IV
and not because of some other variable.
In the sleep study described previously, the
extraneous variables that may have resulted in
headaches developing or not developing could
include the amount of stress in the person’s life,
illness (for example, a virus), eye strain, or the use
of particular medication. Thus, in the group who
had six or less hours of sleep, the greater likelihood
of experiencing a headache may not have been a
result of insufficient sleep if one or more extraneous
variables were present. In order to conclude that the
frequency of headaches will increase as a result of a
reduction in the amount of sleep obtained, extraneous
variables must be controlled or eliminated.
Often, potential extraneous variables can be
identified prior to the research. At other times, they
become apparent as the experiment progresses. In
some instances, the experimenter may be totally
unaware of their influence.
Extraneous variables may include participant
variables (that is, individual differences in personal
characteristics among research participants such as
age, sex, religion, cultural background, intelligence,
motivation, mood and so on) and experimenter
variables, such as personal characteristics of the
experimenter. The experimenter’s age, sex, cultural
background, expectations, intelligence, mood,
social skills, previous contact with participants
and experience in conducting an experiment are
all examples of experimenter variables that may
unintentionally affect the results. Extraneous variables
are considered in more detail in Unit 2, chapter 7.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.5
Review questions
1 (a) What is an extraneous variable?
(c) When is it best to identify potential extraneous
variables? Explain your answer.
2 For each of the following research topics, identify
the (a) IV, (b) DV and (c) three potential extraneous
variables that could affect the results.
(a) The effect of shyness on the ability to make new
friends at school
(b) Whether meditation can improve performance on
a VCE English exam
(c) Whether males are more aggressive than
females in the schoolgrounds
(d) Whether students who have breakfast
concentrate better in class
(e) Whether having a pet in an aged-care nursing
home improves happiness for elderly people
who live there
Experimental and
control groups
In a simple experiment, the participants are often
divided into two groups. One group of participants,
called the experimental group, is exposed to the
experimental condition; that is, the IV is present. A
second group of participants, called the control group,
is exposed to the control condition; that is, the IV
is absent.
For example, consider an experiment to investigate
whether alcohol consumption affects driving
precision. In this experiment, the IV which the
experimenter will manipulate is the amount of
alcohol consumed by research participants and the
DV which will be measured is driving precision.
The experimental group would be tested on their
driving skills in a driving simulator after having
consumed alcoholic drinks (the experimental
condition) and the control group would be tested on
their driving ability in the driving simulator after
having consumed non-alcoholic drinks (the control
condition).
The control group provides a standard of
comparison against which the experimenter can
compare the performance of the experimental group
in order to determine whether the independent
variable has affected the dependent variable. If the
driving performance of the experimental group is
significantly worse than the driving performance of
the control group, the experimenter may conclude
that the IV (consumption of alcohol) affected the DV
(driving precision). A flow chart summary of this
experiment is shown in figure 2.9.
Chapter 2 research methods 1 51
 Hypothesis: Alcohol consumption impairs the driving ability of
university students

Participants: 100 third-year university students who responded to

an advertisement for research participants. Equal numbers of
male and female participants. Ages range from 20–40 years.

Experimental group: 50 students (25 male, IV: alcohol Control group: 50 students (25 male, 25 female)
25 female) who consumed alcoholic drinks consumption who consumed non-alcoholic drinks

Use of driving simulator to test precision of driving skills

Results: Participants who consumed alcohol made many more DV: number of
driving errors than participants who did not consume alcohol. driving errors made

Conclusion: Alcohol consumption causes more driving errors,

resulting in impaired driving ability in third-year university students.

Generalisation: Alcohol consumption causes impaired driving

ability in all drivers.

Figure 2.9  A flow chart of the experiment testing the effect of alcohol consumption on driving skills

In some experiments, all participants are
required to be in both the control condition and the
experimental condition. For example, consider an
experiment to test the effectiveness of a new study
technique called ‘Supastudy’ on exam performance.
In this experiment, the IV which the experimenter
will manipulate is the use of ‘Supastudy’ and the DV
which will be measured is performance on an exam.
In the control condition, all participants would learn
material that they have not previously seen (‘novel’
material) using the study technique they normally
use. The participants would then complete an exam
(for instance, a set of multiple-choice questions) on
the material. All participants would then be taught to
use ‘Supastudy’. Then, in the experimental condition,
all participants would be given additional previously
unseen material to learn using ‘Supastudy’, but
material that is similar in type and difficulty to that
of the control condition. The participants would
complete an exam on the material, which is also
similar in type and difficulty to that of the control
condition (that is, a set of multiple-choice questions).
The results of the two exams would then
be compared. If the exam performance of the
participants when in the experimental condition is
significantly better than their exam performance
when in the control condition, the experimenter may
conclude that the IV (use of the study technique)
affected the DV (exam performance of participants).
The experimental group and the control group need
to be as similar as possible in the spread of personal
characteristics of participants that can cause a change
in the DV. It is also important that both groups are
treated the same, except for the time when the
experimental group is exposed to the IV. Both of these
conditions are necessary so that if a change occurs
in the experimental group and does not occur in the
control group, the researcher can be more confident
in concluding that the IV probably caused the change.
Advantages and limitations
of experimental research
A key feature of an experiment is the researcher’s
attempts to control the conditions in which a
behaviour of interest or other event occurs, whether
the experiment occurs in a laboratory setting or in a
real-life, field setting. As well as controlling the IV,
the researcher also attempts to minimise or eliminate
the influence of unwanted extraneous variables to
concentrate entirely on the effect the IV has on the
DV. Elimination of all extraneous variables is not
always possible, but control is usually greater than in
other research methods, especially if the experiment
is conducted in a laboratory setting. Consequently,
the experiment has several advantages when
compared to other research methods.
One advantage of the experiment is that the IV can
be manipulated in order to observe the effect on the DV,
therefore making it possible to test if there is a cause and
effect relationship between the IV and DV. Furthermore,
because controlled conditions are known conditions, the
experimenter can set up the experiment a second time
and repeat it to test (or ‘check’) the results.
Alternatively, the experimenter can report the
conditions of an experiment in such a precise way
that others can replicate the experiment and test the
results. Replication is very important because when
a study is repeated and similar results are obtained,

52  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology

there can be greater confidence in the reliability and
validity of the results obtained.
Despite its precision, there are several limitations
of the experiment. Although a field experiment occurs
in a real-life setting and therefore has a relationship
to the real world, it is often difficult to strictly control
all variables because of the unpredictability of real-
life settings. The ability to more strictly control
variables is an advantage of the laboratory setting;
however, it is often artificial and too dissimilar to
real life. For example, bringing someone into the
unfamiliar environment of a psychology laboratory
can change their behaviour to the point where it is
not appropriate to generalise or apply the observed
behaviour to situations outside the laboratory.
Furthermore, some things cannot be measured
in a laboratory. The researcher cannot break up
families, for example, to measure the effects of family
separation. Nor would the laboratory be the best setting
for testing variables such as grief, hate or love. It may
be difficult for participants to express these emotions
naturally or very realistically in a laboratory setting.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.6
Review questions
1 What is an experiment? Explain with reference
to three key characteristics that distinguish an
experiment from other research methods.
2 Explain the main difference between the
independent variable and the dependent variable in
an experiment.
3 (a) Distinguish between an experimental group and
a control group.
(b) Why is it important for the experimental
and control groups to be similar in personal
characteristics that may affect DV?
(c) What is the purpose of using a control group in
an experiment?
(d) Suggest a reason to explain why the experimental
group is sometimes called the ‘treatment group’.
4 Briefly describe two advantages and two limitations
of experimental research.
Sampling procedures
Psychologists conduct experiments with people
and, in some cases, animals. The participants being
studied in an experiment, or in any type of research,
are called the sample. A sample is a subsection,
or smaller group, of research participants selected
from a larger group (called a population) of research
interest. For example, suppose that a researcher is
interested in conducting an experiment to find out
whether children who attended a childcare centre
during their preschool years are better at basic
English and maths skills than preschool children
who didn’t attend a childcare centre. It would
be impractical to test every preschool child who
attended a childcare centre and every preschool
child who did not. Researchers therefore select a
sample with whom they conduct their research. If
the sample is selected in a scientific way, the results
obtained for the sample can then be generalised
to the larger group of research interest, called the
population.
In experimental and any other scientific research,
the population does not necessarily refer to all people
(or animals) in the world, in a country, or even in
a particular city or area. The term population refers
to the entire group of research interest from which
a sample is drawn. A population of interest may be
all preschool children, all blonde-haired females, all
VCE Psychology students, all female VCE Psychology
students, all Catholic school educated boys, or all
male chimpanzees born in captivity.
A population in a study doesn’t always refer to
living things. A population being studied could also
be measurable things such as all community health
centres in the Goulburn Valley region, all admissions
at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, all VCE exam
results in English in 2013, all days of school missed
by year 9 students, all brands of runners, all calls to
the Kids Helpline telephone number, or any other
specific source of data.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.7
Review questions
1 (a) Define the terms sample and population as they
are used in research.
(b) Draw a diagram to show the relationship
between a sample and a population.
2 For the following research samples, identify two
different populations from which each sample may
have been drawn.
(a) 20 year 10 girls and 20 year 10 boys
(b) 40 teachers who have been teaching for more
than 10 years
(c) 100 employees on leave from work because of
stress-related reasons
(d) 30 adults diagnosed as having a type of
schizophrenia
3 For the following research topics, identify a sample
that might be used to conduct the research and a
population from which the sample could be drawn.
(a) Are people who wear uniforms at school or work
more likely to be obedient to an authority figure?
(b) Are children who regularly play violent computer
games more likely to behave aggressively?
(c) How can people with a fear of flying be assisted
to overcome their fear?
(d) Are children born to mothers aged over 40 years
at greater risk of developing a mental illness?
(e) Is it easier for men or women to give up smoking?
Chapter 2 research methods 1 53
Selecting a sample
A sample has to be selected in a scientific
way so that the results obtained for
the sample can be legitimately applied
or generalised to the population from
which it was selected. The process of
selecting participants for a sample is
called sampling.
A key goal of sampling is to ensure
that the sample closely represents its
population. It must reflect its population
in all the personal characteristics of
participants that are important in the
research study. Personal characteristics
that are considered to be important are Population
those that can influence the results of the
Sample
study. For example, in a study on how
friendships form among adolescents,
personal characteristics of participants
such as their sex, age, type of school
attended, religion, family background
and cultural background could be
assumed to be important.
When a researcher selects a sample
that represents its population, the
sample is called a representative
sample. A representative sample
is a sample that is approximately the same as Figure 2.10 this sample is a subset of the population of
the population from which it is drawn in every people working for a particular company.
important participant characteristic.
There are several different ways of obtaining a
representative sample. Two ways are called random
sampling and stratified sampling.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.8
Media response — sampling
for problem gambling
Read the newspaper advertisement shown on the left
and answer the following questions.
1 What is the specific topic of research interest?
2 Identify the population from which the sample will
be selected.
3 Identify an important personal characteristic of the
sample required by the researcher.
4 Is it possible that people who respond to the
advertisement and are selected to be in the sample
may behave or respond differently in the study, as
compared with participants randomly selected from
a relevant group targeted for the research study?
Explain your answer.
5 (a) What is a representative sample?
(b) How representative is the sample obtained using
the advertisement likely to be?
(c) Will the researcher be able to generalise
her results from the study described in the
advertisement? Explain your answer.

