CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 3
2. AIR ENGINE 4
3. I.G ENGINE 12
4. BEARING WITH BEARING CAP 18
5. SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE 21
6. TURBINE WITH BLOWER ARRANGEMENT 29
7. WORKING PRINCIPLE 31
8. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS 33
9. LIST OF MATERIAL 47
10. COST ESTIMATION 48
11. ADVANTAGES 49
12. APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES 50
13. CONCLUSION 51

BIBLIOGRAPHY 52

1
SYNOPSIS

This project work deals with the Compressed-air engine is a

pneumatic actuator that creates useful work by expanding compressed air. They have
existed in many forms over the past two centuries, ranging in size from hand held
turbines up to several hundred horsepower. Some types rely on pistons and cylinders,
others use turbines. Many compressed air engines improve their performance by
heating the incoming air, or the engine itself. Some took this a stage further and
burned fuel in the cylinder or turbine, forming a type of internal combustion engine.

There is currently some interest in developing air cars. Several engines have
been proposed for these, although none have demonstrated the performance and long
life needed for personal transport.

2
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using compressed air,

which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine
to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed air vehicles (CAV) use the
expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. One manufacturer claims to have
designed an engine that is 90 percent efficient.

Compressed air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g.,

battery electric propulsion and fuel tanks to recharge the batteries. This kind of system
is called hybrid-pneumatic electric propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can
also be used in conjunction with this system.

3
CHAPTER 2

AIR ENGINE HISTORY

HISTORY STARTS WITH TODAY'S AIR CAR INVENTORS

Angelo Di Petro’s Rotary Positive Displacement Air Engine:-

Everything I've heard about this air engine is positive.  Many people have
written asking me to report on it, but the best I can do till I ride in his air car is to
show you a picture and a  Based on what is said about the engine, I think it sounds
like a good idea.  It seems like a good approach to simplifying the piston engine
while lowering friction and wear.  Quoting from the website,

"The space between stator and rotor is divided in 6 expansion chambers by

pivoting dividers. These dividers follow the motion of the shaft driver as it rolls
around the stator wall.

The motor shown is effectively a 6 cylinder expansion motor...Variation of

performance parameters of the motor is easily achieved by varying the time during
which the air is allowed to enter the chamber: A longer air inlet period allows more
air to flow into the chamber and therefore results in more torque. A shorter inlet
period will limit the air supply and allows the air in the chamber to perform
expansion work at a much higher efficiency. In this way compressed air (energy)
consumption can be exchanged for higher torque and power output depending on the

4
requirements of the application...Motor speed and torque are simply controlled by
throttling the amount or pressure of air into the motor. The Di Pietro motor gives
instant torque at zero RPM and can be precisely controlled to give soft start and
acceleration control." 

From what I've read, I think this sounds like what other people have  wished
they could invent.  A lot of people are counting on Mr. Di Pietro to get an air car on
the market.

Armando Regusci Loves to Build Air Cars:-

In my correspondence with Mr. Regusci of Uruguay, I found him a sincere person and
his design very appealing. 

Like my torquerack engine, his invention does away with the crankshaft,
replacing it with sprockets and chains and freewheeling clutches, to turn a shaft.  He
has built bikes and small air cars of various descriptions and is very devoted to the
cause.  His website, http://www.airenergycars.com, is extensive.  You can also see
his video on YouTube.com.

When I first contacted Mr. Regusci, he was assisting a university in Texas

with their plans to build an air car.

I want all you air car enthusiasts to become air car inventors, like angelo di
pietro, armando regusci, guy negre, terry miller, and all the rest.  join forces with
each other and let's get off the internet and onto the highway.  we know we have the
best alternative, now let's get out there and prove it.

5
  A BRIEF HISTORY OF AIR CARS

For half a century the air-powered locomotive was a serious contender for the top
spot in transportation because of its obvious advantages: simplicity, safety, economy,
and cleanliness.  Air engines were commercially available and used routinely, first as
metropolitan street transit and later for haulage in mines.

The term "air engine" disappeared from engineering textbooks after the 1930s
and the Second World War.  Gas engines had been perfected, the oil industry was
established, and gas was cheap.

Serious interest in air cars was rekindled by the energy glitches of the 1970s. 
Dozens of inventors have patented designs for hybrid, closed cycle, and self-fueling
air cars, as well as conversions for existing engines and designs for air cars meant to
stop at air stations for refueling.

The Pneumatic Railway, 1880s to today

Like modern electric subway trains, the power supply was provided continuously
by a pipeline laid along the track.  This concept was not practical at the time it was
invented (1820s) because the materials were not available to make it work reliably.  A
modern version appeared in Brazil in the 1980s, invented by Oskar H. W. Coester,
and developed by Aeromovel Global Corp.

6
The Mekarski Compressed Air Locomotive, 1886-1900:-

The Mekarski air engine was used for street transit.  It was a single-stage engine
(air expanded in one piston then exhausted) and represented an advance in air engine
technology that made air cars feasible: the air was reheated after leaving the tank and
before entering the engine.  The reheater was a hot water tank through which the
compressed air bubbled in direct contact with the water, picking up hot water vapor
which improved the engine's range-between-fill-ups.

