ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTAL

DISUSUN OLEH :

NAMA : Mario Edi Mart Sani

NIM : 06193032284

KELAS : 2 EE

POLITEKNIK NEGERI SRIWIJAYA

TEKNIK ELEKTRONIKA

2020

DIODA
A diode is an electronic component consisting of two poles and serves to direct current. This
component consists of combining two semiconductors, each of which is given different
doping (addition of material), and additional conductor material to conduct electricity.

The main structure of the diode is two conductor poles, each of which is connected to p-
type silicon semiconductors and n-type silicon. Anode is an electrode connected to p type
silicon where there are fewer electrons, and cathode is an electrode connected to n type
silicon where there are more electrons. The meeting between silicon n and silicon p will
form a border called PN Junction.

Semiconductor materials used are generally in the form of silicon or germanium. The p-type
semiconductor was created by adding materials that have valence electrons less than 4
(Example: Boron) and n-type semiconductors are created by adding materials that
have electro valence more than 4 (Example: Phosphorus).
If two types of semiconductor material are attached, a PN-juction connection will be
obtained. This PN relationship can only continue the current if a forward bias voltage is
given, ie P (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply and N
(cathode) to the negative terminal of the power supply. If this relationship is reversed, it is
said that the diode becomes a reverse bias voltage and cannot flow an electric
current. These characteristics cause the diode to work as an electric current rectifier.

The main function of a diode is to rectify an AC current into a DC current. Besides diodes

also function as a safety from inductive loads, such as solenoids, relays or electric
motors. When extinguished, the inductive load will produce a high enough voltage so that it
can damage transistors and other ICs that function as inputs. At this time the diode serves
as a safety for other components besides that the diode also has another function, namely
the application of PN-Juction diode it also can be applied as a solar cell.

No voltage condition

When the condition is not given a voltage, it will form an electric field border at the PN
junction area. This happens preceded by the process of diffusion, which is the movement of
electro charge from side n to side p. The electrons will occupy a place on the side of p called
holes. The movement of these electrons will leave positive ions on the n side, and holes
filled with electrons will cause negative ions on the p side. These immovable ions form
a static electric field which blocks the movement of electrons in the diode.

Positive voltage condition (Forward-bias)

In this condition, the anode part is connected to the positive terminal of the power source
and the cathode part is connected to the negative terminal. The existence of an external
voltage will cause the ions which become a barrier to the flow of electricity to be attracted
to each pole. Negative ions will be attracted to the positive side of the anode, and positive
ions will be attracted to the negative side of the cathode. The loss of these barriers will
allow the movement of electrons inside the diode, so that electric current can flow as in a
closed circuit.

Negative voltage condition (Reverse-bias)

In this condition, the anode part is connected to the negative terminal of the power source
and the cathode part is connected to the positive terminal. The existence of an external
voltage will cause the ions which become a barrier to the flow of electricity to be attracted
to each pole. The provision of negative voltage will make negative ions attracted to the side
of the cathode (n-type) which is given a positive voltage, and positive ions attracted to the
side of the anode (p-type) which is given a negative voltage. The movement of the ions is in
the direction of the static electric field which blocks the movement of electrons, so the
barrier will be thicker by the ions. As a result, electricity cannot flow through the diode and
the circuit is likened to an open circuit.
Types of diodes and diode functions

Diodes are divided into several types based on their characteristics and functions. The types
of diodes and their applications are as follows.