54 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Random sampling
The dictionary definition of the term ‘random’ is
something which is haphazard, unpredictable or
‘hit-or-miss’. However, when the term random is used
by researchers in relation to a sample, it has the
opposite meaning. Random actually means using a
planned, systematic procedure to obtain a sample.
random sampling is a sampling procedure that
ensures that every member of the population of
research interest has a genuinely equal chance of
being selected as a participant for the research study.
This can be achieved in a number of different ways.
One way is to obtain a complete list of all the people
in the population. This list is commonly called a
sampling frame. For example, an electoral roll may be
used as a sampling frame, or the telephone numbers
of all the people in a particular location may be used.
If you were conducting a research study in your
school, class rolls could be used, but only those with
the names of students in the population of interest.
After the sampling frame is obtained, the
researcher could obtain a random sample using
a simple lottery procedure to select the required
number of names. The lottery procedure could
involve ‘drawing names out of a box’. For example, if
a sheet of paper had all the names of the people in
the population on it, the sheet would be cut up into
slips of paper equal in size, with one name on each
slip of paper. The names would then be thoroughly
mixed in the box to help ensure their distribution
throughout the box. Then, names of sample members
(or research participants) could be drawn out
‘blindly’, one at a time. As a result of this procedure,
the likelihood that the sample is representative of the
population is increased, and so is the ability of the
researcher to generalise the results to the population.
Figure 2.11 the lottery procedure of drawing names
of research participants from a box is an appropriate
random sampling procedure because each member of the
population being sampled has a genuinely equal chance of
being selected.
When a large number of participants is required,
researchers often use a computer-generated list of
random numbers. Each participant in the sampling
frame is given a number from 1 through to however
many are in the population of interest. If the first
number in the computer-generated list of random
numbers is 22, then the twenty-second person in
the sampling frame is included in the sample; if the
second number in the computer-generated list is 93,
then the ninety-third person in the sampling frame
is selected, and so on until the required number of
participants have been selected.
Stratified sampling
In some research studies it is important to ensure
that particular groups in a population of interest
are represented in their known proportions in that
population. For example, suppose that a researcher
wanted to study the attitudes of adult Australians
to arsonists who deliberately light bushfires. They
could reasonably expect that attitudes may differ
depending on whether someone lives in the city or
in a rural community. Consequently, the researcher
would want to ensure that each of these groups
was represented in the sample in about the same
proportions that they were known to exist in the
adult population. This can be achieved by using the
sampling procedure called stratified sampling.
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population
to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then
selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called
stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the
population of interest. Socio-cultural factors such as
residential area, age, sex, income level, educational
qualifications and ethnic or cultural background are
examples of personal characteristics that may be used
as the basis of dividing a population into strata.
The stratified sampling procedure is commonly
used to study behaviour and mental processes that
tend to vary greatly among different subgroups of a
population.
Random-stratified sampling
When random sampling is used to select a sample from
each stratum, this is called random-stratified sampling.
The resulting sample is called a random-stratified
sample. In order to obtain a random-stratified sample,
the researcher must first obtain accurate lists of all the
people within each stratum. The researcher will then
draw a random sample of proportionate size from each
of the strata.
For example, suppose you were going to undertake
a research study on attitudes of students in your
school towards teachers’ use of rewards and
punishments. You expect that attitudes may differ
among students in different year levels so you want
to ensure each year level (stratum) is proportionally
represented in your sample of 20 students.
Chapter 2 research methods 1 55
 You could first obtain separate lists of the students Random allocation
in each year level and then randomly sample from The method of selecting the sample is important
each list. If, for example, about 10% of all students in ensuring it is unbiased and representative of the
in your school are enrolled in year 12 and about 15% population being studied. Equally important is the
in year 11, then your sample would consist of about way in which research participants are allocated or
10% year 12 students and about 15% year 11 students. assigned to either the experimental or control group
This would ensure students from each year level are in an experiment.
represented in about the same proportions in the In an ideal research world, everything about the
sample as they are in the population (the school). experimental and control groups would be identical
Using the random-stratified sampling procedure except for the IV. In reality, however, it is to be
would ensure that the sample is representative of expected that the participants in an experiment will
the population and therefore not biased in a way have differences in personal characteristics, abilities
you consider to be important. Figure 2.12 shows an and backgrounds that may affect the results in an
example of a stratified sample that could be obtained experiment. For example, some participants will
for the attitudes study. be more or less easygoing, anxious or motivated
than others. They will also differ in a wide range
of mental abilities such as intelligence, learning,
memory, reading comprehension and problem-
solving skills, as well as physical abilities such as
All students
in a school Population strength, athleticism, eye–hand coordination and
100% finger dexterity. Furthermore, they will differ in such
factors as sex, age, ethnicity, cultural experiences
and religious beliefs. Consequently, it is important
to ensure that personal characteristics or abilities
of participants that might affect the results of the
experiment are evenly spread in the experimental
Y12 and control groups.
Y7 10% One way of minimising differences in the
20% Y11 composition or make-up of the experimental and
15% Strata
(% in each
control groups is to randomly allocate participants
Y8 to the groups. In random allocation, also called
20% Y10 year level)
15% random assignment, participants selected for
Y9
20% the experiment are just as likely to be in the
experimental group as the control group. This
means that every person who will be a participant
in the experiment has an equal chance of being
selected in any of the groups used. This can be
4 2 achieved by using some kind of lottery method
3 in which chance alone will determine the group
Stratified sample to which each participant will be allocated. For
4 (number of participants example, drawing names out of a box or flipping
3 from each year level)
a coin are both appropriate ways of randomly
4 allocating participants to groups.
With a sufficiently large number of participants,
it is reasonable to assume that each group will end
Figure 2.12 an example of stratified sampling for an
attitude study
up with the same kind of spread of participant
characteristics, abilities and backgrounds that
may affect the results. For example, consider an
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.9 experiment on alcohol consumption and driving
ability. If the experimental group has a larger
proportion of ‘bad’ drivers than the control group
Visual presentation — and the experimental group makes significantly
comparing random sampling more driving errors in the driving simulator, it
and stratified sampling will be difficult for the researcher to isolate the
Draw two simple flow charts or diagrams that effect of alcohol (the IV) on driving ability (the
show the difference between random sampling and DV). The problem is that the participants in the
stratified sampling. experimental group may make more driving errors
than the control group even when not under the

56 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

influence of alcohol. Through random allocation of
participants to the experimental and control groups,
each group would be expected to end up with
relatively even numbers of participants who are
‘good’ and ‘bad’ drivers.
The purpose of random allocation of participants
is to obtain groups that are as alike as possible
in terms of participant characteristics before
introducing the IV. With random allocation of
participants to the experimental and control
groups, researchers can more confidently conclude
that if two groups responded differently in the
experiment in terms of the number of driving
errors, then it most likely had something to
do with the effect of the IV. Consequently,
random allocation is an important means of
experimental control.
Random allocation is different from random
sampling. Random allocation is used to place
participants in groups whereas random sampling
is one of the methods which can be used to
nparticipants for an experiment. Random sampling,
however, is based on the same principle as
random allocation and helps ensure that every
member of the population of research interest
has an equal chance of being selected as a
participant. If everyone does not have an equal
chance of being selected, the sample is said to be a
biased sample.
Population
Random sampling
Sample
(participants)
Random allocation
Experimental group Control group
(IV present) (IV not present)
Measure effect Measure effect
on DV on DV
Is there a difference?
Figure 2.13 a simple experimental design using random
sampling and random allocation
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.10
Review questions
1 Define the meaning of the term sampling when used
in a research study.
2 Name and describe a procedure for obtaining a
representative sample for a within-class research
investigation.
3 Suggest another way of obtaining a representative
sample.
4 (a) What is a stratified sample?
(b) Give four examples of participant characteristics
that may lead a researcher investigating parental
attitudes toward using a childcare centre to
consider using a stratified sampling procedure.
5 (a) What is random allocation? Why is it used in an
experiment?
(b) Explain the difference between random sampling
and random allocation.
eLesson — random and
stratified sampling
eles-0440
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.11
Practical activity — testing
random allocation
This practical activity enables you to test whether
random allocation actually produces groups that are
alike in participant characteristics.
You will need to determine easily observed and
measurable characteristics of class members; for
example, sex, hair colour, eye colour and left-handed
versus right-handed. Each class member should
describe themself in relation to each characteristic,
recording their answers on a card or sheet of paper.
The descriptions are then collected and distributed
into two groups using a random allocation procedure.
The means of the different characteristics for each
group should then be calculated and a profile produced
for each group in terms of the characteristics, so that
the ‘equivalence’ of the groups can be compared.
If your class is small in number, complete another
version of the activity using coloured lollies, such as
Smarties. Start with a sample of equal numbers of
each colour, place all the Smarties in a bowl, then,
while blindfolded, draw Smarties out of the bowl one at
a time, distributing them into two different groups.
report
Prepare a brief report of this activity to include in your
folio of practical activities. Your report should contain
answers to the following questions.
1 How close were the means for each characteristic
(or colour)?
2 How ‘equivalent’ were the groups?
3 Would equivalence increase if the size of the group
increased? Explain your answer.
Chapter 2 research methods 1 57
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Sometimes the aim of psychological research is
to describe the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of
an individual or group without manipulating or
investigating relationships between specific variables.
This type of research is called descriptive research.
Descriptive research refers to the use of a research
method that focuses on studying and describing one
or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour
as they occur at a given time and place. The time
may be a specific moment, a day, a month, a year
or many years. The place may be a laboratory, clinic
or a real life everyday setting. This type of research
provides a ‘snapshot’ of how people may be thinking,
feeling, behaving at some particular time in a certain
situation, without necessarily explaining why they
may be thinking, feeling or behaving as they are.
A descriptive research study does not necessarily
use a large number of participants; for example, a
researcher might be interested in describing the
behaviour of one particular individual. Alternatively,
the researcher may be interested in describing the
behaviour of a small group, large group or a crowd.
In some cases the researcher may study an individual
and one or more groups to make comparisons.
Unlike experimental research, descriptive research
does not explain cause–effect. However, as with
experimental research, descriptive research may
be used to study animal behaviour. For example, a
researcher may observe, record then describe specific
ways in which a particular animal species behaves in
its natural environment without interfering with the
environment in any way.
Descriptive research methods include case
studies, observational studies, self-reports, surveys,
questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, longitudinal
studies, cross-sectional studies, twin studies and adoption
studies. Each of these methods can be used on its own
or in combination with one another. For example, a
case study may involve interviews and observations
and a survey may involve a questionnaire made up
of questions and rating scales. In this section, we
examine case studies and observational studies.
Case studies
Sometimes a researcher will collect detailed
information on only a small number of people,
perhaps an individual or a small group of two or
three. When this is done, the research method used is
likely to be a case study.
A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation
of some behaviour or event of interest in an
individual, small group or situation. For example,
many of the early language researchers started out by
keeping detailed diaries on the language development
of only a few children. Social psychologists have
58  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
also learnt about behaviour in small friendship
groups by conducting case studies in which they
observe and record social interactions within the
same group of people in different situations over
a period of time. An assumption is that patterns of
behaviour observed within the group may apply to
other friendship groups made up of people of similar
ages and backgrounds. Such case studies can also
suggest hypotheses that could be tested using other
research methods.
Sigmund Freud often used the case study method.
Freud studied his ‘patients’ in great depth. Some
were treated for many years during which Freud
met with them several times a week. The detailed
written records Freud kept on his patients were used
to develop his psychoanalytic theories of personality
and everyday behaviour. Similarly, Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget developed a comprehensive theory of
children’s thinking which was mainly based on case
studies. His case studies often involved observing,
questioning and testing his own children. These case
studies became a rich source of information from
which hypotheses were developed, then tested using
other research methods. Many other researchers have
also constructed hypotheses from Piaget’s descriptive
reports. The hypotheses were subsequently tested
using controlled experiments to find out if Piaget’s
conclusions were accurate and if they could be
applied more widely to other children with different
backgrounds.
Clinical psychologists and other mental health
professionals routinely use case studies to develop
a detailed profile of a client. The case study may
involve a combination of data collection methods.
For example, the client may be interviewed at
length. Information may also be collected through
interviews of family members, friends, and teachers
or co-workers. The client’s medical records and
school reports may also be considered. Other sources
of information can include extensive psychological
testing and observations of the person’s behaviour.
When used in a clinical setting for therapeutic (or
‘treatment’) purposes, a case study is often referred to
as a case history or a clinical observation.
Case studies are often used when large numbers of
participants are not available for study; for example,
to study individuals with a rare or unusual disorder
or ability. Much of what was first known about the
role of the brain in behaviour and mental processes
has come from case studies.
Case study on face agnosia
One early case study conducted by a neuropsychologist
involved a rare disorder called face agnosia (Bodamer,
1947). Face agnosia is the inability to recognise
faces. People with this disorder have difficulty in
recognising the faces of family and friends or famous
personalities.
 The case study involved a young female who
was also unable to recognise her own face. She was
referred to as S.T. in the case study report to protect
her identity. Whenever S.T. looked in the mirror, she
saw a reflection of a stranger. However, S.T. knew
that she was the strange looking person because
she was the only person in front of the mirror. In
one series of tests, S.T. was asked to speak in front
of the mirror and make gestures such as a nod or
a shrug. S.T. often recognised her own voice and
occasionally recognised gestures, but her face was
always completely new to her. S.T. also had difficulty
recognising animal faces. For example, she described
a dog’s face as ‘a human face with funny hair’.
Although unable to recognise faces, S.T. knew what
a face was and could recognise and name everyday
objects such as furnishings, articles of clothing, trees,
cars and so on without difficulty. This suggested that
the area of the brain involved in facial recognition
was different from that involved in recognising
objects. Furthermore, the different brain areas
probably interacted with language and memory in
different ways.
Figure 2.14 Case studies are commonly used when large
numbers of participants are not available. For example,
eccentric behaviour has been studied using the case
study method. Eccentric behaviour refers to a pattern of
human behaviour that is viewed as very odd or unusual
within the particular society or culture in which it occurs.
Two American psychologists completed 1000 case
studies on eccentrics over a 10-year period and identified
characteristics common to them. They concluded that
despite the deviant behaviour, most eccentrics are happy,
well-adjusted people who are ‘strange but sane’.
When neuroimaging devices such as PET and
f  MRI scans became available, neuropsychologists
were able to conduct experiments with individuals
suffering from face agnosia. Such experiments over
the past 30 years confirmed the conclusions of early
case studies. They have also enabled researchers
to pinpoint brain areas and structures that interact
in facial recognition, object recognition, memory
and language.
Advantages and limitations of
case studies
Case studies provide a useful way of obtaining
detailed and valuable descriptive information on
behaviour and mental processes. There is usually no
manipulation or control of variables. Consequently,
case studies can provide a ‘snapshot’ of the actual
experience of one or more individuals at a particular
time in a particular situation. Case studies can also
provide insights into how others may think, feel
or behave under similar circumstances. Another
advantage of case studies is that they can be a
valuable source of hypotheses for further research.
However, case studies cannot be
used to test hypotheses unless
combined with the results of other
case studies of similar participants
or another research method that is
suitable for testing hypotheses.
A major limitation of case
studies is their sample size. They
are commonly based on the
experiences of only one individual
or a very limited number of
individuals. This means that they
can usually provide only weak
support for drawing scientific
conclusions. Furthermore,
generalising or applying the
results to others in the population
cannot be done with any certainty.
Generalising is a bigger problem
when the case study involves
someone with a rare or unusual
disorder or ability.
Case studies also have the
limitation of being susceptible
to biased information from the
participant or the researcher. This
can influence the accuracy of the information that
is obtained and conclusions that may be drawn.
For example, case studies usually rely on the
individuals under investigation to provide a great
deal of the required information. Some participants
may not remember clearly what they actually
experienced, or they may intentionally change or
omit information that they do not wish to reveal for
personal reasons.
Chapter 2  Research methods 1  59
 Similarly, case studies are usually conducted by
one researcher. It is possible that the researcher
sees or hears what they expect or hope to see or
hear. Furthermore, the researcher is also responsible
for deciding what to include in their descriptions
and what to leave out. In writing up the case, the
researcher may select information that supports
key points or conclusions they wish to make, and
omit other points that may be just as relevant and
could have been included by another researcher
interpreting the same information.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.12
Review questions
1 What is descriptive research?
2 In what way does descriptive research differ from
experimental research?
3 (a) What is a case study?
(b) Give three examples of research findings or
theories that have been derived from case
studies in psychology.
4 Describe three advantages and three limitations of
case studies when used for research purposes.
responses. In all research studies, observation occurs
in a systematic way and is undertaken according
to predetermined procedures. In contrast to the
term observation, the term observational study is
used to refer to the specific approach to or way of
collecting data.
An observational study involves collection of data
by carefully watching and recording behaviour as
it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies to
collect data in research when the behaviour under
investigation is clearly visible and can be easily
recorded. For example, when investigating roles and
hierarchies (‘pecking orders’) in groups, a researcher
might ask the members of a friendship group to
discuss a controversial issue, then observe and record
who starts the discussion, who changes the topic,
who speaks, how often and for how long, and so on.
This study could occur in a controlled laboratory
setting or in a field setting, such as a place where
the group normally meets and interacts (for example,
the school canteen or an area of the school grounds).
One type of observational study is called naturalistic
observation.