The Hardie Compressed Air Locomotive, 1892-1900:-

Robert Hardie's air engine was a going concern in street transit in New York City. 
Air car advocate General Herman Haupt, a civil engineer, wrote extensively about the
advantages of air cars, using the Hardie engine as his source material and providing
much of the impetus for the New York experiment to gain support and succeed.  The
engine was a one-stage expansion engine using a more advanced type of reheating
than the Mekarski engine.  One of its new features was regenerative braking. 

By using the engine as a compressor during deceleration, air and heat were added
to the tanks, increasing the range between fill-ups.  A 1500 horsepower steam-
powered air compressor station was built in New York City to supply the Hardie
compressed air locomotives and the Hoadley-Knight pneumatic locomotives.

The Hoadley-Knight Compressed Air Locomotive, 1896-1900:-

7
The Hoadley-Knight system was the first air powered transit locomotive that
incorporated a two-stage engine.  It was beginning to be recognized that the longer
you keep the air in the engine, the more time it has to absorb the heat that increases its
range-between-fill-ups.  Hoadley and Knight were also supporters of Nikola Tesla's
disc turbine, for which they formed a propulsion company that didn't get off the
ground.

The H. K. Porter Compound Air Locomotives, 1896-1930:-

Inventor Charles B. Hodges became the first and only air car inventor in
history to see his invention become a lasting commercial success. 

His engine was two-stage and employed an interheater between the two piston
stages to warm the partially expanded compressed air with the surrounding
atmosphere.  A substantial gain in range-between-fill-ups was thus proven attainable
with no cost for the extra fuel, which was provided by the sun.  The H. K. Porter
Company in Pittsburgh sold hundreds of these locomotives to coal-mining companies
in the eastern U.S.  With the hopeful days of air powered street transit over, the
compressed air locomotive became a standard fixture in coal mines around the world
because it created no heat or spark and was therefore invaluable in gassy mines where
explosions were always a danger with electric or gas engines.

The European Three-Stage Air Locomotive, 1912-1930

8
Hodges' patents were improved upon by European engineers who increased the
number of expansion stages to three and used interheaters before all three stages.  The
coal mines of France and Germany and other countries such as Belgium were
swarming with these locomotives, which increased their range-between-fill-ups 60%
by the addition of ambient heat. 

It might have become obvious to the powers-that-be that these upstarts were a
threat to the petroleum takeover that was well under way in the transportation
industry; after world war two the term "air engine" was never used in compressed air
textbooks and air powered locomotives, if used at all, were usually equipped with
standard, inefficient air motors.

 The German Diesel-Pneumatic Hybrid Locomotive, 1930

Just before technical journals stopped reporting on compressed air locomotives, they
carried stories on a 1200 horsepower full-size above-ground locomotive that had been
developed in Germany.  An on-board compressor was run by a diesel engine, and the
air engine drove the locomotive's wheels. 

Waste heat from the diesel engine was

transferred to the air engine where it became fuel

9
again.  By conserving heat in this way, the train's range-between-fill-ups was
increased 26%.  A modern train engineer tells me that all  train engines these days are
hybrids: diesel-electric.  And we are supposed to consider the Toyota Prius a miracle
of modern invention?

 Terry Miller, the Father of the Modern Air Car Movement:-

In 1979, Terry Miller set out to design a spring-powered car and determined that
compressed air, being a spring that doesn't break or wear out, was the perfect energy-
storing medium.  From there he developed his Air Car One, which he built for $1500
and patented.  He showed his air car from coast to coast and then went on to other
things.  In 1993 he picked up his air car project again with the help of Toby
Butterfield of Joplin, Missouri.  They developed the Spirit of Joplin air car with parts
mostly donated by manufacturers.  Terry's air engines demonstrated the feasibility of
building air engines with off-the-shelf parts on a small budget.  His engines used up to
four consecutive stages to expand the same air over and over.  They ran at a low speed
so there was plenty of time for ambient heat to enter the system and the possibility of
low-tech developers to build engines cheaply at home.  Terry was instrumental in
educating the founder of Pneumatic Options on air car fundamentals.  Terry's greatest
contribution--and what makes him an air car advocate, not just another inventor--was
that he published and made easily available the complete details on how to build an
engine like his.  No other inventor has done this.  Shortly before his death in 1997,
Terry Miller gave all rights to his invention to his daughter and to Toby Butterfield. 
Mr. Butterfield died in 2002. 

Guy Negre and MDI:-

10
 Currently a French inventor named Guy Negre is building an organization to
market his air car designs in several countries.  A web search for air cars will turn up
hundreds of references to his company, Moteur Developpment International (MDI). 
His website is at www.mdi.lu.  Mr. Negre holds patents on his
unique air engine in several countries.  Plans are underway to
build air car factories in Mexico, South Africa, Spain and other
countries.  We wish him success and encourage you to visit his
website  (or one of his licensees in Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain, theaircar.com) 
and support his good work.