 PN Junction Diode: A standard diode that consists of a PN arrangement and has a way
of working as described previously. This type of diode is a diode commonly used on
the market (also called a generic diode), used mainly as a current rectifier.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED): When a forward-biased current is flowed, the LED will
emit light. LEDs are now commonly used as lighting devices and several types are
used to replace fluorescent lamps.
 Laser Diode: Diode type of laser also produces light, but the light produced is
coherent light. The diode laser application is a CD and DVD reader and laser pointer
device.
 Photodiode: Photodiode can produce electrical energy if the PN junction area is
illuminated. Generally the photodiode is operated in reverse-bias, so that a small
current due to light can be directly detected. Photodiode is used to detect light
(photodetector).
 Gunn Diode: Gunn Diode is a type of diode that does not have PN Junction, but only
consists of two electrodes. This type of diode can be used to produce microwave
signals.
  BARITT Diode: BARITT (Barrier Injection Transit Time) Diode is a type of diode
that works on the principle of thermionic emission. This diode is used to produce
microwave signals with low noise levels.
 Tunnel Diode: Tunnel diode is a diode that works utilizing one of the phenomena of
quantum mechanics, namely tunneling. Tunnel junction is used as a component in
oscillators, amplifiers, or signal mixers, mainly because the speed reacts to changes in
voltage.
 Backward Diode: Backward diode has characteristics similar to a tunnel, the
difference lies in the existence of the doped side that is lower than the opposite
side. This difference in doping profile makes the backward diode have similar
voltage-current characteristics in reverse and forward conditions.
 PIN Diode: In a PIN diode, there is an intrinsic (without doping) semiconductor area
placed between the P and N junctions. The effect of adding the intrinsic area is the
widening of the depletion area which limits the movement of electrons, and this is
appropriate for a switching application.
 Schottky Diode: In Schottky diode, metal is added to the semiconductor surface
portion of the semiconductor. Characteristics of these diodes are the low activation
voltage and short recovery time. These diodes are very commonly used for high-
frequency electronic circuits, such as radio devices and logic gates .
 Step Recovery Diode: The semiconductor portion of this diode has a doping level that
gradually decreases with the lowest point at the junction. This modification can
reduce switching time because there is less load at the junction area. The application
of this semiconductor is in radio frequency electronic devices.
 Varactor Diode: Applied in the usual reverse mode with a barrier layer that can
change according to the applied voltage. This makes the diode appear to be a
capacitor.
 Zener diode: Has a special characteristic that wants a breakdown effect during reverse
bias This diode can produce a fixed voltage and is commonly used as a reference
voltage generator in electronic circuits.

Diode Characteristics
The characteristics of a diode can be shown by the relationship between the current
passing through the different potential ends. Diode characteristics are generally given by the
manufacturer, but can also be investigated by the circuit itself as shown below.
By varying the potentiometer P and recording V and I then illustrate in the graph, the
diode characteristic curve (static characteristic) is obtained. In general, the results are as
shown below.Looks for a diode Ge, a new current starts at a voltage of 0.3 V while for a
diode Si at 0.7 V. This voltage corresponds to a barrier voltage at the PN connection, and is
called a cut in voltage or knee voltage. . 
It also appears that the IR current = Io in the order μA, the IF forward current in the
order mA. From the curves of the curves that are not linear, of course the diode prisoners are
not fixed, both the forward and reverse prisoners. If the reverse voltage is enlarged, it will
reach a state of sharply increasing current, which can only be limited by external
resistance. This critical voltage is called a breakdown voltage.
Transistor

Transistors are semiconductor components that have various functions such as amplifiers,
controllers, rectifiers, oscillators, modulators and so on. Transistors are one of the most
common semiconductor components in electronic circuits. Use all electronic devices using
transistors for various needs in the circuit. Electronic devices that are published such as
Television, Computers, Cellphones, Audio Amplifiers, Audio Players, Video Players, Game
Consoles, Power Supply and others.

Types of transistors

In general, transistors can be classified into two major families, namely Bipolar Transistors
and Field Effect Transistors. The main difference between the two groupings is that the Input
(or Output) bias is used. Bipolar transistors require current to control other terminals while
Field Effect Transistors (FET) only use voltage (they do not require current). In operation,
Bipolar Transistors require hole and electron carrier charges while FET requires only one of
them

 Bipolar Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Transistors are transistors whose structure and working principle require the transfer
of the carrier charge, namely electrons in the negative poles to fill the electrons or holes in the
positive pole. Bipolar is derived from the word " bi " which means "two" and the word
" polar " which means "polar". Bipolar Transistors are also often referred to as the
abbreviation BJT which stands for Bipolar Junction Transistor .

Types of Bipolar Transistors

Bipolar Transistors consist of two types namely NPN Transistors and PNP Transistors. These
three Terminal Transistors are Base, Collector and Emitter terminals.
  An NPN transistor is a bipolar transistor that uses a small electric current and positive
voltage at the Base terminal to control the flow of current and a larger voltage from
the Collector to the Emitter.
 PNP transistor is a bipolar transistor that uses a small electric current and negative
voltage at the Base terminal to control the flow of current and a larger voltage from
the Emitter to the Collector.