Observational studies
In our everyday lives we observe the behaviour
of other people and draw conclusions about
them from their actions. For example, if we notice
that someone is always quiet in class, prefers
to sit by themself and blushes when asked a
question, we might conclude that the person is shy,
lacking in confidence or withdrawn. Psychologists,
however, use observation in a more precise
and planned way. For example, they precisely
describe the behaviour to be observed, and do not
jump to conclusions about attitudes, personality
characteristics, motives or other factors that may
underlie the observed behaviour. Furthermore,
psychologists distinguish between observation and
an observational study.
In psychology, all research studies involve
observation. For example, in an experiment
the researcher observes the responses of their
participants, interviewers observe the spoken
responses of their participants, researchers
conducting surveys observe the written or verbal
responses of their participants, and in an analysis of
medical or school records the researcher observes
the written information with which they are working Naturalistic observation
(Banyard & Grayson, 2001). In naturalistic observation, a naturally occurring
Consequently, the term observation refers to any behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in
means by which a phenomenon (an observable an inconspicuous manner so that the researcher’s
event) is studied, including the data that represent a presence has no influence on the behaviour
phenomenon, such as scores and spoken or written being observed. For example, in a study on the

60 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

development of social behaviour, a researcher might
observe children at play in a playgroup situation
from behind a one-way mirror so the children
are not aware that they are being observed. From
the observations of each child’s interactions, the
researcher might make assumptions or inferences
about children’s social behaviour. For example, the
researcher may observe that younger children tend
to play alongside other children but not actually
interact with them, whereas older children tend to
interact more in their play with other children. On
the basis of these observations, the researcher may
assume that there are different types of play in which
children may engage and that these types of play are
age-related or age-dependent.
Participant and non-participant
observation
Sometimes, psychologists engage in participant
observation. They actually participate in the activity
being observed and may deliberately try to be
mistaken by the participants as being part of the
group or situation being observed. In one study that
used participant observation, the researchers had
themselves admitted to several different psychiatric
hospitals by imitating the symptoms of a severe
mental illness. After they had been admitted,
they kept records of their observations while in
the hospital. Their record-keeping behaviour was
regarded by the hospital staff as being a symptom of
their mental illness (Rosenhan, 1973).
In another obervational study, researcher Dian
Fossey used both non-participant and participant
observation. Fossey, whose work is featured in the
movie Gorillas in the Mist, lived among gorillas in
their remote African highlands habitat. After first
using non-participant observation to learn about
key aspects of gorilla behaviour, Fossey changed her
method to use participant observation and started
to behave like a gorilla. The more she learnt about
the behaviour of gorillas, the more she was able
to act like them. She imitated their feeding and
grooming behaviours and even attempted to copy
their vocalisations. By waiting for the gorillas to
approach her, by avoiding actions that might threaten
them, and by imitating their actions, Fossey gradually
became accepted by them and was able to collect
valuable data about their behaviour.
While observational studies usually focus on
the process of behaviour, some researchers focus
on the products of behaviour. For example, in an
experiment on learning, a researcher might observe
how many times a participant rehearsed a list of
words (process) and then how many words the
participant remembered on a final test (product). Or
the researcher might observe products of behaviour
from the past, for example, personal documents,
such as autobiographies, letters, diaries, drawings
and speeches.

Coder name Olive

Coding categories

Episode Proximity Contact Resistance Avoidance

Mother and baby play alone 1 1 1 1

Mother puts baby down 4 1 1 1

Stranger enters room 1 2 3 1

Mother leaves room, stranger plays with baby 1 3 1 1

Mother re-enters, greets and may comfort baby, then leaves again 4 2 1 2

Stranger tries to play with baby 1 3 1 1

Mother re-enters and picks up baby 6 6 1 2

The coding categories are:

Proximity The baby moves toward, grasps or climbs on the adult.
Maintaining contact The baby resists being put down by the adult by crying or trying to climb back up.
Resistance The baby pushes, hits or squirms to be put down from the adult’s arms.
Avoidance The baby turns away or moves away from the adult.

Figure 2.15  This checklist was used to observe and record the behaviour of 12-month-old infants in an observational study of
attachment behaviour (as indicated by responses to strangers). The infants were observed playing in a room with two adults —
the infant’s mother and a stranger. The infants’ behaviour in different situations (‘episodes’) was rated (‘coded’) on a 7-point
scale according to fear categories. A rating of 1 meant ‘The infant makes no effort to engage in the behaviour’ and a rating of
7 meant ‘The infant makes an extreme effort to engage in the behaviour’ (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