 C. J. Marquand's Air Car Engine

Dr. Marquand  has taken the highly commendable step of incorporating heat pipes
into his air engine design for the recovery of compression heat. 
He also plans to use regenerative braking.  It is not clear whether
his engine has been tested in a car yet.  Professor Marquand is a
scientist with a number of published research articles to his credit. 
For further information contact: C. J. Marquand or H. R. Ditmore,
Dept. of Technology & Design, Univ. of Westminster, 115 New Cavendish St.,
London W1M 8JS, Tel. 0170 911 5000.

CHAPTER 3

11
I.C ENGINE

Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside
the engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in their
operation. The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the expansion of
gases against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate.

PETROL ENGINE

The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a petrol
burning internal combustion engine. Petrol is a liquid fuel and is called by the name
gasoline in America. The ability of petrol to furnish power rests on the two basic
principles;

 Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat.

 When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressure
rises according to Charle’s law.

WORKING

There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the
power stroke, they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke
respectively.

UPWARD STROKE

During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead
center, compressing the charge-air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the
cylinder, at the time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust, transfer ports are
covered. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark
given by spark plug.

DOWNWARD STROKE

12
 The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves downwards,
during this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is
compressed in the crankcase, further downward movement of the piston uncovers first
exhaust port and then transfer port and hence the exhaust starts through the exhaust
port. As soon as the transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to the
cylinder, the cycle is then repeated.

ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

The engine terminologies are detailed below,

CYLINDER

It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating motion.

PISTON

It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which transmits the bore of

explosion to the crankshaft.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER

It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the combustion of fuel
takes place.

CONNECTING ROD

It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the reciprocating motion
of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft.

CRACKSHAFT

It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch.

CAM SHAFT

13
 It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to control the
opening and closing of two valves.

CAM

These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to
open the valves at the current timing.

PISTON RINGS

It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing leakage of
combustion gases.

GUDGEON PIN

It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.

INLET

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end
through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder.

EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine
through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.

INLET AND EXHAUST VALVE

They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder and
regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of
combustion from the cylinder.

FLYWHEEL

14
 It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs energy
when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low.

NOMENCLATURE
This refers to the position of the crank shaft when the piston is in it slowest position.
BORE(d)
Diameter of the engine cylinder is refers to as the bore.
STROKE(s)
Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the piston in moving from TD
to the BDC.
CLEARANCE VOLUME (V)
The volume of cylinder above the piston when it is in the TDC position.
SWEPT VOLUME (V)
The swept volume of the entire cylinder
Vd = Vs N
Where,
Vs ------- Swept Volume
N --------- Number of cylinder
COMPRESSION RATIO (R)
It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC to the clearance
volume.
ENGINE SPECIFICATION
Type of fuel used : Petrol
Cooling system : Air cooled
Number of cylinder : Single
Number of stroke : Four Stroke
Arrangement : Vertical
Cubic capacity : 100 cc

Spark Ignition Engine

15
 A spark ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cycle—most gasoline engines run
on a modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a homogeneous air-fuel mixture which is
combined prior to entering the combustion chamber. Once in the combustion
chamber, the mixture is compressed, and then ignited using a spark plug (spark
ignition). The SI engine is controlled by limiting the amount of air allowed into the
engine. This is accomplished through the use of a throttling valve placed on the air
intake (carburetor or throttle body). Mitsubishi is working on the development of a
certain type of SI engine called the gasoline direct injection engine.

Advantages

 A century of development and refinement - For the last century the SI engine
has been developed and used widely in automobiles. Continual development of this
technology has produced an engine that easily meets emissions and fuel economy
standards. With current computer controls and reformulated gasoline, today's engines
are much more efficient and less polluting than those built 20 years ago.
 Low cost - The SI engine is the lowest cost engine because of the huge volume
currently produced.

Disadvantages

The SI engine has a few weaknesses that have not been significant problems in
the past, but may become problems in the future.

 Difficulty in meeting future emissions and fuel economy standards at a

reasonable cost - Technology has progressed and will enable the SI engine to meet
current standards, but as requirements become tougher to meet, the associated engine
cost will continue to rise.
 Throttling loss lowers the efficiency - To control an SI engine, the air allowed
into the engine is restricted using a throttling plate. The engine is constantly fighting
to draw air past the throttle, which expends energy.
 Friction loss due to many moving parts - The SI engine is very complex and
has many moving parts. The losses through bearing friction and sliding friction
further reduce the efficiency of the engine.

16
 Limited compression ratio lowers efficiency - Because the fuel is already
mixed with the air during compression, it will auto-ignite (undesirable in a gasoline
engine) if the compression ratio is too high. The compression ratio of the engine is
limited by the octane rating of the engine.

CHAPTER 4

17
 BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered
the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing cap
is mild steel.

INTRODUCTION

Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in
order to minimize friction and power loss.  While the concept of the ball bearing
dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has
become remarkably sophisticated. This  technology  was  brought  to  its
p resent  state  o f  perfection  only  after  a  long  period  of research and
development.  The benefits of such specialized research can be obtained when it
is possible to use a standardized bearing of the proper size and type.  However,
such bearings cannot be used indiscriminately without a careful study of the
loads and operating conditions.  In addition, the bearing must be provided with
adequate mounting, lubrication and sealing. Design engineers have usually two
possible sources for obtaining information which they can use to select a bearing
for their particular application:

a)  Textbooks
b)  Manufacturers’

Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly

detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the
practicing designer.  They, in most cases, contain information on how to design
rather than how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers’
catalogs, in turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which
relates to the products of the particular manufacturer.  These catalogs, however,
fail to provide alternatives – which may divert the designer’s interest to products
not manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest
selection of many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.  

