Unless otherwise stated, all images in this file have been reproduced from:

Blackman, Bottle, Schmid, Mocerino and Wille,

Chemistry, 2012 (John Wiley & Sons)
ISBN: 9 78047081 0866

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 Nuclear chemistry
Lecture 1 Lecture 2 Lecture 3
Introduction Atomic structure Radioactivity and
Significant figures Isotopes nuclear decay
Scale Nucleogenesis Half-life and carbon
dating

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Class representative

• We need to elect one representative for this lecture stream

• Collect feedback from class to complement open feedback through Canvas
elearning site.

• Pass on feedback from class to lecturer

• Attend staff-student liaison committee meetings:

• Monday 1 pm, twice per semester

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A Timeline of Atomic Structure Development
1803 J Dalton provided evidence for fundamental indivisible particles - atoms.
1897 JJ Thomsondiscovered electrons - “cathode rays.”
1909 RA Millikan
measured the charge of an electron.
1909 E Rutherford
proposed an atom be composed of a small positive nucleus
(1912) surrounded by a lot of space occupied by electrons.
1913 HGJ Moseley determined the charge on the nucleus.

Rutherford & others regard the atomic weight as being the number of protons and the nuclear charge as
being the number of protons minus the number of electrons in the nucleus.

1913 N Bohr applied quantum theory to electrons in atoms.

1920 J Aston finds isotopes by mass spectrometry
1932 J Chadwick discovered the neutron.

This gives a fairly complete picture of the nucleus as composed of charged protons and uncharged
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neutrons.
 Sub-Atomic particles
• An atom is an electrically neutral particle, formed by a positively charged
nucleus and a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
• Each nucleus is composed of positively charged protons (p+) and neutrons (n0)
– p+ and n0 are called nucleons.
Particle Symbol Charge Mass
Blackman Figure 1.6

= 1 Å (Ångström)
(a.m.u.)
Proton p +1 1.00726
Neutron n 0 1.00865
and
almost all the mass) Electron e- -1 0.000549
Positron e+ +1 0.000549
1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) ~ 1.66 x 10-27 kg; defined
by setting the mass of carbon-12 to exactly 12 a.m.u.
What about the scale of this diagram? Suppose the
diameter of the nucleus was 1 cm. How big is the atom? 5
Notation

Atomic number is always indicated in the periodic table.

A mass number = sum of protons + neutrons

Z atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus
(or charge of the particles)

e.g. Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons 12

6 C:
Figure from Silberberg, “Chemistry”,

atomic number Z=6

mass number A = 6 + 6 = 12
McGraw Hill, 2006.

Number of neutrons N=A–Z

Worksheet questions 1 & 2 6

Nuclides and isotopes
Nuclide – an atom with a particular mass number and atomic number

Isotopes – nuclides with the same atomic number (Z) but different mass
numbers (A) e.g. carbon exists in nature in three different isotopes

11 12 13 14 15
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C 6C

Unstable Stable nucleus; Stable nucleus; Unstable Unstable

nucleus; accounts for accounts for nucleus; trace nucleus.
prepared by 98.89% of 1.11% of amounts present
nuclear reaction natural carbon. natural carbon. in living matter.
in a cyclotron.
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 Spectroscopy and Spectrometry
Atoms and molecules are identified by a set of techniques known collectively as spectroscopy.
• Many spectroscopic techniques examine the electrons in atoms and molecules. (electronic spectroscopy)
• Others examine atomic and molecular motions. (vibrational or rotational spectroscopy)
• Atomic and molecular masses are measured by Mass Spectrometry.

An electron beam Ions are deflected by the magnet

ionises the sample so according to their mass-to-charge
that it is accelerated ratio, m/z.
in the electric field
Entire instrument is under vacuum.
Figure 20.1 Blackman

A position-sensitive detector measures the number

and location of ions. They include purely electronic
(electron multipliers), photomultipliers, or originally
Neutral gas or vapour just photographic film.
is introduced through
a nozzle. Lighter ions are
moving faster
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 Mass Spectrometry
1920 - Aston measured 2 isotopes of Ne (20 and 22), 3 of S (32, 33,
34), three of Si (28, 29, 30), 6 of Kr (78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86) + others

1946 - Pulsed gas injection and time-of-flight detectors

1956 - Mass spectrometry to identify complex organic molecules
1974 - Viking Mars lander does Mass Spec.
1977 - Accelerator mass spectrometry developed for trace analysis
1985 - C60 identified by mass spectrometry (Nobel Prize 1996)

2002 - Developments in ionisation allowing the study of large (bio)molecules

for more see: http://masspec.scripps.edu/information/history/abstracts/index.html
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Atomic Mass or Relative Atomic Weight
The atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses and
the abundances of each of the naturally-occurring isotopes.