Chapter 2  Research methods 1  61

Figure 2.16 a one-way mirror allows a researcher to observe children in a playgroup situation, without the children being
aware that they are being observed.
Observations have become more accurate as new
technology permits more precise measurement.
For example, digital video cameras can be used to
record then analyse rapidly changing behaviour.
Even a single ‘frame’ within a long, action sequence
can be analysed. This technology can be used, for
example, in studies of the way subtle changes in
facial expressions of mothers and their babies become
synchronised and similar over time.
When researchers try to conceal their presence
while making observations, it is called non-participant
Figure 2.17
62 Unit 1 introduction to psychology
observation. When observations of behaviour are
made in a field setting; that is, the usual or real-
world surroundings in which the behaviour occurs,
psychologists will often conceal their presence
by watching from the ‘sidelines’. For example, a
researcher might sit on a nearby bench pretending
to be absorbed in a book in order to observe
people’s reactions to a group of ‘street kids’. In other
situations, psychologists might use a hidden video
camera to record events.
Advantages and limitations of
observational studies
When studying behaviour in a laboratory setting, a
researcher is unable to observe the long-term effects
that an organism’s natural environment has in
shaping complex behaviour patterns. For example,
Jane Goodall spent over 25 years studying patterns
of behaviour among chimpanzees in Africa. She
believed that if she ended her research after 10 years,
as originally scheduled, she would not have drawn
correct conclusions.
We would have been left with the impression
that chimpanzees were far more peaceable
than humans. Because we were able
to continue beyond the first decade, we
could document the division of a social
group and observe the violent aggression
that broke out between newly separated
factions. We discovered that in certain
circumstances the chimpanzees may kill and
even cannibalise individuals of their own kind
(Goodall, 1986).
Thus, naturalistic observation often enables
researchers to gain more accurate information about
the typical behaviours of organisms than do other
methods of gathering data.
Figure 2.18 researcher Jane Goodall used naturalistic
observation in her studies of chimpanzees. in time, she
shifted from using participant observation to non-participant
observation.
Some kinds of human behaviour can only be
studied as they naturally occur using observation
in a field setting because it would be unethical
(inappropriate) or impractical to study them
in a laboratory situation. For example, it would
be unethical to severely deprive children in
their early life in order to observe the effect
of deprivation on behaviour in the future
(Zimbardo, 1992).
Naturalistic observation in a field setting
does not require the cooperation of participants
being observed. Furthermore, the participants
usually do not know that they are being
observed in any special way. This means that
the observed behaviour is likely to be more
true to life.
There is, however, a related disadvantage of this.
Since the observer doesn’t directly influence the
behaviour being observed, it sometimes requires a
lot of patience to wait for the behaviour of interest
to occur. In such circumstances, a psychologist
might prefer to observe in a laboratory setting.
However, some behaviours cannot be realistically
reproduced in a laboratory. You can’t, for example,
expect to obtain valid information about how people
usually behave when they are in love by bringing
a pair of participants into a laboratory situation
and asking them to ‘be in love’ so that observations
can be made.
Another problem with naturalistic observation
in a field setting is that it can be difficult to
determine the causes of observed behaviour,
because there are many factors which may
influence the observed behaviour in a natural
environment. For example, a researcher could not
determine why chimpanzees become aggressive
towards one another when their social group
breaks into factions, or subgroups. The aggressive
behaviour may be influenced by factors which the
researcher has no control over such as habitat,
food supply, climate, availability of partners, or a
combination of these.
A major problem relevant to any observation
procedure is observer bias. It is possible, for
example, that researchers sometimes unconsciously
distort what they see so that it resembles what
they hope to see. For example, after observing an
animal which has been deprived of food for a long
time, the observer may assume that the animal
was looking for food when the behaviour actually
observed was simply increased activity. Researchers
must be trained to observe and record accurately
in order to minimise the influence of their
personal biases.
Finally, in making detailed notes as part of the
observation process, psychologists may neglect to
record certain behaviours which they either judge
to be irrelevant or do not actually see. To overcome
this limitation, when using observation, researchers
may use a team of trained observers who collate
their notes. This often results in a more complete
and accurate set of data than one observer could
obtain alone.
Chapter 2 research methods 1 63
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.13
Review questions
1 How is observation defined in psychology? Explain
with reference to examples.
2 What is an observational study?
3 What is the main difference between participant and
non-participant observation? Give an example of
each method.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.14
Evaluation of research — media report
part a
Use the Gender bias in bullying weblink in your eBookPLUS to access the full newspaper article on bullying, then
answer the following questions.
Gender bias in bullying
By Emily Power
in the world of cyber-bullying, inve
Girls and boys have different tactics
a primary scho ol class found
Observation of
subtle and indirect.
1 Identify the type of research method used. If not
stated, suggest what the research method is
likely to be.
2 Briefly describe what the study is about.
3 Describe the sample and sample selection procedure
(if stated).
4 What are the more important findings of the study?
5 What is a potential limitation of the research?
QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE DATA
All psychological research involves collection of
information. In research, the information which is
collected is called data. The data may be considered
as ‘evidence’ that will form the results of the study
and be the basis of the conclusions that will be made.
Data can take different forms. The type of data
collected is determined by the specific kind of
research method used. For example, interviews often
provide data in the form of words, while experiments
usually provide data in the form of numbers.
Generally, psychologists distinguish between two
types of data — qualitative and quantitative data.
64 Unit 1 introduction to psychology
4 (a) Describe two advantages and two limitations of the
different types of observational studies when used
for research purposes.
(b) What is observer bias? Describe two ways in which
it may be controlled.
stigations have found.
essive and girls were
both sexes instigated online bullying, but boys were more aggr
part B
Locate a newspaper, magazine or internet article that
reports a psychological experiment, case study or
observational study. Make a copy of the article and then
answer the questions in part A about the article.
Weblink — gender bias in bullying
Qualitative data
Qualitative data are information about the ‘qualities’
or characteristics of what is being studied. They
may be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures,
texts and so on. These data can describe any aspect
of a person’s mental experiences or behaviour;
more specifically, what something is like, or how
something is experienced. They may be collected as
written or verbal statements made by participants, or
as descriptions of behaviour observed and recorded
by the researcher.
Sometimes psychologists use audio or video tapes
to record data in research. For example, psychologists
studying self-esteem in young children may collect
qualitative data by asking children open-ended
questions related to their self-esteem. Likewise, a
researcher interested in learning about the factors
that enable some people to cope better than others
with personal trauma may collect qualitative data
through a survey involving participants’ responses
about how they felt in a specific traumatic situation
and how they dealt with their feelings.
Figure 2.19  In this survey, the researcher is collecting
qualitative data through open-ended questions on how the
participant feels about closure of the local primary school.
Quantitative data
The majority of studies referred to in this text use
quantitative data, rather than qualitative data. This
reflects the preference for quantitative data in most
psychological research.
Quantitative data are numerical information on the
‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied; that is,
how much of something there is. They may be raw
data that have not been analysed in any way, such
as lengths or weights of prematurely born infants, or
percentages of participants who respond with ‘Yes’ or
‘No’ to survey questions, or the mean reaction time of
participants when a light is flashed onto a screen in
an experiment, and so on.
All types of mental experiences and behaviours
can be described in quantitative terms; that
is, as quantities or numbers. For example, in a
survey, a question might ask participants to use a
five-point scale to rate their feelings on issues such as
compulsory school uniform or the persuasiveness of a
particular advertisement.
Information about individuals’ scores on a range
of psychological tests such as intelligence tests,
personality tests, career inventories and various
ability and interest tests are also provided as
quantitative data. In addition, data collected during
experiments are typically collected in a numerical
form and are therefore usually quantitative.
The use of numerical data makes it easier to
summarise and interpret information collected
through research. This is why quantitative data are
often preferred to qualitative data, although this does
not mean that qualitative data are less important or
less useful than quantitative data.
Although qualitative data are typically expressed
in the form of words, they can be converted into
a quantitative form. For example, participants’
responses to open-ended interview questions about
their thoughts and feelings when they are anxious
could be summarised as numbers based on the
frequency (‘how often’) or intensity (‘how strong’)
with which certain feelings are reported.
Figure 2.20  In this experiment involving animal learning, an
electronic recording device is used to collect quantitative
data on the frequency of responses made by the rat.
Chapter 2  Research methods 1  65
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.15
Review questions
1 Define the terms qualitative data and quantitative
data with reference to an example that is not used
in the text.
2 Indicate whether the data collected in each of the
following research studies are qualitative data or
quantitative data. Explain your answers.
(a) Audio recordings of a student’s description of
the effect of background noise on their ability to
learn previously unseen material
(b) A student’s ratings on a seven-point rating
scale used to assess how much background
noise affected their ability to learn previously
unseen material
(c) In a videotaped recording of a group discussion
by married couples, the number of marriages
identified as being successful as a result of
marrying at an older age as compared with
those who married at a younger age
(d) Records of whether people who wear glasses
can read more quickly than people who do not
Figure 2.21 Qualitative research may be used to study
wear glasses
life experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in a
(e) A prisoner’s description of the psychological detention centre.
effects of time in solitary confinement
(f) Age at which infants are reported by their
Experiments can produce qualitative data as well
mothers as saying a recognisable word for the
first time as numbers. For example, consider the Stanford
(g) Mothers’ descriptions of changes in their Prison Experiment conducted by Zimbardo (1972)
children’s behaviour after their children began (see pages 337–9). Zimbardo observed, described
attending child care and reported common and unusual behaviour and
verbal responses of the ‘prisoners’ and ‘guards’,
often referring to specific examples (qualitative
data). However, Zimbardo also measured the
Qualitative and extent to which the ‘prisoners’ were prepared to

quantitative research obey the demands of the ‘guards’ and reported

The type of data collected is used as the basis
of classifying research methods into two broad
categories called qualitative research and
quantitative research. Qualitative research involves
the collection of qualitative data; whereas,
quantitative research involves the collection of
quantitative data.
Experiments are usually described as quantitative
research because participants’ responses during the
experiment are typically measured then described
in a numerical form. Research involving analysis of
written information (for example, descriptions in a
diary or responses to open-ended interview questions
such as ‘How did you feel when you were bullied?’)
is usually described as qualitative research. However,
describing research methods as either qualitative or
quantitative can be misleading because it suggests
that certain research methods are only suitable for
collecting either qualitative or quantitative data or can
only produce either qualitative or quantitative data
(Banyard & Grayson, 2000).
his observations in the form of graphs and tables
(quantitative data).
Similarly, analysis of responses given by
participants in a discussion group or in extended,
essay-type text can produce quantitative as well as
qualitative data. For example, Gilligan and Attanucci
(1988) studied the difference between males and
females (i.e. sex differences) in responding to moral
dilemmas. Participants were presented with various
moral dilemmas, including that of Heinz used by
Kohlberg in his research. They gave their answers to
several dilemmas, explaining the reasoning behind
their answers. This provided qualitative data that
was useful in assessing and describing participants’
thoughts and feelings in a ‘richer’ way than is
possible through collecting only quantitative data.
However, the researchers also analysed the content
of different interview responses, categorised and
coded the responses, then calculated percentages of
different kinds of moral judgements that appeared in
the interview records, thereby also obtaining useful
quantitative data.

66 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.16
Review questions
1 Explain the main difference between qualitative and quantitative research with reference to qualitative and
quantitative data and an example of each type of data.
2 Complete the following table by indicating whether each research design is an example of qualitative research,
quantitative research, or both.

Qualitative Quantitative
research design research research

Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a

prolonged study session improves performance on a test

Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-determined

items on an observation checklist

Organising a small number of participants into a discussion group to study the experience of
sexual discrimination in the workplace

Studying the behaviour of newborn infants by observing and recording their second-by-
second movements during their first 72 hours of life following birth

Using a written questionnaire with closed-ended questions (e.g. Yes/No) to survey a large
number of bushfire victims who may be experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder

Investigating the effects of observing violence by analysing and interpreting children’s

drawings after they have watched violent cartoons on television

Investigating ways in which females are portrayed in the print media by analysing newspaper
and magazine advertisements

Testing the relationship between scores on an intelligence test and scores on a personality test

Observing whether drivers conform to road rules by counting the number of drivers who
disobey a stop sign at an intersection

Observing the effects of using a treat as a reward to teach a dog to sit on command

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.17 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.18

Media response — qualitative
and quantitative research
Locate one newspaper, magazine or internet article
that reports psychological qualitative research and one
reporting quantitative research. Make a copy of each
article so that they can be presented next to each
other on an A3 sheet of paper. If required, reduce the
size of the articles through photocopying, but ensure
they are still legible.
Writing in point form on the A3 sheet, complete the
following tasks for each article:
1 State whether the article reports qualitative research,
quantitative research or both.
2 Identify the specific research method and/or data
collection technique.
3 Outline what the research study is about and the
main findings (if described).
4 Identify a potential limitation of the research study.
Selecting an appropriate
research method
For each of the following topics, decide which
research method — experiment, case study or
observational study — would be the most appropriate
for undertaking a research study and briefly
explain why.
1 Determining why someone with great potential gave
up their career for a job they don’t really like so that
they can spend more time with their family
2 Determining how teenagers behave on their
first date
3 Determining if watching violent cartoons on
television will cause aggressive behaviour in children
4 Determining if people would obey a person in
authority who ordered them to hurt another person
5 Determining whether boys and girls in preschool
have different preferences for play activities

Chapter 2 research methods 1 67

MAKING SENSE OF DATA
When their research study has been conducted and
results obtained, researchers generally do three things
with the results. First, the results are summarised and
described so they can be interpreted. The results are
then interpreted so they can be understood. Finally,
the results are explained; that is, reasons are suggested
about why the particular results were obtained and
what they mean.
Researchers use statistics to summarise and
interpret the results obtained from research.
Statistics are essentially mathematical procedures.
Two main kinds of statistics are used in psychology —
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics are used for summarising and
describing results. They include calculations such as
percentages and means (‘averages’), and preparation
of tables and graphs. Inferential statistics are used for
interpreting and giving meaning to results, such as
calculating the probability of results being due to the IV.
Units 1 and 2 Psychology focus on descriptive
statistics. These will assist you to read and
understand the descriptions of psychological research
referred to throughout this textbook. They will also
assist you in writing reports on investigations you
conduct as part of your study of VCE Psychology. We
start with a basic descriptive statistic with which you
are already familiar.
of the aggressive behaviours on your list, you record
your observation with a tick and shift your attention
to another child. Of the 25 boys you observe, six
use an aggressive act and are therefore judged as
aggressive, and four of 16 girls observed are judged as
aggressive.
On the basis of these results, more boys than girls
were aggressive. However, more boys than girls
were also observed. In order to reach a conclusion,
you need to work out whether 25 6
is more than or
4
less than 16 . This can be achieved by calculating the
percentages of boys and girls who were aggressive,
then making a comparison.
A percentage is a statistic that expresses a number
as a proportion (or fraction) of 100. The term per
cent means ‘per hundred’, or ‘for every hundred’. It is
shown using the per cent sign (%). For example, 65%
65
is equal to 100 and means 65 parts out of 100; 100% of
something means all of it. A percentage is calculated
using the formula
subtotal 100
%= ×
total 1
It is easy to calculate a percentage when the
original amount is 100. For example, if you complete
a 100 item speed and accuracy test and correctly
answer 90 items within the time limit, then your
percentage score is:

90 (subtotal) 100 90 × 100 900

× = = = 90%
Percentages 100 (total) 1 100 100
Suppose you conduct an observational study to find For the data obtained in the observation study
out whether boys are more aggressive than girls described above:
during lunch time in the prep area of the school
grounds at a local primary school. You want to obtain 6 (subtotal) 100 6 × 100 600
boys: × = = = 24%
quantitative data, so you work out a list of observable 25 (total) 1 25 25
behaviours that you consider to be aggressive, such as
pretend fighting and intentional pushing or shoving. 4 (subtotal) 100 4 × 100 400
girls: × = = = 25%
Whenever you see a boy or girl demonstrating one 16 (total) 1 16 16

BOX 2.2  Finding percentages using a calculator

A scientific, graphics or CAS calculator can be used to calculate percentages. Two
examples using a CAS calculator are:
1 Changing a fraction to a percentage
Ensure the calculator is set in Exact or Auto mode. Type the fraction on a Calculator
page by using the fraction template. Multiply this by 100 to change it to a percentage
and press ENTER . If an approximate answer is required, press CTRL ENTER . Use
brackets with mixed numbers so that the correct order of operations is followed. The
screen at right shows 38 and 114 expressed as percentages.