18
 For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of
the subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different
texts, handbooks and manufacturers’ literature.  This information will enable
the reader to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the
designer’s interest exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of
references is provided at the end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we
are expressing our thanks and are providing credit to the sources which supplied
the material presented here.

Construction and Types of Ball Bearings

A ball bearing usually consists of four parts:  an inner ring, an outer ring, the
balls and the cage or separator.
 To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls run
in curvilinear grooves in the rings.  The radius of the groove is slightly larger than the
radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided.  The
bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular misalignment
between the assembled shaft and mounting.  The separator keeps the balls evenly
spaced and prevents them from touching each other on the sides where their relative
velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of types and sizes.
Single-row radial bearings are made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and
heavy, for each bore, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact
Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400.  Most, but not all,
manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are
multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.  

19
 The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus,
bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore.  For additional digits,
which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to manufacturer’s
details.
 Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls.
For bearing designations of Quality Bearings & Components (QBC), see special
pages devoted to this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a considerable
amount of axial thrust.  However, when the load is directed entirely along the axis, the
thrust type of bearing should be used.  The angular contact bear- ing will take care of
both radial and axial loads.  The self-aligning  ball  bearing  will  take  care  of  large
amounts  of  angular  misalignment.   An  increase  in radial capacity may be secured
by using rings with deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial bearing.
Radial bearings are divided into two general classes, depending on the method of
assembly.  These are the Conrad, or nonfilling-notch type, and the maximum, or
filling-notch type.  In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as
shown in Fig. 1-4(a).  Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in
place.    In  the  maximum-type  bearing,  the  balls  are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100
Series Extra Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular
Contact Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3  Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4
Methods of Assembly        for Ball Bearings (a) Conrad or non-filling notch type (b)
Maximum or filling notch type.

20
CHAPTER 5

SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE

This is a cycle chain sprocket. The chain sprocket is coupled with another
generator shaft. The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling
power to rotational power, by engaging with the sprocket.

The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways:

1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two.
2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no slippage
in a sprocket.
3. The shape of the teeth is different in gears and sprockets.

Figure Types of Sprockets

Engagement with Sprockets:

Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylinders,
chains are usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the following section, we
explain the relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by
sprockets.

1. Back tension

First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5
shows a rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt
hangs down from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is
loaded with tension (T0), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will
be:

21
 T1 = T0 3 eµu

For example, T0 = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and
pulley, µ = 0.3; the wrap angle u = ¼ (180).

T1 = T0 3 2.566 = 256.6 N

In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive
power only when there is 100 N of back tension.

For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more
drive power is to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance,
like grease or oil, which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact
surface, the belt cannot deliver the required tension.

In the chain's case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth
configuration is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth's reactive force is
opposite the chain's tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain's tension.
Therefore, the chain will work without back tension.

Figure Flat Belt Drive

22
 Figure Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

Figure The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage and
slip off of the roller. The balances of forces that exist around the roller are shown in
Figure 2.7, and it is easy to calculate the required back tension.

23
For example, assume a coefficient of friction µ = 0, and you can calculate the back
tension (Tk) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this formula:

Tk = T0 3 sin ø k-1 sin(ø + 2b) Where:

Tk= back tension at tooth k

T0 = chain tension
ø= sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 64/N(š)
N= number of teeth
2b = sprocket tooth angle (360/N)
k= the number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the
nearest whole number to be safe

By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back
tension at sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of
a flat belt. Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a
flat belt. Now let's compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension.
Although in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of pulley
teeth and the revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommendation is to use
1/3.5 of the allowable tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in below Figure
2.8. Therefore, our 257 N force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back tension.

Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain's back
tension is only 1/75 that of toothed belts.

Figure 2.8 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth

24
 The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation
(see Basics Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the
sprocket teeth until it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the
sprocket.

Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and positions of engagement. Figure
2.10 shows the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain.
In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face:
a: Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place;
b: Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together;
c: Where the tooth can guide the roller but can't transmit tension. If the roller, which
should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth.
The chain's wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket
teeth and their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that
sprockets with large numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller
sprockets are limited by other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing
strength; therefore, in the case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to
1.5 percent (in transmission chain).

Figure 2.9 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

25
 Figure 2.10 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and
  an Elongated Chain

Figure 2.11 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less

than transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch conveyor
chains use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face.

A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of

tensile forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems.
The function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It
is convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of
construction.

We can sort chains into five types:

Cast iron chain.

Cast steel chain.

26
 Forged chain.

Steel chain.

Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in
some special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treatment
equipment; forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories.

In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: "steel chain," especially
the type called "roller chain," which makes up the largest share of chains being
produced, and "plastic chain." For the most part, we will refer to "roller chain" simply
as "chain."

NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing, and
roller.

In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their
uses, which can be broadly divided into six types:

1. Power transmission chain.

2. Small pitch conveyor chain.

3. Precision conveyor chain.

4. Top chain.

5. Free flow chain.

6. Large pitch conveyor chain.

The first one is used for power transmission; the other five are used for
conveyance. In the Applications section of this book, we will describe the uses and
features of each chain type by following the above classification.

In the following section, we will explain the composition of power

transmission chain, small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there

27
are special features in the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and
free flow chain, checks the appropriate pages in the Applications section about these
features.

Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain

A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

Connecting Link

This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit
in the connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent
lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting
links which have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)
Tap Fit Connecting Link
In this link, the pin and the
tap fit connecting link plate are
press fit. It has fatigue strength
almost equal to that of the chain
itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2 Standard Connecting Link (top)

  and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

28
Offset Link

An offset link is used when an odd number of chain links is required. It is 35

percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. The pin and two plates are slip
fit. There is also a two-pitch offset link available that has fatigue strength as great as
the chain itself. (See Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3 Offset Link

CHAPTER 6

COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE PRINCIPLE

A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using compressed air,

which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine
to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed air vehicles (CAV) use the
expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. One manufacturer claims to have
designed an engine that is 90 percent efficient. Compressed air propulsion may also
be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g., battery electric propulsion and fuel tanks to
recharge the batteries. This kind of system is called hybrid-pneumatic electric
propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in conjunction with
this system.

29
 1. ENGINE:-
A Compressed-air engine is a pneumatic actuator that creates useful work by
expanding compressed air. They have existed in many forms over the past two
centuries, ranging in size from hand held turbines up to several hundred horsepower.
Some types rely on pistons and cylinders, others use turbines.

Many compressed air engines improve their performance by heating the incoming
air, or the engine itself. Some took this a stage further and burned fuel in the cylinder
or turbine, forming a type of internal combustion engine. One can buy the vehicle
with the engine or buy an engine to be installed in the vehicle. Typical air engines use
one or more expander pistons. In some applications it is advantageous to heat the air,
or the engine, to increase the range or power.
2. TANKS:-
The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel,
such as ISO 11439.
The storage tank may be made of:
 steel,
 aluminium,
 carbon fiber,
 Kevlar,
 Other materials or combinations of the above.
The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more
expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be
checked for corrosion periodically. One company stores air in tanks at 4,500 pounds
per square inch (about 30 MPa) and hold nearly 3,200 cubic feet (around 90 cubic
metres) of air.

The tanks may be refilled at a service station equipped with heat exchangers, or in
a few hours at home or in parking lots, plugging the car into the electrical grid via an
on-board compressor.

3. COMPRESSED AIR:-

Compressed air has a low energy density. In 300 bar containers, about 0.1
MJ/L and 0.1 MJ/kg is achievable, comparable to the values of electrochemical lead-
acid batteries. While batteries can somewhat maintain their voltage throughout their

30
discharge and chemical fuel tanks provide the same power densities from the first to
the last litre, the pressure of compressed air tanks falls as air is drawn off. A
consumer-automobile of conventional size and shape typically consumes 0.3-0.5 kWh
(1.1-1.8 MJ) at the drive shaft per mile of use, though unconventional sizes may
perform with significantly less.

4. EMISSION OUTPUT:-

Like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, an air vehicle displaces

the emission source from the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating
plant. Where emissions-free sources are available, net production of pollutants can be
reduced. Emission control measures at a central generating plant may be more
effective and less costly than treating the emissions of widely-dispersed vehicles.

Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the compressor machinery, the air
discharged has less suspended dust in it, though there may be carry-over of lubricants
used in the engine.

CHAPTER 7

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Today, internal combustion engines in cars, trucks, motorcycles,

aircraft, construction machinery and many others, most commonly use a four-stroke
cycle. The four strokes refer to intake, compression, combustion (power), and exhaust
strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the gasoline
engine and diesel engine.

The cycle begins at Top Dead Center (TDC), when the piston is farthest away
from the axis of the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston from
Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC).

31
1. INTAKE stroke: On the intake or induction stroke of the piston , the piston
descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, reducing the
pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or
greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then
close.

2. COMPRESSION stroke: With both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston
returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the fuel-air mixture. This is known as
the compression stroke.

3. POWER stroke.: While the piston is close to Top Dead Center, the compressed
air–fuel mixture is ignited, usually by a spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle
engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression (for a diesel cycle or compression
ignition engine). The resulting massive pressure from the combustion of the
compressed fuel-air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom dead center
with tremendous force. This is known as the power stroke, which is the main source
of the engine's torque and power.

4. EXHAUST stroke: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top
dead center while the exhaust valve is open. This action evacuates the products of
combustion from the cylinder by pushing the spent fuel-air mixture through the
exhaust valve(s).

In our project we have to modified these four strokes into totally two stoke
with the help of inner CAM alteration. In air engine we can design a new CAM which
is operate only Inlet stroke and exhaust stroke. Actually in four stroke engine the inlet
and exhaust valve opens only one time to complete the total full cycle. In that time the
piston moving from top dead center to bottom dead center for two times. A stroke
refers to the full travel of the piston from Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead
Center (BDC).