Field Effect Transistor or Field Effect Transistor, which is abbreviated to FET, is a type of
transistor that uses electricity to control its conductivity. What is meant by electric field here
is the voltage applied to the Gate (G) terminal to control the flow of current and voltage at the
Drain terminal (D) to the Source (S) terminal. The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is often also
referred to as a Unipolar Transistor because its operation depends only on one carrier charge.

Types of Field Effect Transistors

This type of FET transistor consists of three types namely Junction Field Effect Transistor
(JFET), Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and Union Junction
Transistor (UJT).

 JFET ( Junction Field Effect Transistor ) is a Medication Effect Transistor that uses an
inverted pn junction as an insulator between the Gate and the Channel. JFET consists
of two types namely P-channel JFETs and N-channel JFETs. JFET consists of three
terminal legs, each of which is named Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).
 MOSFET ( Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor ) is a Field Effect
Transistor that uses an Isolator (usually using Silicon Dioxide or SiO2) between the
Gate and the Channel. This MOSFET also consists of two types of configurations
namely MOSFET Depletion and MOSFET Enhancement, each type of MOSFET is
also divided into P-channel MOSFETs and N-Channel MOSFETs. MOSFET consists
of three terminal legs namely Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).

 UJT ( Union Junction Transistor ) is a type of transistor that is classified as a Field

Effect Transistor (FET) because its operation also uses an electric field or voltage as a
controller. Unlike other types of FETs, UJT has two Base terminals (B1 and B2) and
1 Emitter terminal. UJT is used specifically as a controller (switch) and cannot be
used as an amplifier like other types of transistors.
Extending the Water Analogy

If you've read a lot of electricity concept tutorials lately, you're probably used to water
analogies. We say that current is analogous to the flow rate of water, voltage is the pressure
pushing that water through a pipe, and resistance is the width of the pipe.

Unsurprisingly, the water analogy can be extended to transistors as well: a transistor is like a
water valve -- a mechanism we can use to control the flow rate.There are three states we can
use a valve in, each of which has a different effect on the flow rate in a system.

1. On -- Short Circuit
A valve can be completely opened, allowing water to flow freely -- passing through
as if the valve wasn't even present.
 Likewise, under the right circumstances, a transistor can look like a short circuit
between the collector and emitter pins. Current is free to flow through the collector,
and out the emitter.

2. Off -- Open Circuit

When it's closed, a valve can completely stop the flow of water.

In the same way, a transistor can be used to create an open circuit between the
collector and emitter pins.
 3. Linear Flow Control
With some precise tuning, a valve can be adjusted to finely control the flow rate to
some point between fully open and closed.

A transistor can do the same thing -- linearly controlling the current through a circuit
at some point between fully off (an open circuit) and fully on (a short circuit).

our water analogy, the width of a pipe is similar to the resistance in a circuit. If a
valve can finely adjust the width of a pipe, then a transistor can finely adjust the
resistance between collector and emitter. So, in a way, a transistor is like a variable,
adjustable resistor.

Transistor

Transistors are semiconductor components that have various functions such as amplifiers,
controllers, rectifiers, oscillators, modulators and so on. Transistors are one of the most
common semiconductor components in electronic circuits. Use all electronic devices using
transistors for various needs in the circuit. Electronic devices that are published such as
Television, Computers, Cellphones, Audio Amplifiers, Audio Players, Video Players, Game
Consoles, Power Supply and others.
Types of transistors

In general, transistors can be classified into two major families, namely Bipolar Transistors
and Field Effect Transistors. The main difference between the two groupings is that the Input
(or Output) bias is used. Bipolar transistors require current to control other terminals while
Field Effect Transistors (FET) only use voltage (they do not require current). In operation,
Bipolar Transistors require hole and electron carrier charges while FET requires only one of
them

 Bipolar Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Transistors are transistors whose structure and working principle require the transfer
of the carrier charge, namely electrons in the negative poles to fill the electrons or holes in the
positive pole. Bipolar is derived from the word " bi " which means "two" and the word
" polar " which means "polar". Bipolar Transistors are also often referred to as the
abbreviation BJT which stands for Bipolar Junction Transistor .

Types of Bipolar Transistors

Bipolar Transistors consist of two types namely NPN Transistors and PNP Transistors. These
three Terminal Transistors are Base, Collector and Emitter terminals.