2 Finding a percentage of an amount

Enter the percentage as a fraction with a denominator of 100 and multiply by the
amount. If a fraction rather than a decimal is required, then ensure your calculator
is set in either Exact or Auto mode. The screen at right shows 8% of 280 and
12.5% of 8.65.

68  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology

 This means that the proportion of boys
(calculated ‘out of 100’) who were aggressive in the
Tables
school grounds is slightly less than the proportion Suppose that a researcher is interested in studying
of girls. The main problem in making a comparison whether body image (a person’s ‘view’ of their
of the boys and girls based on the raw data is that body) changes during puberty and adolescence. The
the two groups were of unequal size. Calculating a researcher might give a body image rating scale to
percentage for each group overcame this problem ten 10-year-olds, ten 12-year-olds, ten 14-year-olds,
and enabled comparison of the scores for boys ten 16-year-olds, ten 18-year-olds, ten 20-year-olds
and girls. and ten 22-year-olds. Each research participant would
Percentages are commonly used in psychology be required to make a judgement about their physical
to describe data; for example, scores on a test, appearance using a rating scale ranging from 1 to
categories of scores, changes or trends in scores, the 10, with 1 being equivalent to very unattractive, 5 to
percentage of people who respond in a particular neither attractive nor unattractive and 10 to very
way (such as correct or incorrect, agree or disagree, attractive. In all, there would be 70 bits of data (that
do something or do not do something) and the is, ratings) about the body image of participants in
percentage of people in a socio-cultural group different age groups. How can the researcher make
(such as gender, age, income level, educational sense of all these different bits of information so that
qualifications and ethnicity). meaningful conclusions about body image and age
can be drawn?
The first step would be to use descriptive statistics
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.19 to organise, summarise and describe the data so
that they can be interpreted. It is difficult to draw
Calculating percentages conclusions about whether (and if so, how) body
image changes with age by looking at 70 individual
1 Calculate percentages for the following raw data. ratings. Thus, in order to compare the body image
Round your answer to the nearest whole number. ratings of the seven different age groups to determine
(a) Sixteen out of 62 participants observed in whether there is a change with age, the data for each
the library broke a rule at least once during a
group could be summarised and presented in a table.
10 minute observation period. What percentage
of participants broke a rule at least once?
This is shown in table 2.3.
(b) Survey data show that 52 out of 75 students
Table 2.3 raw data — participant ratings
watch TV before school. What percentage
of students watch TV before school? What age group
percentage do not watch TV before school? (years) participant ratings
(c) There are 498 500 Australians aged between
20 and 24 years of age. Of these, 199 400 live at 10 5 2 8 7 5 6 10 3 6 7
home with their parent(s). What percentage live
at home with their parent(s)? 12 7 3 6 7 5 4 2 8 4 1
2 A researcher gave parents a 50 item questionnaire 14 9 7 5 5 3 1 1 4 2 9
on child-rearing practices. There were 28 fathers
and 44 mothers in the sample. The raw data were 16 6 7 4 3 8 2 1 9 4 2
first organised in a table (shown below) to enable
comparison of scores achieved by fathers and 18 4 1 7 2 3 8 6 1 9 4
mothers. Complete the table by calculating each
percentage to the nearest whole number. 20 6 8 7 8 2 9 7 8 7 7

22 8 7 4 7 7 7 8 6 8 8
Fathers Mothers

raw per cent raw per cent

Scores score (%) score (%)
A table is an orderly arrangement and display of
data in columns and rows. The columns and rows
0–9 4 4 are usually identified by names (or ‘headers’) that
assist in making comparisons. Some conventions, or
10–20 9 7
standards, for tables used in psychology are:
21–30 10 10 • all tables should be numbered (e.g.,
Table 1, Table 2)
31–40 3 12
• each table should have an individual title (in
41–50 2 11 journal articles the title is in italics and each word
is italicised). The title should be a clear statement
Total 28 100% 44 100%
which explains what the table is about without
being too long.

Chapter 2 research methods 1 69

• each column should be identified using a
descriptive header. The first letter of each header
should be capitalised.
• where appropriate, each row should be identified
using a descriptive header. The first letter of each
header should be capitalised.
• the reader should be able to quickly work out what
the table is about and comparisons of data should
be easy to make.
Table 2.3 provides some order to the data on body
image ratings by organising the ratings into different
age groups. However, comparison of ratings across
the age groups is still difficult because the data have
been inadequately summarised. To enable the ratings
of different age groups to be compared, a single
number that summarises all the data for each age
group would be calculated.
For this study, the researcher could calculate the
mean rating for each age group. The mean scores
could be used to describe the ‘average’ body image
rating for each age group and would enable the
researcher to compare the different age groups. This
is shown in table 2.4. The mean is another type of
descriptive statistic. This is discussed in more detail
in Unit 2, chapter 7.
Table 2.4  Mean body image ratings of each age group
Age group (years) Mean scores
10 5.9
12 4.7
14 4.6
16 4.6
18 4.5
20 6.9
22 7.0
Graphs
The saying ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’
has also been applied to numbers — a graph is
said by some researchers to be ‘worth a thousand
numbers’. Pictures that present numerical data
are called graphics. The most commonly used
picture or graphic is a graph. A graph is a pictorial
representation of data.
Graphing or plotting data typically involves the
use of two lines (axes) drawn at right angles to
one another. The horizontal line is the X axis and
the vertical line is the Y axis. The point where the
axes intersect is called the origin (0). Generally, the
frequency (for example, the number of cases or
amount of something) is plotted on the Y axis. The
unit of measurement (for example, time, weight)
70  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
is plotted along the X axis. Graphs show patterns
or trends in the data collected; for example, how
often a response is made, how aspects of behaviour
change over time or as a research participant’s
experience changes.
There are various types of graphs that express data
in different ways. The kind of graph used depends
mainly on the type of data collected. Among the
more commonly used kinds of graphs in psychology
are bar charts, histograms, pie charts, line graphs and
frequency polygons.
As with tables, there are conventions for presenting
graphs in psychology. These include:
• all graphs should be numbered (e.g.
Figure 1, Figure 2)
• each graph should have an individual title. (In
journal articles the title is italicised and each word
is italicised) The title should be a clear statement
that explains what the graph is about without
being too long.
• both the horizontal and vertical axes must be
labelled clearly and indicate what is plotted
• the reader should be able to quickly work out what
the graph is about.
Bar charts
One type of graph is called a bar chart (or bar graph).
A bar chart is a graph which uses a series of discrete
(separate) bars or rectangles adjacent (next) to, but
not touching one another, to enable comparisons
of different categories of data. The bars can be
positioned horizontally or vertically. One axis is used
to show the types of categories (e.g. age, sex, type of
response) and the other category is used to show the
frequency with which each category occurs (e.g. how
often, how much).
One important feature of a bar chart is that each
of the categories shown in the graph is separate or
distinct and there is no continuation between one
category and the next; for example, there would be
separate bars for data about female participants’
responses and male participants’ responses. Each bar
is the same width and has a small space between it
and the next bar.
Figure 2.22 shows an example of a bar chart.
Researchers who studied the type of play in which
four- to five-year-old children engaged recorded
the type and amount of time children spent
participating in each type of play at a kindergarten
over a one-week period. The type of play in which
children engaged was categorised according to
American psychologist Mildred Parten’s (1932)
system for classifying play behaviour. Parten
described four main types of play: solitary play,
when the child plays alone and independently;
parallel play, when the child plays alone and
independently alongside, but not with, other
children; associative play, when the child plays
with other children in a similar activity, but in
their own way; and cooperative play, when the LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.20
child plays with other children at the same activity.
The researchers who were testing the relevance Representing data using a bar chart
of Parten’s theory among children today added a A researcher obtained data from a group of university
further category called unoccupied play, when the students on the relaxation techniques they found to
child did not engage in any play at all for a period be most effective for minimising anxiety experienced
of time. Results of the research are shown in the bar prior to exams. The raw data are described in
chart in figure 2.22. table 2.5 below. Present these data (a) in a table that
summarises the raw data, and (b) in a bar chart.
20 Table 2.5 types of relaxation techniques used

participant relaxation technique

15 1 Meditation
Amount of time (hours)

2 Drinking coffee

10 3 Drinking coffee

4 Listening to music

5 Exercise
5
6 Meditation

7 Sleeping
0
8 Listening to music
Solitary
play

Parallel
play

Associative
play

Cooperative
play

Unoccupied
behaviour

9 Exercise

10 Listening to music
Types of play
11 Exercise
Figure 2.22 example of a bar chart
12 Sleeping

Sometimes a bar chart is used to present values or 13 Meditation

scores for two different categories within each bar.
14 Drinking coffee
For example, figure 2.23 shows mean scores on a test
of memory (recall) obtained by males and females of 15 Exercise
different ages.
16 Exercise

20 17 Meditation
Male
18 18 Sleeping
Female
16 19 Sleeping

14 20 Listening to music
Score on test of recall

12

10 Histograms
8 Histograms look like bar charts, except the bars
touch. A histogram is a graph which shows the
6
frequency with which a particular score (or range of
4 scores) occurs in a set of data. A histogram usually
has the types of categories (for example, sex, age
2 groups) plotted on the horizontal (X) axis and the
0 frequency (how often each score occurs) plotted
10–14 15–19 70–74 75+ on the vertical (Y) axis. Rectangular bars are used
Age group to indicate the frequency of a particular score and
Figure 2.23 Scores on a test of recall obtained by males each rectangular bar is the same width, as shown in
and females of different ages figure 2.24.

Chapter 2 research methods 1 71

 100
Frequency (number of participants)
Female
Male
80

60

40

20

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Reaction time (seconds)
Figure 2.24 example of a histogram

Histograms differ from bar graphs in two main
ways — first, in histograms the bars touch; second,
the type of information or variables described on the
X axis is continuous and usually numerical, such
as age, time or the amount of something. Thus, the
X axis of a histogram can be plotted as individual
numbers or as intervals.
A histogram could be used to describe data
obtained in the following research. A researcher
interested in finding out sex differences in how
quickly information passes from the eye to the brain
then on to the hand conducted an experiment to test
reaction time; that is, how quickly male and female
participants responded to a red light appearing among
written text on a computer screen. Participants were
asked to press the space bar on the keyboard as soon
as they saw the red light. The time taken from the
appearance of the red light to pressing the space bar
was electronically recorded. Data for two groups of
participants can be described on the same histogram
using a different colour or pattern to identify the
responses of different groups, as shown in figure 2.24.
Pie charts
A pie chart, or pie graph, is a circular diagram
that shows the proportions of values or scores for
different categories of data. Each category is shown
as a ‘slice of the pie’. The different-sized ‘slices’
represent the differences between categories. As
shown in figure 2.25, a pie chart doesn’t use a set of
axes to plot data and the data are usually shown as
percentages.
A pie chart is best used to compare different
parts of the same whole. The circle of a pie chart
represents the whole, or 100%. Each portion (‘slice
of the pie’) within the circle represents a part of
that 100%. In this way, it is possible to see how
something is divided up according to categories.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.21

Representing data using a histogram
The following scores were obtained by research participants on a test of problem-solving ability. Graph the data using
a histogram.