In our air engine project, we have to open inlet and exhaust valve in each and
every stroke of the engine so that it will convert the four stroke engine to two stroke
engine by modifying the CAM shaft of the engine.

32
CHAPTER 8

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

1. DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6202

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm
Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12 mm
Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 15 mm
r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing

33
 r₁ = 1 (From design data
book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data

book)
Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (35 + 15) / 2

dm = 25 mm

2. ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-

DESIGN AND ANYLSIS ON TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR TWO-
STROKE ENGINE COMPONENT USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

SPECIFICATION OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

Type : four strokes
Cooling System : Air Cooled
Bore/Stroke : 50 x 50 mm
Piston Displacement : 98.2 cc
Compression Ratio : 6.6: 1
Maximum Torque : 0.98 kg-m at 5,500RPM

CALCULATION:

Compression ratio = (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance

Volume
Here,
Compression ratio = 6.6:1
∴ 6.6 = (98.2 + Vc)/Vc

Vc = 19.64

34
Assumption:

1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases.
2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law
Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P₁

P₁ = (M₁RT)/V

Here,
M₁ = m/M = (Mass of the gas or air)/(Molecular
Weight)
R = Universal gas constant = 8.314 KJ/Kg mole
K.
T₁ = 303 ºK

V₁ = V = 253.28 x 10¯⁶ m³

Molecular weight of air = Density of air x V mole

Here,
Density of air at 303ºK = 1.165 kg/m³
V mole = 22.4 m³/Kg-mole for all gases.
∴Molecular weight of air = 1.165 x 22.4

∴P₁ = {[(m₁/(1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10¯⁶

P₁ = 381134.1 m₁

Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P₂

P₂ = (N₂ R T)/V
Density of petrol = 800 Kg/m³

∴P₂ = {[(M₂)/(800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/(253.28 x 10¯⁶

P₂ = 555.02 m₂

Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder

35
 PT = P₁ + P₂
= 1.01325 x 100 KN/m²
∴381134.1 m₁ + 555.02 m₂ = 1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)

Calculation of air fuel ratio:

Carbon = 86%
Hydrogen = 14%

We know that,
1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion.
1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxigen for its complete combustion.
(From Heat Power Engineering-Balasundrrum)

Therefore,
The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel
= [ (8/3c) + (3H₂) + S] Kg
Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen required
for complete combustion of Kg of fuel

= { [ (8/3c) + (8H₂) + S ] - O₂} Kg

As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of air
required = 100/23 Kg

∴Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

= (100/23) { [ (8/3c) + H₂ + S] -
O₂} Kg
So for petrol 1Kg of fuel requires = (100/23) { [ (8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x
0.14) ] }
= 14.84 Kg of air

∴Air fuel ratio = m₁/m₂ = 14.84/1

= 14.84
∴ m₁ = 14.84 m₂--------------------------
(2)

Substitute (2) in (1)

1.01325 x 100 = 3.81134 (14.84 m₂) + 555.02 m₂

36
 ∴m₂ = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg/Cycle
Mass of fuel flow per cycle = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg cycle

Therefore,
Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM
[(1.791 x 10¯⁵)/3600] x (2500/2) x 60
= 3.731 x 10¯⁴ Kg/sec
Calculation of calorific value:
By Delong’s formula,
Higher Calorific Value = 33800 C + 144000 H₂ + 9270 S
= (33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14)
+0
HCV = 49228 KJ/Kg

Lower Calorific Value = HCV – (9H₂ x 2442)

= 49228 – [(9 x 0.14) x 2442]
= 46151.08 KJ/Kg
LCV = 46.151 MJ/Kg

Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture:

We know that,
Air contains 77% N₂ and 23% O₂ by weight
But total mass inside the cylinder = m₁ + m₂

= 2.65 x 10¯⁴ + 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg

= 2.8291 x 10¯⁴ Kg
(1) Weight of nitrogen present = 77% = 0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air
∴In 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of air contains,
= 0.77 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of N₂
= 2.0405 x 10¯⁴ Kg
Percent of N₂ present in the total mass
= (2.0405 x 10¯⁴/2.8291 x 10¯⁴)
= 72.125 %

(1) Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23%

Percentage of oxygen present in total mass
= (0.23 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

37
 = 21.54 %

(2) Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86%

Percentage of carbon present in total mass

= (0.866 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 5.444%

(3) Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14%

Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass
= (0.14 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)
= 0.886 %

Total Cp of the mixture is = ∑msi Cpi

Cp = (0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913)
+ (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x
14.257)
Cp = 1.1138 KJ/Kg.K

Cv = ∑msi Cvi
= (0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653)
+ (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x
10.1333)
= 0.8 KJ/Kg.K

(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)

n For the mixture = (Cp/Cv)

= 1.11/0.8
n = 1.38

Pressure and temperature at various PH:

P₁ = 1.01325 x 100 bar

= 1.01325 bar
T₁ = 30ºC = 303 K

P₂/P₁ = (r)ⁿ¯¹
Where,
P₁ = 1.01325 bar
r = 6.6

38
 n = 1.38

∴P₂ = 13.698 bar

T₂ = (r)ⁿ¯¹ x T₁

Where,
T₁ = 303 K
∴T₂ = 620.68 K

3
P 4
2
1

Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle

Q = MCv
= 1.79 x 10¯⁵ x 46151.08
Q = 0.8265 KJ/Cycle
0.8265 = MCv (T₃ - T₂)
T₃ = 4272.45 K

(P₂ V₂) / T₂ = (P₃ V₃) / T₃

Where,
V₂ = V₃
∴P₃ = (T₃ x P₂)/T₂
Where,
P₃ = 94.27 bar
P₄ = P₃ / (r)ⁿ
∴P₄ = 6.973 bar

T₄ = T₃ / (r)ⁿ¯¹
= 2086.15 K
POINT PRESSURE (bar) TEMPERATURE
POSITION

39
POINT-1 1.01325 30 ºC 303 K
POINT-2 13.698 347.68 ºC 620.68 K
POINT-3 94.27 3999.45 ºC 4272.45 K
POINT-4 6.973 1813.15 ºC 2086.15 K

DESIGN OF ENGINE PISTON:

We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm

Thickness of piston:
The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory

Where,
t = D (3/16 x P/f)½
Here,
P - Maximum combustion pressure =
100 bar
f - Permissible stress in tension = 34.66
N/mm²
Piston material is aluminium alloy.
∴t = 0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 10⁶/10⁵)½ x
1000
= 12 mm

Number of Piston Rings:

No. of piston rings = 2 x D½
Here,
D - Should be in Inches = 1.968 inches

∴ No. of rings = 2.805

We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings

Thickness of the ring:

Thickness of the ring = D/32
= 50/32
= 1.5625 mm

Width of the ring:

40
 Width of the ring = D/20
= 2.5 mm

The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals
= 0.1 x D
= 5 mm
Width of the piston lands between rings
= 0.75 x width of ring =
1.875 mm

Length of the piston:

Length of the piston = 1.625 x D

Length of the piston = 81.25 mm

Length of the piston skirt = Total length – Distance of first ring from
top of
The first ring (No. of landing between
rings x
Width of land) – (No. of compression
ring x
Width of ring)
= 81.25 – 5 – 2 x 1.875 – 3 x 2.5
= 65 mm
Other parameter:
Centre of piston pin above the centre of the skirt = 0.02 x D
= 65 mm
The distance from the bottom of the piston to the
Centre of the piston pin = ½ x 65 + 1
= 33.5 mm
Thickness of the piston walls at open ends = ½ x 12
= 6 mm
The bearing area provided by piston skirt = 65 x 50
= 3250 mm²

3. DESIGN OF CHAIN SPROCKET DRIVE:

DESIGN OF CHAIN DRIVE:

STEP 1: DETERMINATION OF TRANSMISSION RATIO

n₁ = 20
n₂ = 16
Transmission ratio, (i)= z₂/z₁ = n₁/n₂

41
 = 20/16 = 1.26 1.25 (approx)

STEP 2: SELECTION OF NO. OF TEETH ON DRIVER SPROCKET

z₁ = 15

z₂ = i z₁
= 1.25 x 15 = 19

STEP 3: CENTER DISTANCE

a = (30 to 50)p
a = 150 mm
p max = a/30 = 150/30 = 5 mm
P min = a/50 = 150/50 = 3 mm

P = 9.525 is chosen

STEP 4: SELECTION OF CHAIN

Assume the chain to be Duplex

From table 7.72
For duplex DR 50

10 A-Z DR 50 is chosen

STEP 5 : TOTAL LOAD ON THE DRIVING SIDE CHAIN

Σp = pt + pc + ps
pt = 102 x 0.75/0.0476 = 160.71 kgf
v = No. of teeth on driver sprocket x pitch x rpm/60 x 1000
= 15 x 9.525 x 20/60 x 1000 = 47.62 mm/sec
pt = 102 x 0.75 /0.0476 = 160.71 kgf
pc = wv²/g
(From page 7.72) for duplex DR 50 (P.No. 7.72)
w = 1.78 kg/m
pc = 1.78 x (0.0476)²/9.81 = 4.8 kgf
Tension due to staging by chain,
ps = 6 x1.78 x 0.5 = 5.34 kgf
Σ₁p = 5.34 +4.8+160.71 = 170.85 kgf

42
STEP 6: DESIGN LOAD

Design load = Ks x Σp
Ks = k₁k₂k₃k₄k₅k₆

k₁ = Load factor = 1.25

k₂ = 1 for adjustable supports
k₃ = 1 for a = 30 to 50 p
k₄ = 1 for horizontal drives (P.no. 7.76)
k₅ = 1 for drop lubrication
k₆ = 1.25 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1.25

∴k = 1.5625

Design load = 1.5625 x 170.85

= 266.95 kgf

STEP 7: FACTOR OF SAFETY

FOS = Breaking load/Total load = [b]

For DR 50
Breaking load = 4440 kgf

FOS = 4440/170.85 =
25.98
(Page no. 7.77)

n = 11 for pitch is 20 and 16 rpm

[11.26]

Design is safe

STEP 8: BEARING STRESS ON ROLLERS

Induced stress (σ) = pc x ks /A

A = 1.4 cm² = 140 mm
Σ = 160.71 x 1.5625/140
= 1.79 kgf/mm²

43
STEP 9: ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS (σ)

σ = 2.24 kgf/mm²

σ = 1.79 < 2.24

Design is safe.