 An NPN transistor is a bipolar transistor that uses a small electric current and positive
voltage at the Base terminal to control the flow of current and a larger voltage from
the Collector to the Emitter.
 PNP transistor is a bipolar transistor that uses a small electric current and negative
voltage at the Base terminal to control the flow of current and a larger voltage from
the Emitter to the Collector.

Field Effect Transistor or Field Effect Transistor, which is abbreviated to FET, is a type of
transistor that uses electricity to control its conductivity. What is meant by electric field here
is the voltage applied to the Gate (G) terminal to control the flow of current and voltage at the
Drain terminal (D) to the Source (S) terminal. The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is often also
referred to as a Unipolar Transistor because its operation depends only on one carrier charge.

Types of Field Effect Transistors

This type of FET transistor consists of three types namely Junction Field Effect Transistor
(JFET), Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and Union Junction
Transistor (UJT).

 JFET ( Junction Field Effect Transistor ) is a Medication Effect Transistor that uses an
inverted pn junction as an insulator between the Gate and the Channel. JFET consists
of two types namely P-channel JFETs and N-channel JFETs. JFET consists of three
terminal legs, each of which is named Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).

 MOSFET ( Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor ) is a Field Effect

Transistor that uses an Isolator (usually using Silicon Dioxide or SiO2) between the
Gate and the Channel. This MOSFET also consists of two types of configurations
namely MOSFET Depletion and MOSFET Enhancement, each type of MOSFET is
also divided into P-channel MOSFETs and N-Channel MOSFETs. MOSFET consists
of three terminal legs namely Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).
  UJT ( Union Junction Transistor ) is a type of transistor that is classified as a Field
Effect Transistor (FET) because its operation also uses an electric field or voltage as a
controller. Unlike other types of FETs, UJT has two Base terminals (B1 and B2) and
1 Emitter terminal. UJT is used specifically as a controller (switch) and cannot be
used as an amplifier like other types of transistors.

Extending the Water Analogy

If you've read a lot of electricity concept tutorials lately, you're probably used to water
analogies. We say that current is analogous to the flow rate of water, voltage is the pressure
pushing that water through a pipe, and resistance is the width of the pipe.

Unsurprisingly, the water analogy can be extended to transistors as well: a transistor is like a
water valve -- a mechanism we can use to control the flow rate.There are three states we can
use a valve in, each of which has a different effect on the flow rate in a system.
4. On -- Short Circuit
A valve can be completely opened, allowing water to flow freely -- passing through
as if the valve wasn't even present.

Likewise, under the right circumstances, a transistor can look like a short circuit
between the collector and emitter pins. Current is free to flow through the collector,
and out the emitter.

5. Off -- Open Circuit

When it's closed, a valve can completely stop the flow of water.

In the same way, a transistor can be used to create an open circuit between the
collector and emitter pins.
 6. Linear Flow Control
With some precise tuning, a valve can be adjusted to finely control the flow rate to
some point between fully open and closed.

A transistor can do the same thing -- linearly controlling the current through a circuit
at some point between fully off (an open circuit) and fully on (a short circuit).

our water analogy, the width of a pipe is similar to the resistance in a circuit. If a
valve can finely adjust the width of a pipe, then a transistor can finely adjust the
resistance between collector and emitter. So, in a way, a transistor is like a variable,
adjustable resistor.

Printed Circuit Board 

PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board which in Indonesian is often translated as Printed

Circuit Board or Printed Circuit Board. As the name suggests, Printed Circuit Board , PCB is
a board used to connect Electronic components with the conductor path layer.

a. PCB Coating and Materials

Structurally, PCB is like a layer cake which consists of several layers and is laminated into a
single unit called PCB. There are PCBs with one layer of copper (Single Sided), some are
coated with two layers of copper (double sided) and there is also a PCB that has several
layers of copper or often called a Multilayer PCB.

The following are the standard structure and composition of PCB (Printed Circuit Board).

 Substrate (Base Layer)

PCB base layer is usually called Substrate. The most commonly used substrates are FR2 and
FR4. FR2 or Flame Resistant 2 is synthetic resin bonded paper, which is a composite material
made of paper that is impregnated with plasticized phenol formaldehyde resin . Whereas FR4
or Flame Resistant 4 is woven fiberglass coated with epoxy resin . FR4 has low water
absorption, good insulation property and withstands heat temperatures up to 140 degrees
Celsius. However, PCBs made from FR4 are more expensive when compared to PCBs made
from FR2.