Score on test of Score on test of Score on test of

problem-solving Frequency problem-solving Frequency problem-solving Frequency

0 0 7 5 14 12

1 2 8 10 15 17

2 4 9 12 16 11

3 0 10 12 17 10

4 3 11 13 18 15

5 6 12 11 19 4

6 3 13 15 20 3

72 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.22

20.4
7.6 Representing data using a pie chart
The following data were obtained from a research
study on the content of dreams. The data show
activities most frequently reported in dreams. Graph
31 the data using a pie chart.

percentage
Age (years) activity (approx.)
23.8
20–24
Movement (walking, running, jumping) 34
25–34
17.2 35–44 Talking 11
55–64
Sitting 7
65 and
over Watching 7

Figure 2.25 an example of a pie chart showing the age of Socialising 6

people employed as psychologists in australia
Playing 5

A pie chart can be drawn by hand using a Manual work 4

compass to construct the circle and a protractor
for each portion of the circle. The circle is
equivalent to 360° and each portion of the pie chart
is calculated as a percentage of 360°, with 1% being
equivalent to 3.6°. For example, if 20% needs to be
represented in the pie chart, then 20% of 360° is 72°
(or 20 × 3.6° = 72°). Within the pie chart, 72° would
be a slice equivalent to 20% of the whole area
of the pie.
In figure 2.25, a key is used to indicate each
category (‘slice’) of the graph and the percentage for
each category is clearly shown. A pie chart such as
the one in figure 2.26 can more easily be constructed
with Microsoft Excel®, or similar software, to clearly
show each category and its respective percentage.
7.6
20.4 Age (years)
20–24
31 25–34
23.8 35–44
55–64
17.2
65 and
over
Figure 2.26 an example of a pie chart constructed with
Microsoft excel software
A pie chart is an effective way of showing
proportions of data, particularly when there is a
relatively small number of categories. However, it
is important to be aware that if one or more parts
of the whole are left out, the omission of data will
artificially increase the percentage values of the other
parts that are included.
Striving 4
Thinking 4
Relationship 3
Quarrelling 3
Acquiring 12
total 100
Line graphs
A line graph is another way of describing data. A
line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates
the relationship between two factors, or two variables
in an experiment; for example, reaction time and
a person’s age, or group size and time taken to
complete a task.
The horizontal, or X, axis usually has the
independent variable plotted on it, with the
numerical value of the data increasing from left
to right along the axis. A line graph that describes
the relationship between group size and time
taken to complete a task would list the group size
in terms of the number of members of the group
on the X axis, in intervals; for example, beginning
at two, then three, four people and so on. One
important feature of a line graph is that the variable
plotted on the X axis is continuous; that is, there is
a series of progressively increasing values that can
be listed.
The vertical, or Y, axis usually has the dependent
variable (the measure of performance) plotted
along it. A line graph that described the data from
the experiment on group size and time taken to

Chapter 2 research methods 1 73

complete a task would record the amount of time Frequency polygons
taken along the Y axis, in intervals; for example, A frequency polygon is a graph showing the
beginning at zero (which is a convention or frequency (‘how often’) of data using a line graph.
‘rule’ for graphs), then one, two, three, four and Construction of a frequency polygon involves
five minutes where five minutes is slightly higher
plotting the scores on a task (or groups of scores)
than the maximum time ever taken by any group to
on the horizontal (X) axis against the frequency of
complete the task (figure 2.27).
the scores (or groups of scores) on the vertical (Y)
Various points on a line graph represent the score
axis of a graph. Dots are plotted at the intersection
on one axis that corresponds with a value on the
of the X and Y axes to indicate individual scores and
other axis. The intersecting point can represent a
a line is drawn to connect the dots and is brought
corresponding IV/DV score on the two variables
down to 0 on the X axis at either side of the polygon
by one research participant, or the mean score of a
(figure 2.28).
group of participants.
15
Y axis
5

Frequency of eye contact

12
Amount of time (minutes)

4
9
3

2 6

1 3

0 X axis
5 6 7 8 0
2 3 4 Less 5–9 10–14 15–19 20+
Group size than 5
Distance between two people (metres)
Figure 2.27 example of a line graph
Figure 2.28 example of a frequency polygon

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.23 In a frequency polygon, if groups of scores are

plotted on the X axis, the scores are represented
Representing data using a line graph on the graph by the value of the mid-point of the
range of scores. For example, if the interval of
Construct a line graph by plotting the data shown
scores ranges from 0–4, the mid-point is two. The
below. Ensure you give the line graph an appropriate
title. You may consider using Microsoft Excel software dot to indicate the score of that range would be
to assist accuracy and save time. placed in line with the score of two. Frequency
polygons graph only the frequency of particular
age (in years) number of words spoken responses (or scores). Line graphs can be used
to demonstrate a relationship between any two
1.0 3 variables being studied.
One advantage of the frequency polygon over the
1.5 22
histogram is that more than one set of data can be
2.0 272 plotted on the same graph, which makes comparison
easier. For example, suppose a researcher collected
2.5 446 data on the effects of sleep deprivation on problem-
solving ability across three different age groups
3.0 896
(15–20 years, 35–40 years, 55–60 years).
3.5 1222 These data can be presented on one graph, as
shown in figure 2.29. To identify the results of the
4.0 1540 different groups on one graph, researchers could
4.5 1870 use different kinds of lines for each set of data (such
as a solid line, a broken line and a dotted line), or
5.0 2072 different coloured lines (such as blue, purple and
orange) or different shapes to identify the point
6.0 2562
of intersection between the X and Y axes (such as
triangles, circles and squares).

74 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

 15–20 years old
35–40 years old
100
55–60 years old
Mean percentage of correct responses

80
on a problem-solving task

60

40

20

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Sleep deprivation (hours)
Figure 2.29 Frequency polygon showing several sets of data

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.24 ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL

Representing data using
a frequency polygon
A researcher collected data on maze learning by rats.
The rats were required to run through a maze to reach
a goal box which contained cheese. The researchers
measured the animals’ learning by counting the number
of trials each rat took before it could run through the
maze from start to finish without making an error (that
is, running down a passageway that led to a deadend).
The results for 20 rats were:
6, 12, 5, 7, 10, 12, 6, 5, 7, 10, 12,
15, 14, 20, 18, 18, 20, 14, 15 and
12 trials.
The first 10 scores were from the offspring of a pair
of rats that had superior maze-running abilities. The
second 10 scores were offspring from a pair of rats
that had inferior maze-running abilities.
1 Summarise these data as a table.
2 Represent these data as a frequency polygon so
that comparisons can be made between the scores
for the two groups.
3 What conclusions could be drawn from the
frequency polygon?
CONDUCT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Is it appropriate for a researcher to inflict pain
on a person in order to study mental experiences
associated with pain? Does your answer depend
on the amount of pain, or is any amount of
pain unacceptable? Does it matter if the pain
is psychological rather than physical? Should a
participant know exactly what an experiment will
involve before they participate? Should a participant
be allowed to withdraw from an experiment
whenever they want to, regardless of the reason?
What if the researcher has gone to great expense
to conduct the research? What if the research
has important benefits for humankind? Such
questions raise important ethical issues that need
to be considered by researchers whenever they
undertake research.
The term ethics refers to standards that guide
individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable
conduct. Essentially, ethical standards help us
to make judgements about which behaviours are
appropriate (‘right’) and inappropriate (‘wrong’)
(NHMRC, 2007). All societies and cultures have

Chapter 2 research methods 1 75

ethical standards that guide the behaviour
of members of that society or culture. In
addition to these standards, most professions
have their own standards of ethical conduct
that must be followed. For example, just
as it would be considered unethical for a
medical doctor to discuss a patient’s condition
with anyone apart from the patient or people
responsible for the patient, so too would it be
unethical for a psychologist to reveal information
discussed in a counselling session or the results
of a psychological test to anyone apart from the
client, or the guardians of the client if the client is a
child under a guardian’s care.
Ethical standards and considerations also apply
to experimental and other research situations. The
way human participants in experiments are to be
treated is determined by ethical guidelines. These
guidelines help ensure that the wellbeing and rights
of research participants are protected during their
involvement in psychological research and following
the research. In addition, the guidelines help Figure 2.30 the apS Code of Ethics and nhMrC
National Statement
prevent unnecessary research and promote research
that is or will be of benefit to the community or
humankind.
Ethical guidelines for psychological research
Roles and responsibilities
are described in a document called the National of the experimenter
Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research When planning research, the experimenter (or
(2007). The National Statement has been jointly researcher) must take into consideration the ethical
developed by the National Health and Medical issues involved. The experimenter is responsible for
Research Council (NHMRC), the Australian Research ensuring that the research is conducted in such a
Council and the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ manner that the wellbeing of research participants
Committee. is the main concern and that participants are not
The National Statement has been prepared to help placed at risk of injury or harm in any way. Under no
ensure researchers meet the requirements of all circumstances is the experimenter allowed to conduct
Australian Government Acts of Parliament related research which causes participants severe distress.
to research involving people. This means that all The experimenter must be aware that in all scientific
researchers are legally required to follow all ethical research with human participants, there is a need to
guidelines specified by the National Statement. balance the benefits to society from the findings of
However, the purpose of the National Statement is the investigation against any discomfort or risks to
to promote appropriate research values (‘what is the research participants.
important’) and procedures for ethical rather than
legal reasons. This ensures that participants are
provided with the respect and protection that is due
to them. It also encourages researchers to undertake
Participants’ rights
research studies that will benefit the community As well as ensuring that no psychological or physical
(NHMRC, 2007). harm is caused to participants, an experimenter
To help ensure research will be conducted must also respect and ensure participants’ rights as
ethically, the researcher must consult with colleagues individuals.
and an ethics committees as appropriate. In
universities, where most psychological research is Confidentiality
planned and conducted, there are ethics committees Participants have a right to privacy, so any
or review panels which review research proposals to information that may identify details of their
ensure ethical guidelines will be followed. involvement in a study (for example, test results or
The ethical guidelines for psychological research personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written
cover all aspects of the research, particularly the consent is obtained. The confidentiality requirement
roles and responsibilities of the experimenter and the applies to the access of research data by others,
well-being and rights of research participants. and to the storage and disposal of research data.