Isotope 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C

Natural
98.90 % 1.110 % <1x10-10 %
abundance
Mass
12.000000 13.003354 14.003421
(a.m.u.)

The atomic weight of naturally-occurring carbon is: 0 (approx.)

0.989 × 12.000000 + 0.0111 × 13.003354 + 1x10-12 × 14.003421
= 12.01 a.m.u. 10
Where do the elements come from?

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 Nucleogenesis
Big Bang: Formation of protons
and neutrons, which led to H, He
and Li isotopes.

In stars: Clouds of atomic hydrogen

are pulled together by gravity and
heat as they are compressed.
When temperatures rise high
enough, the cloud ignites as a star.
All atoms are generated from the
simplest nuclide, hydrogen, by
nuclear reactions.
The hydrogen-1 nucleus is simply a
proton 11 H or 11 p
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA15985
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 Stellar Nucleogenesis of Helium

See - http://www.nobel.se/physics/articles/fusion/index.html
The fundamental nuclear reaction is 1
1 H + 11H 
→ 12 H + 10 e

This is rapidly followed by two other nuclear reactions

2
1 → 23 He + γ
H + 11H 
(γ = high energy radiation, which has no mass or charge)

and 3
2 He+ 23He→ 24He + 211p

The overall nuclear reaction is:

This reaction is exothermic – it releases energy into the

surroundings as heat and radiation.

In all nuclear reactions you must balance (conserve) both the total
mass numbers (A) and charges (Z) on the reactants and products.
Worksheet question 3 13
The energy of hydrogen fusion
The overall H burning reaction (fusion) releases energy into the
surroundings as heat (exothermic) and radiation (also releases neutrinos ν).
The energy comes from a change in mass, according to E = mc2

2×9.10938188×10-31 kg
4×1.67262158×10-27 kg 6.64465675×10-27 kg
6.69048632×10-27 kg 6.64647862 ×10-27 kg

Δm = 0.0440×10-27 kg

E = 0.0440 ×10-27 kg ×(3.00 ×108 m s-2)2 = 3.96 ×10-12 J per reaction

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Synthesis of heavier nuclei
As the star exhausts its hydrogen, it begins helium burning to fuse heavier
nuclei to form increasingly larger atoms.

e.g. 2 24 He 
→ 48 Be
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4 Be + 24 He 
→ 126 C

Heavier nuclei like 13C, 13N, 14N, 15N, 15O... are produced by red giant
stars, heavier nuclei in supergiants, and true heavy elements form in
supernovae.
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 http://www.seasky.org/celestial-objects/stars.html

Life Cycle of Stars

Helium
Hydrogen burning
burning Carbon core
T < 2 x 10 Kburning reaction”
The overall “hydrogen 8

T ~ 107 K

E = 2.5 × 1012 J/mol of reaction (4 atoms)

= 6.2 × 1011J/mol of H atoms
Compare with burning hydrogen with oxygen, chemically:
E = 1.4 × 105 J/mol of H atoms
Hydrogen
burning
Nuclear “burning”
T ~ 10 K 7
liberates
Helium 4 million times
40Ca…58Ni
more energy!
Heavy
burning elements
So we won’t be doing that in class…
formed (but…)
T < 2 x 108 K
Why Does the Sun Shine? (C and O burning)
© 1993 They Might Be Giants T < 3 x 109 K
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 Where do the elements come from?
“Big Bang” H burning
He burning. Star expands
C burning. Core
to red giant
of red giant
Red supergiant
core.

Supernova (everything heavier)

Z > 94 all
human
manufactured
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 Learning outcomes

After reviewing this lecture and associated material you should be able to:

• Use the appropriate notation to denote nuclides and isotopes

• Describe how mass spectrometry works
• Calculate atomic mass from isotope abundance data
• Balance nuclear equations
• Recognise the proton-proton chain as the primary nucleogenesis reaction
• Explain the main features of the origin of the known elements

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Homework Problem(s)

1. Look up the isotopic abundances of naturally-occurring germanium at

https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-weights-and-isotopic-compositions-
relative-atomic-masses and calculate its relative atomic mass based
on only the most common isotopes.
2. One of the most recent elements to be synthesised is Nihonium, 113Nh,
which has 6 confirmed isotopes. An attempt at synthesising 279Nh
involved bombarding 209Bi with which nuclide?
3. One of the nuclear fission reactions that occurs when 235U is struck by
a neutron produces 141Ba and 92Kr. How many neutrons are also
produced?

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