 Copper

The next PCB layer is a thin copper layer which is laminated to a certain high temperature
substrate layer and adhesive. Depending on the type of PCB, this thin copper layer will only
be coated on one side of the substrate for the Single Sided PCB type. While Double Sided
PCB there is a thin copper layer on two sides of the substrate. Along with the development of
PCB manufacturing technology today, PCBs can be made up to 16 layers or even more than
16 layers depending on the PCB design and the desired circuit.

 Soldermask

Soldermask is a layer above the copper layer that serves to protect the copper or conductor
path from accidental contact or contact. This soldermask layer is only found on the parts of
the PCB that are not soldered, while the part to be soldered is not covered by the soldermask
layer. This soldermask layer can also help PCB users to solder in place so as to prevent
soldering short (solder short circuit). This layer of soldermask is usually green, but there are
also other colors such as blue and red.
  Silkscreen

The layer after soldermask is the silkscreen layer which is usually white or black. But there
are also silkscreen colors such as gray, red and even golden yellow. Silkscreen is printed
letters, numbers and symbols on the PCB. This silkscreen functions as a sign or indicator for
electronic components on the PCB making it easier for people to assemble it.

b. Types of PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

PCB or Printed Circuit Board in general can be divided into two types of types namely the
type of PCB based on the number of layers and the type of PCB based on its flexibility.

Types of PCBs based on the Number of Layers

Based on the number of layers, PCBs can be divided into Single Sided PCB, Double Sided
PCB and Multilayer PCB. The following are the types of PCBs based on the number of
layers.

 Single Sided PCB

Single-Sided PCB or one-sided Printed Circuit Board is a type of PCB that consists of only
one copper layer attached to one side of the PCB substrate. This type of PCB is usually used
in simple electronic circuits and the production costs are also relatively cheaper.

 Double Sided PCB

Double Sided PCB or double-sided printed circuit board is a type of PCB that consists of two
layers of copper. The Copper layer is stuck on both sides of the PCB substrate. The hole in
the double-sided PCB also functions as a connecting line between one copper layer on one
side and the copper layer on the other side.

 Multilayer PCB

Multilayer PCB is a type of PCB that consists of several layers of substrate and copper layers
separated by layers of insulators. Multilayer PCB is usually used in complex electronic
circuits. Generally consists of 4 layers, 6 layers, 8 layers, 10 layers to 16 layers.
 c. Types of PCBs based on their Flexibility

In addition to the number of layers, PCBs can also be distinguished based on their
flexibility. The following are the types of PCBs based on their flexibility.

 Rigid PCB

If translated into Indonesian, Rigid means rigid. So what is meant by Rigid PCB is a Printed
Circuit Board that is Rigid and cannot be folded or inflexible. Rigid PCB is made of solid and
rigid substrate material such as fiberglass so that it is deliberately made to not be folded or
bent.

 Flex PCB

Flex PCB or Flexible PCB is a PCB whose substrate is made of flexible plastic material. This
basic material allows the PCB to be bent without damaging the circuit that is on the PCB.

 Rigid-Flex PCB

Rigid-Flex PCB is a combination of Rigid PCB and Flex PCB technology, which consists of
Rigid PCB and Flex PCB. Generally, Rigid PCB is connected with Flex PCB.

SERVO MECHANIS

Servo mechanism is a traditional term used to describe a closed loop curved mechanical
control system that regulates the precise motion of a physical object such as a radar antenna
or robot arm. Usually, both the position output and the speed output (or both) are controlled
by the controller. For example a servo mechanism system for adjusting the position of a radar
antenna as shown in Figure 1.11. In this example, the controlled variable is the antenna
position. The antenna is rotated by using an electric motor that is connected to controllers that
are within a certain distance. The operator selects the desired antenna direction and then the
controller rotates the antenna in the desired direction

Figure 1.11. Servo Mechanism for Adjusting the Radar Antenna Position

Numerical control ( Numerical Control )