76 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

 Balance benefits of the research and risks to participants.
Benefits Risks
Ensure participants’ consent is based on knowledge and
understanding.
Use willing participants.
Protect participants from psychological and physical harm.
Remove negative after-effects.
Figure 2.31  Some important ethical guidelines that must be followed when undertaking research in psychology
Wherever possible, the procedures for establishing
confidentiality must be explained to participants
before the experiment is actually conducted.
Voluntary participation
The experimenter must try to ensure that
participants voluntarily consent to be involved in a
study. Participants must not be pressured to take part
in a study. The experimenter must also ensure that
prospective participants do not experience negative
consequences if they choose not to be involved
in a study.
Withdrawal rights
The experimenter must inform participants of
procedures to be used and that they are free to
Take responsibility for your research.
Be honest with your participants.
Do not exploit your participants.
Debrief your participants thoroughly.
Maintain and retain confidentiality.
participate, decline to participate, or to withdraw
from a study at any time should they choose to do
so. Similarly, participants may also withdraw their
results after the research is finished. In addition, the
experimenter must ensure that participants suffer
no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing
from the study.
Informed consent procedures
Wherever possible, participants must be appropriately
informed of what the study is about and the
reason(s) it is being conducted. This includes
information such as:
• the procedures to be used
• clarification of possible risks or adverse effects of
the procedures to be used
Chapter 2  Research methods 1  77
• clarification of the demands and possible
disadvantages of participating
• explanation of how information will be collected
and recorded; how, where, and for how long it will
be stored; and who will have access to the stored
information
• the right to decline to participate or to withdraw at
any time during the research
• explanation of confidentiality and limits to
confidentiality
• possible outcomes of the research
• the likelihood and form of publication of the
research results.
Informed consent must be appropriately documented;
for example, by requiring each participant to read and
complete a consent form that contains all relevant
information about the research and their participation.
The form should use ‘plain language’ and take account of
the participants’ level of comprehension.
For participants who are legally unable to give
informed consent (for example, children and
intellectually disabled people), the experimenter
must obtain appropriate consent from the persons
who are legally responsible for participants’ wellbeing
(i.e. parent or guardian).
Deception
Sometimes, giving participants information about a
study may influence their behaviour during the research
and affect the accuracy of the results. In these instances,
when it is necessary for scientific reasons to conduct a
study without fully informing participants of the true
purpose of the study prior to its commencement, the
experimenter must ensure that participants do not
suffer distress from the research procedures. In all cases
involving deception, participants must be debriefed at
the conclusion of the study.
Debriefing
Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s
understanding of the study after it has been conducted.
This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or
beliefs that participants may have about the study.
The experimenter must anticipate the possible
effects on participants of being involved in the study,
and provide information about services available to
treat any unnecessary distress that results from their
participation.
Once the entire study has been completed, the
experimenter must provide an opportunity for
participants to obtain appropriate information about the
study, including its procedures, results and conclusions.
Professional conduct
At all times throughout the research, researchers are
expected to conduct themselves in a professional
manner. They must not behave in a manner that
78  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
brings disrepute to the psychology profession, or to
scientific research. For example, they must not use
a position of authority to put pressure on people to
agree to participate in research.
In addition, if psychologists are involved in
conducting research with colleagues who are
not psychologists, such as biologists or medical
practitioners, they have a responsibility to ensure
their research colleagues agree to follow the ethical
code of conduct and guidelines prior to conducting
the research.
BOX 2.3  E thical practices and
conduct in VCE Psychology
Advice and ethical practices and conduct that must be
followed by VCE Psychology students and teachers is
contained in the VCE Psychology Study Design. This
advice includes the following:
ETHICAL CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS
As part of this study teachers and students will be
involved in teaching and learning activities which
include experimental investigations using human
subjects. Teachers and schools have a legal and
moral responsibility to ensure that students follow
ethical principles at all times when undertaking such
investigations. Teachers should refer to the following
documents for detailed advice:
• the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
Human Research (2007), issued by the National
Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) in
accordance with the NHMRC Act 1992 (Cwlth),
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/
e72syn.htm
• the National Privacy Principles in the Privacy
Amendment (Private Sector) Act 2000 (Cwlth),
http://www.privacy.gov.au/
• the Code of Ethics of the Australian Psychological
Society (APS), http://www.psychology.org.au.
SAFETY AND WELLBEING
This study may include potentially sensitive
topics. Teachers should ensure that students have
opportunities to consider topics systematically and
objectively, and to become aware of the diversity
of views held on such matters. Students should not
be asked to disclose personal information about
their own or others’ health status and behaviours
nor should they feel compelled to volunteer this
information.
When dealing with sensitive mental health matters,
students should be specifically advised that they:
(a) should not necessarily interpret their own
experiences as signs of pathology
(b) are not in a position to diagnose problems or offer
any counselling or therapy.
In addition, students should be given information
about sourcing available treatment services within and
outside school.
 experiment and the psychologist will have a good
As part of this study teachers and students will idea of what it has already learned before the
consider different assessments of intelligence, including experiment is conducted.
standardised psychological tests which are designed • When certain experiments require large numbers
to be administered only by trained psychologists.
of participants who have, for example, the same
Teachers must limit access to such tests and ensure
that students understand that such tests are valid only
genetic background, animals are more easily
if administered by a qualified psychologist. obtained than humans.
• ‘Participant expectations’ can influence the results
LeGiSLatiVe COMpLianCe of an experiment, however, animals don’t usually
When collecting and using information, the provisions have expectations and they are not able to guess
of privacy and copyright legislation, such as the
the purpose of an experiment.
Victorian Information Privacy Act 2000 and Health
Records Act 2001, and the Federal Privacy Act 1988
Many arguments have been presented against
and Copyright Act 1968, must be met. the use of animals in psychological research.
One argument is that it is not possible to apply
(generalise) the results of animal studies to humans
because the species are not the same even though
USE OF ANIMALS IN there may appear to be similarities. An issue for
researchers is how far they can generalise about
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH human mental experiences and behaviour from
Although psychology is primarily interested in the results of animal studies. If laboratory animals
human behaviour and mental processes, about 10% die after prolonged sleep loss, would humans? If a
of research involves non-human participants. Within drug causes a brain disorder in animals, should it be
this group, most are mice, rats, hamsters and pigeons. banned for human use?
About 5% of the animals used are monkeys and Another argument is that humans should respect
other primates. animals and protect them from harm rather
Following are the main reasons animals have been than use them in research. It is also suggested
used in research. that humans do not have the right to dominate
• Some psychologists are genuinely interested in other species.
studying animal behaviour. This field of study is
commonly referred to as ethology.
• Some studies cannot be conducted with humans
due to the risk of psychological and/or physical
harm that may be caused, or because suitable
human participants are unavailable (see
page 177).
• Bodily systems and/or behaviours of some animals
are similar to those of humans; therefore, using
animals can be a ‘starting point’ for learning more
about human behaviour.
• Animals have practical advantages over people for
use as research participants. For example, studying
the effects of ageing from birth through to ‘old age’
is not generally practical in humans because most
people live more than 75 years, compared with
rats which have a life expectancy of two years.
Another advantage is that some animal species
breed a lot faster than humans. For example, rats GUIDELINES TO PROMOTE THE WELLBEING OF
produce a new generation every three months and ANIMALS USED FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES

can be used to study the development of certain THE ASSESSMENT AND ALLEVIATION OF
behaviours over successive generations within PAIN AND DISTRESS IN RESEARCH ANIMALS :

a relatively short period of time. Animals can

also be kept for long periods of time in captivity
in laboratories and it is easier to observe their
behaviour under these conditions.
W O R K I N G T O B U I L D A H E A L T H Y A U S T R A L I A
• The behaviour of animals can usually be controlled
to an extent not possible with human participants. Figure 2.32 psychologists must ensure that research
For example, a rat can be raised from birth in animals are well cared for, humanely treated and experience
a cage. The rat can then be used in a learning minimal pain and suffering.

Chapter 2 research methods 1 79

 In order to ensure that all reasonable steps are
taken to minimise the discomfort, illness and pain to
animals used in research, ethical guidelines have also
been established for the use of animals in research.
The use and care of laboratory animals must be
directly supervised by a person competent to ensure
their comfort, health and humane treatment. The
care and use of animals in research must follow the
NHMRC Guidelines to promote the wellbeing of animals
used for scientific purposes (2008).
According to the NHMRC guidelines, any research
with animals, including research activities in schools,
can be performed only if the research can be
justified. Justification involves weighing the predicted
scientific or educational value of the research against
the potential effects on the welfare of the animals.
If an animal is to be subjected to pain, stress or
deprivation (e.g. food, social interaction, sensory
stimuli), research may only occur if no other
alternative is available. If surgery is to occur, the
animals must be given the appropriate anaesthesia so
they do not experience pain. When an animal’s life is
to be terminated, it must be done quickly and
painlessly.
Role of ethics committees
The National Statement requires that all research
proposals involving human participants be reviewed
and approved by an ethics committee. This type of
committee is formally called a Human Research Ethics
Committee (HREC). Its main purpose is to review, or
‘assess’, research proposals
for approval purposes, and
then monitor the conduct of
the research (if it is approved)
to ensure all relevant ethical
guidelines are adopted
and followed.
Any HREC is required to
have a minimum of eight
members, preferably with an
equal number of men and
women, and with at least one-
third of the members from
outside the organisation for
which the HREC is reviewing
research. In addition, HREC
membership must include at
least two people with current
research experience that
is relevant to the research
proposal to be reviewed, a
lawyer, someone who performs
a ‘pastoral care’ role in the community (e.g. an
Aboriginal elder or a minister of religion), someone
professionally qualified in caring for or counselling
people (e.g. a nurse or social worker), and two people
80  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
from the wider community (‘lay people’ who cannot
be a scientist, doctor, lawyer or an ‘academic’ such as
university lecturer).
Generally, the roles of the HREC include:
• ensuring the research study is designed and
conducted in ethically appropriate ways and in
full accordance with relevant National Statement
guidelines
• ensuring the researcher(s) is adequately
experienced and qualified (or the researcher
is supervised by a qualified person if there are
concerns about their experience and qualifications)
• monitoring approved research (e.g. through
progress reports, random inspections of research
sites, interviews with participants)
• handling complaints (e.g. from participants, the
wider community)
• ensuring accountability of the researcher (e.g. the
researcher understands, accepts and maintains
responsibility for all aspects of their research).
HRECs are usually established by organisations
(public, not-for-profit or private) which conduct
research involving humans. Universities and hospitals
are the most common of these organisations. Not all
organisations which conduct research, however, have
their own HREC. Some organisations and individual
researchers use the services of HRECs within another
organisation (NHMRC, 2007).
The NHMRC also requires the use of ethics
committees for research involving animals. These
are called Animal Ethics Committees (AECs) and
members have roles and responsibilities similar to
those of HRECs.
Figure 2.33  An ethics committee reviews research
proposals for approval purposes and then monitors the
conduct of the research to ensure all relevant ethical
guidelines are adopted and followed. Review meetings are
usually informal, as shown in the photo.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.25
Review questions
1 Define the meaning of ethics in relation to research.
2 Why are ethical considerations and guidelines
necessary for psychological research?
3 What is the ethical responsibility of a researcher
who conducts research with human participants, but
does not fully inform them of the true purpose of the
research before the study begins because it may
influence the participants’ behaviour?
4 According to NHMRC ethical guidelines, if a research
participant became distressed during the research,
what should occur?
5 What is meant by the statement ‘participants must
be appropriately informed about the type of study
and the reasons for the research’?
6 Briefly summarise three ethical guidelines that
must be followed when planning to use animals in
psychological research.
7 (a) What is an ethics committee?
(b) Give three examples of its roles or responsibilities.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.26
Visual presentation — ethics in research
Prepare a poster that clearly illustrates one (or more)
of the ethical guidelines for psychological research.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.27
Applying ethical principles to research
Suppose you have been asked to sit on an ethics committee.
The following proposals for human research have been
presented to your committee for approval. Your task
is to evaluate the proposals in terms of whether they
meet the standards, then write your recommendations,
commenting on:
(a) whether the committee approves or rejects the
proposal as it is presented
(b) if the proposal is rejected, on the basis of which
ethical principle(s) it is rejected.
proposal 1
Danielle Foster is a clinical psychologist who is interested
in how parents cope with the death of a young child.
She proposes to obtain qualitative data through research
on grieving parents’ use of sources of support available
through the internet.
Foster is particularly interested in chat rooms dedicated to
parents who have lost a young child. In order to obtain realistic
qualitative data, she intends to pose as a parent who has
recently lost a child and participate in discussions in several
chat rooms. In the course of her chat room participation, she
will raise issues for discussion and make judgements about
the quality and usefulness of chat room support.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.28
Essay — ethics in research
Write a 300–400 word essay on one of these topics.
1 Why are ethics important in psychological research
with human participants? Explain with reference to
relevant ethical principles and examples not referred
to in the text.
or
2 Should it be permissible to use animals in psychological
research? Discuss with reference to advantages and
limitations of using animals in psychological research
and to relevant ethical principles.
In your essay, ensure that you:
• accurately define all key terms; for example, ethics,
ethical principles and psychological research
• use appropriate examples
• cover a range of relevant issues
• structure the information in a logical sequence
• express your information clearly and concisely
• accurately cite and reference all source material.
References may be used in obtaining information for
your essay.
The emphasis of the poster should be on a visual
representation of the ethical guideline(s) as well as key
points (rather than detailed descriptions).
proposal 2
Dr Jones is interested in the effect of stress on performance
on the McCord IQ Test. He feels that the test, which is very
widely used in schools, gives misleadingly low scores to
students under stress. He wants to divide his participants
(VCE students) into two groups, with 20 participants in
each group. All participants will take a fake pretest and will
be given their ‘results’. The experimental group will be told
that they failed the test and that it is surprising that they
were able to do well enough at secondary school to make
it through to VCE. The control group will be told that they
passed the test with flying colours. All of the students will
then be given the real McCord IQ test.
Dr Jones hypothesises that the experimental group will
not do as well on the IQ test as the control group. At the
end of the experiment, all students will be debriefed and
told that the pretest was not real, nor was the feedback
following pre-testing. In addition, the true purpose of the
study will be explained.
(Proposal 2 adapted from Herzog, H. (1996).
Discussing Ethical Issues in Psychological Research.
Psychology Teacher Network, Nov–Dec. p. 12.)
Options and variations
Chapter 2 research methods 1 81
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.29
Practical activity — determining
consistency in hand preference
Conduct an experiment to determine whether the
dominant writing hand is consistently used for a variety
of other tasks. Pairs of experimenters should collect
data using three volunteer participants who each give
informed consent.
Each participant should attempt or imitate a series
of tasks like those listed below. Experimenters should
record hand preference for each task on a pre-prepared
data sheet; that is, right (R), left (L) or either (E). Tasks
could include:
• writing your name
• using scissors
• shuffling a deck of cards
• threading a needle
• throwing a ball
• brushing teeth
• using a fork
• unscrewing a lid.
You should construct a hypothesis before you conduct
the research. Data for each participant should be tallied
and each participant should be categorised into one of
the following four groups, depending on their responses
to the tasks.
1 consistent right — all tasks were conducted using
either right (R) or right and either hand
2 right mixed — R for writing and L for other tasks
3 consistent left — all tasks were conducted using either
left (L) or left and either hand
4 left mixed — L for writing and R for other tasks
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.30
Research investigation — what
people dream about
Almost everyone dreams several times each night,
although some people are more able to recall their
dreams than others. Generally, a dream is a story-like
sequence of visual images or thoughts that usually
occurs during sleep. Dreams are sometimes a vague or
disjointed collection of seemingly unrelated events or
thoughts. At other times they are vivid, complex, logically
structured and very realistic.
When we recall a dream, we usually are able to remember
only a portion of the total dream. This helps explain why
sometimes when a dream is in progress it makes perfect
sense; however, when we awaken, the dream seems
illogical and strange. Unless we wake up during the dream,
or shortly after, we are likely to forget important aspects of
the dream, or even be unaware that we have dreamt at all.
A number of psychologists have conducted
research studies on what people dream about.
82 Unit 1 introduction to psychology
Data from pairs of experimenters could be combined with
those from other class members.
report
Prepare a brief report on the experiment which you
include in your folio of practical activities. Your report
should include:
1 A statement of the hypothesis tested by this research
2 The independent and dependent variables in the
experiment
3 A statement about whether the raw data were
qualitative or quantitative data
4 A description of the sample used to obtain the results
and how the sample was selected
5 A description of the key characteristics of the
population from which the sample was taken
6 A table and graph describing the results
7 A conclusion in which you state whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be supported on the basis of the
results obtained
8 A description of any extraneous variables that may
have substantially affected the results obtained from
the experiment
9 A statement about whether the results of the
experiment be generalised (applied) to the population?
Explain your answer.
Options and variations
Some of the common findings of dream content
studies are:
• most dreams are about routine, everyday personal
matters usually involving familiar people in
familiar places
• the dreamer has company in most of their dreams,
more frequently with friends, acquaintances and family
members rather than with strangers
• monsters and the ‘boogie man’ rarely appear
• about half our dreams occur in colour and about half in
black and white
• while most dreams are filled with visual sensations, very
few involve the sensations of taste, smell or pain
• males and females tend to dream about different things —
males’ dreams are more active and more friendly, but are
also more likely to involve fighting; females are more often
pursued or endangered in their dreams
• physical activities most frequently reported in
dreams involve movement, such as walking, running
and jumping.
 This research activity requires you to collect data on
dream content and compare the results with those of
previous research.
Working as a member of a small group, construct a
short questionnaire of about four to six items to collect
data on one or more of the research findings described
here. Prior to conducting the research, construct a
hypothesis about the content of dreams.
Each group member should collect data from three or
four participants who can recall a recent dream. The data
collected should be combined and summarised using an
appropriate graph.
report
Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical
activities that includes the following:
1 a descriptive title
2 an ‘Introduction’ section with a brief outline of previous
research findings, an aim for your research and a
hypothesis
3 a ‘Results’ section with the data collected summarised
in a table and a graph
4 a ‘Conclusion’ section in which you briefly describe
your group’s results, as compared with the findings of
previous research.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Steps in psychological research
– Step 1: identification of the research problem
– Step 2: construction of a hypothesis
– Step 3: designing the method
– Step 4: collecting the data
– Step 5: analysing the data
– Step 6: interpreting the data
– Step 7: reporting the research findings