STEP 10: LENGTH OF THE CHAIN

Lp = 2ap + (z₁+z₃)/2 + ((z₂-z₁)/2π)π²/ap

Ap = a₀/p = 150/150875 =
11.44
Lp = 15 links
Length of chain (l) = Lp x p
= 15 x 0.043 = 66.55

STEP 11: CORRECTED CENTRE DISTANCE

a = (e + √(e²-8m))/4
Where,
e = lp-((z₁+z₂)/2)
m = ((z₂-z₁)2π)²
= 162.5 mm

STEP 12: SPROCKET DIAMETER

d1 = (p/sin(180/Z₁))
= 66.5 mm
d₂ = (p/sin(180/Z₂))
= 85 mm

SPECIFICATIONS:

1) Type of chain = A-Z DR 50 roller chain

2) Center distance = 162.5 mm
3) No. of teeth on the pinion sprocket = 15
4) No. of teeth on the wheel sprocket = 19
5) Length of the chain =
62.5 mm

44
 6) Diameter of piston sprocket = 66.55 mm
7) Diameter of wheel sprocket = 85 mm

DESIGN OF RATCHET AND PAWL:

STEP 1:
Module (m) = D/Z
= 130/28
= 64 mm
P = 2N4/D (Page 7.85)
P = 75 (Assume)
75 = 2 Mt/130
Mt = 4875

STEP 2:
B = ψm
Ψ = 1.5 (Assume)
B = 1.5 x 4.64
= 6.96

STEP 3:
m = 2 x ∛Mt/zψ[σh]
= 2 x ∛(875/28 x 6.96 x 300)

= 2 x 0.4368 = 0.873

STEP 4:
Diameter of the pawl pins:
d = 2.71 x ∛p/2[σh](b/2+a₁)
= 2.71 x ∛ (5/600x(6.96/2 x 15))
= 55 mm

STEP 5:
SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of the ratchet = 130 mm
Width of the ratchet = 15 mm
No. of teeth of the ratchet = 28 Teeth

45
CHAPTER-9
46
LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No. Qty. Material

PARTS
i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
ii. Air Tank 1 M.S
iii. Gate Valve 1 M.S
iv. Bearing with Bearing Cap 1 M.S
v. Engine 1 100 Cc
vi Chain with Sprocket 1 M.S
viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic
ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S
x Wheel Arrangement 1 -

CHAPTER-10

COST ESTIMATION

47
1. MATERIAL COST:-
Sl. No. Qty. Material
PARTS
i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
ii. Air Tank 1 M.S
iii. Gate Valve 1 M.S
iv. Bearing with Bearing Cap 1 M.S
v. Engine 1 100 Cc
vi Chain with Sprocket 1 M.S
viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic
ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S
x Wheel Arrangement 1 -

2. LABOUR COST
LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS
CUTTING

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

CHAPTER-11

ADVANTAGES

1. compressed air to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages
over other vehicles include:

48
2. Reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the
road.
3. Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the
electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel
transportation would be eliminated.
4. Compressed air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production.
5. There is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank, Ignition Systems or silencers.
6. The mechanical design of the engine is simple and robust.
7. Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.
8. Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than
batteries.
9. The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be
recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.
10. Lighter vehicles would mean less abuse on roads resulting in longer lasting roads.
11. The price of fueling air powered vehicles will be significantly cheaper than
current fuels.
12. Refueling can be done at home using an air compressor

CHAPTER-12

APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS

49
 1. Two wheeler Application
2. Four wheeler Applications

DISADVANTAGES

1. Like the modern car and most household appliances, the principal disadvantage is
the indirect use of energy.
2. The temperature difference between the incoming air and the working gas is
smaller. In heating the stored air, the device gets very cold and may ice up in cool,
moist climates.
3. Refueling the compressed air container using a home or low-end conventional air
compressor may take as long time..
4. Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. It very dangers it some time bloused.
5. Only limited storage capacity of the tanks. So we not take drive on long time.

CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION

50
 This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to
use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding,
planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We
feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and
industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time
successfully. The AIR ENGINE is working with satisfactory conditions. We are
able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We
have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about
our impression project work. Thus we have developed an “AIR ENGINE” which
helps to know how to achieve compressed air vehicle. The application of pneumatics
produces smooth operation. By using more techniques, they can be modified and
developed according to the applications.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - N.M AGGARWAL

51
 S.K.KATARIA & SONS

ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - S.SUBRAMANIAM

ALLIED PUBLISHERS
LTD.

THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF - J.B.GUPTA

ELECTRICAL MACHINES S.K.KATARIA & SONS

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS - V.K.METHTA

CYBER REFERANCE

www.visionengineer.com

www.tpup.com

52