Numerical control is a type of digital control used on production machines such as lathes and
milling machines. These machines can automatically cut and shape workpieces without
operator intervention. Each machine has a set of axes or parameters that must be
controlled; for example, the milling machine shown in Figure 1.12. The workpiece is locked
on a work table that can be moved. The worktable can be driven (using an electric motor) in
three axes: X, Y, and Z. The speed of the cutting tool is automatically controlled as well. To
make a workpiece, the work table moves the workpiece past the cutting knife at a certain
speed and at a certain cutting depth. In this example, there are four parameters (X, Y, Z, and
RPM) which is continuously and separately controlled by the controller. As input for the
controller is a series of numbers that fully explain how the workpiece must be worked. These
figures include physical dimensions and work details such as cutting speed and depth of
cutting.
Numerical control machines began to be used since the 1960s, and standards relating to
applications have undergone many changes since then. Initially, data from the workpiece
image is entered manually into the program processing computer. The program on the
computer converts a series of numbers from input data into a series of numbers and
instructions that can be understood by numerical controls, and then the data is stored on disk
or tape, or can be sent directly to the mower control, read for work cutting work piece.
With the discovery of a computer-aided design (CAD) system, computerized programming
work to enter instructions for making workpieces can be eliminated. Now using a special
computer program (called a postprocessor ) can be read the pictures of workpieces made by a
computer and subsequently produced instructions that need for numerical control machines to
work on the workpiece. This whole process - from computer design (CAD) to workpiece
completion - is called the computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) process.
One of the main advantages of this process is that production machines can efficiently make
lots of different workpieces, from one to another. Such systems tend to reduce the use of raw
material supplies in large quantities. If the input data in the form of a diskette (or program) is
available, the required workpieces can be created in a short amount of time. This is an
example of a computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) system, a new way of working on
processes in the manufacturing industry. CIM covers the use of computers in every step of
manufacturing operations - from customer orders, raw material orders, workpiece
manufacturing, to delivery to the final destination.

Figure 1. 12. Basic Principles of Numerical Control of Milling Machines

Robot
Industrial robots are a classic example of a position control system. In many cases, robots
have a single arm with shoulders, elbows and wrist joints, there are also artificial hands or
claws called end effectors . The end effector can be a holder / clamp or other equipment such
as a paint sprayer. Robots are used to move workpieces from one place to another, install
parts of a piece of equipment and to place and take workpieces to and from numerical control
machines and can also be used to do painting and welding work.
Pick-and-place type robots (pick and place), are the simplest type, the task is to take the
workpiece and put it back somewhere. Robots of this type do not use a lot of complicated
closed-loop control equipment, most only use open curl control with the help of limiting
switches to regulate and determine how far the robot can move in a particular direction (often
referred to as "the bang-bang system") . An example of this type of robot is shown in Figure
1.13. This robot uses power from a pneumatic cylinder to lift, rotate and extend its arms. This
robot can be programmed to repeat a series of simple work steps.

Figure 1. 12. Basic Principles of Numerical Control of Milling Machines

Complex robots use closed curl position control for all arm joints. An example of this type of
industrial robot is shown in Figure 1.14. The robot has 6 controllable axes (also known as
robots with 6 degrees of freedom), which enable it to reach difficult positions. The robot is
available with a controller in the form of a special computer-based controller. This system
also has the ability to translate human instructions into robot program instructions through the
process of " teaching / learning". Robot arms from moving from one point to another at a
predetermined speed and reach the position of that point with accuracy up to 1/1000
millimeter.
 Figure 1.14. Examples of Complete Industrial Robot Systems

Dc Sources of Electricity

1. Introduction

The batteries have been selected as representative of many models and types which
are used in aircraft today. First, you will learn about the building block of all batteries, the
cell. The explanation will explore the physical makeup of the cell and the methods used to
combine cells to provide useful voltage, current, and power. The chemistry of the cell and
how chemical action is used to convert chemical energy to electrical energy are also
discussed.

In addition, the care, maintenance, and operation of batteries, as well as the safety
precautions that should be followed while working with and around batteries are discussed.
Batteries are widely used as sources of direct-current electrical energy in automobiles, boats,
aircraft, ships, portable electric/electronic equipment, and lighting equipment. In some
instances, they are used as the only source of power; while in others, they are used as a
secondary or standby power source. A battery consists of a number of cells assembled in a
common container and connected together to function as a source of electrical power.

2. The Cell

A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest
cell is known as either a galvanic or voltaic cell. It consists of a piece of carbon (C) and a
piece of zinc (Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a solution of water (H 2O) and sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) called the electrolyte.