Research methods
– Experimental research
– Independent and dependent variables
– Extraneous variables
– Experimental and control groups
– Sampling procedures
– Selecting a sample
– Random sampling
– Stratified sampling
– Random–stratified sampling
– Random allocation
– Descriptive research
RESEARCH – Case studies
METHODS I – Observational studies

Quantitative and qualitative data

Making sense of data

– Percentages
– Tables
– Graphs

Ethics and professional conduct

– Roles and responsibilities of the experimenter
– Participants’ rights
– Professional conduct

Use of animals in psychological research

Chapter 2 research methods 1 83

Chapter 2 Test
SECTION A — Multiple-choice questions
Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an
incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if
more than one answer is completed for any question.
Question 1
The main purpose of ethical guidelines for
research is to
A. ensure that the results will not be disputed.
B. ensure that the research proceeds smoothly.
C. protect the welfare and rights of the
participants.
D. keep problems with the research participants to a
minimum level.
Question 2
A psychologist studied differences in the behaviour
of newborn babies who are breast-fed and newborn
babies who are bottle-fed. The psychologist conducted
the research with 20 mothers and their newborn
infants at the Royal Women’s Hospital (RWH). The
20 mothers (and infants) were selected from a group
of 45 mothers at the RWH who had all volunteered
to participate in the experiment. There were another
50 mothers with newborn infants at the hospital,
but these mothers did not volunteer to be in the
experiment.
  In this experiment, there were mothers (and
their infants) in the sample, mothers (and their
infants) in the population.
A. 20; 45
B. 45; 50
C. 20; 95
D. 45; 95
Question 3
A psychologist interested in the effects of anxiety
on exam performance asked research participants to
describe how they feel during an exam when they come
across a question they know they will get wrong. The
participants’ responses were tape-recorded so that they
could be analysed at a later time.
  The type of data obtained by the researcher is best
described as
A. descriptive data.
B. quantitative data.
C. qualitative data.
D. statistical data.
84  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology
Question 4
When the researcher replayed the tape of participants’
responses to the questions asked in the experiment
described in question 3, it was decided to summarise the
data using a table which showed the number of times certain
anxiety-related words, such as ‘worried’ and ‘scared’, and
non anxiety-related words such as ‘nothing’ and ‘didn’t
care’, were used. These types of data are best described as
A. descriptive data.
B. quantitative data.
C. qualitative data.
D. quantitative and qualitative data.
Question 5
An extraneous variable is best described as a/an
variable.
A. participant
B. experimenter
C. dependent
D. unwanted
Question 6
Which of the following procedures would be considered
to be unethical when conducting research?
A. Choosing only volunteers as participants in an
experiment
B. Disclosing a participant’s extraordinary test results to
the media without obtaining written consent to do so
from the research participant
C. Testing a child’s ability to do algebra even though the
child’s ability to do algebra is already known
D. Allowing a participant to discontinue being in the
experiment, even though the experiment has started
Question 7
A hypothesis is
A. a testable prediction about the results of a
research study.
B. a statement about whether the results apply to the
population of research interest.
C. a statement about the accuracy of the results of a
research study.
D. formulated after the results have been obtained.
Question 8 Question 11
Researchers collected data for a study on the To generalise from the results of research means
amount of vacation time employees had and their A. overstating the results.
happiness at work. The data were described in the B. stating whether the results can be replicated.
following graph. C. restricting the conclusion(s) to the results.
D. applying the results to the population.
100
Question 12
A research study is said to have external validity when
80
A. the results can reasonably be generalised.
Happiness at work (%)

B. an experimental design has been used.

60 C. a conclusion is drawn on the basis of the
results obtained.
40 D. all ethical requirements approved by an ethics
committee have been followed.
20 Question 13
A pie chart would be appropriate to show
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 A. how responses changed over time.
B. the distribution, or ‘spread’, of responses.
Number of weeks vacation per year
C. how responses changed in relation to the IV.
D. the percentages of responses by different groups.
The type of graph they used to show the results
is called a Question 14
A. line graph. In a histogram, the bars ; whereas in a bar
B. frequency distribution. chart, the bars .
C. frequency polygon. A. do not touch; do not touch
D. histogram. B. are vertical; are not vertical
C. touch; do not touch
Question 9 D. are not vertical; are vertical
The most important feature of a table is that
Question 15
A. percentages have been calculated.
Consider the following graph.
B. the data are displayed in an orderly arrangement of
rows and columns.
C. means have been calculated. 100
Female
Frequency (number of participants)

D. all raw data are included and accurately reflect Male

participants’ responses. 80

Question 10 60
Which of the following series of steps is the most
appropriate sequence for conducting psychological
40
research using scientific method?
A. Design research method, collect data, construct
a hypothesis, analyse data, interpret data, 20
report findings
B. Construct a hypothesis, design research method, 0
collect data, analyse data, interpret data, 0.5 1 1.5 2
report findings Reaction time (seconds)
C. Design research method, collect data, analyse
data, interpret data, construct a hypothesis, This type of graph is called a
report findings A. line graph.
D. Construct a hypothesis, collect data, design B. frequency distribution.
research method, interpret data, analyse data, C. frequency polygon.
report findings D. histogram.

Chapter 2  Research methods 1  85

SECTION B — Short-answer questions
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

Question 1  (3 marks)
(a)  What is a case study?  (1 mark)

(b)  Describe one advantage and one limitation of a case study.  (2 marks)

Question 2  (2 marks)
Distinguish between random sampling and random allocation.

Question 3  (1 mark)
What is a scientific benefit of reporting psychological research in a journal or other professional publication?

Question 4  (4 marks)
(a) Explain what a psychological experiment is with reference to two key features that distinguish the experiment
from other research methods.  (2 marks)

(b)  Describe one advantage and one limitation of an experiment.  (2 marks)

86  Unit 1  Introduction to psychology

SECTION c — Research scenario
Answer the questions in the spaces provided. Write using black or blue pen. Your responses may include
diagrams, charts and tables.

A researcher wanted to find out whether the presence of nicotine in the bloodstream is linked to sleep loss, specifically
sleep loss resulting from spending more time trying to fall asleep.
  To investigate this issue, one group of 15 volunteer students who were smokers and enrolled in the first year of
the Psychology course at a Victorian regional university (Group 1) were required to attend the university’s gym
at 9.00 pm on Tuesday evening, smoke ten, 8 mg cigarettes during a 90-minute period while listening to classical
music, and then go to sleep as quickly as they could in one of the standard single beds at the other end of the
gymnasium.
  On Friday evening later that week, the procedure was repeated with another group of 12 volunteer smokers
who were also enrolled in the first year Psychology course (Group 2). However, participants in this group were not
permitted to smoke any cigarettes in the one-hour period before being asked to go to sleep in one of the beds.
  Both groups were carefully observed from outside the gym by two research assistants through a monitor hooked
up to infra-red cameras. The research assistants recorded the precise time when each participant was observed to
fall asleep.
  The results are presented in the figure below. The researcher concluded that neither smoking nor the presence of
nicotine in the bloodstream cause sleep loss.

Question 1  (1 mark)
Identify the population for the experiment.

Question 2  (1 mark)
Is the researcher collecting qualitative or quantitative data?

45
Mean time taken to fall asleep (mins)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Smoked Did not smoke
cigarettes cigarettes
Presence of nicotine

Question 3  (2 marks)
Identify the IV and DV.
IV:
DV:

Chapter 2  Research methods 1  87

Question 4 (2 marks)
Identify the experimental and control groups.
experimental group:
control group:

Question 5 (2 marks)
Describe the results obtained with reference to the figure.

Question 6 (3 marks)
Explain whether the conclusion made by the researcher is justified.

Question 7 (2 marks)
Describe one advantage and one limitation of the research design used for the study.

Question 8 (3 marks)
(a) Explain whether volunteer participants are required to give informed consent. (1 mark)

(b) Why is informed consent important in psychological research? (2 marks)

the answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer

section at the back of this book and in eBookpLUS.

the answers to the short-answer and research scenario questions are

in eBookpLUS.

note that you can complete Section a of the chapter test online
through eBookpLUS and get automatic feedback.

88 Unit 1 introduction to psychology