The cell is the fundamental unit of the battery. A simple cell consists of two
electrodes placed in electrodes placed in a container the holds the electrolyte. In some cells
the container acts as one of the electrodes and, in this case, is acted upon by the electrolyte.

2.1 Electrodes

The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the
electrolyte. In the simple cell, they are carbon and zinc strips that are placed in the
electrolyte; while in the dry cell, they are the carbon (graphite) rod in the center and zinc
container in which the cell is assembled. In a discharging battery or galvanic cell (drawing)
the cathode is the positive terminal, where conventional current flows out. This outward
current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive
cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill" motion). It is continued externally
by electrons moving inwards, negative charge moving one way amounting to positive current
flowing the other way. The anode is the negative terminal, where conventional current
flows in, and electrons out.

2.2 Electrolyte

The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes. The electrolyte, which
provides a path for electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline solution. In the simple
galvanic cell, the electrolyte is in a liquid form. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.

2.3 Container

The container which may be constructed of one of many different materials provides a
means of holding (containing) the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the
electrodes. In the voltaic cell the container must be constructed of a material that will not be
acted upon by the electrolyte.

3. Primary and Secondary Cells

3.1 Primary Cell

A primary cell is one in which the chemical action eats away one of the electrodes,
usually the negative electrode. When this happens, the electrode must be replaced or the cell
must be discarded. In the galvanic-type cell, the zinc electrode and the liquid electrolyte are
usually replaced when this happens. In the case of the dry cell, it is usually cheaper to buy a
new cell.

3.2 Secondary Cell

A secondary cell is one in which the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the
chemical action that takes place when the cell delivers current. These cells may be restored to
their original condition by forcing an electric current through them in the direction opposite
to that of discharge. The automobile storage battery is a common example of the secondary
cell.

4. Electrochemical Action

If a load is connected externally to the electrodes of a cell, electrons will flow under
the influence of a difference in potential across the electrodes from the anode (negative
electrode), through the external conductor to the cathode (positive electrode). A cell is a
device in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. This process is called
electrochemical action. The voltage across the electrodes depends upon the materials from
which the electrodes are made and the composition of the electrolyte. The current that a cell
delivers depends upon the resistance of the entire circuit, including that of the cell itself. The
internal resistance of the cell depends upon the size of the electrodes, the distance between
them in the electrolyte, and the resistance of the electrolyte. The larger the electrodes and the
closer together they are in the electrolyte (without touching), the lower the internal resistance
of the cell and the more current the cell is capable of supplying to the load.

5. Primary Cell Chemistry

When a current flows through a primary cell having carbon and zinc electrodes and a
diluted solution of sulphuric acid and water (combined to form the electrolyte), the following
chemical reaction takes place. The electron flow through the load is the movement of
electrons from the negative electrode of the cell (zinc) and to the positive electrode (carbon).
This causes fewer electrons in the zinc and an excess of electrons in the carbon. The
hydrogen ions (H2) from the sulphuric acid are attracted to the carbon electrode. Since the
hydrogen ions are positively charged, they are attracted to the negative charge on the carbon
electrode. This negative charge is caused by the excess of electrons. The zinc electrode has a
positive charge because it has lost electrons to the carbon electrode. This positive charge
attracts the negative ions (SO4) from the sulphuric acid. The negative ions combine with the
zinc to form zinc sulphate. This action causes the zinc electrode to be eaten away.
Zinc sulphate is a greyish-white substance that is sometimes seen on the battery post
of an automobile battery. The process of the zinc being eaten away and the sulphuric acid
changing to hydrogen and zinc sulphate is the cause of the cell discharging. When the zinc is
used up, the voltage of the cell is reduced to zero. In Figure 4.2 you will notice that the zinc
electrode (the case) is labelled negative and the carbon electrode is labelled positive. This
represents the current flow outside the cell from positive to negative. The zinc combines with
the sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen. The zinc sulphate dissolves in the
electrolyte (sulphuric acid and water) and the hydrogen appears as gas bubbles around the
carbon electrode. As current continues to flow, the zinc gradually dissolved and the solution
changes to zinc sulphate and water. The carbon electrode does not enter into the chemical
changes taking place, but simply provides a return path for the current.

6. Secondary Cell Chemistry

As stated before, the differences between primary and secondary cells are, the
secondary cell can be recharged and the electrodes are made of different materials. The
secondary cell shown in Figure 4.3 uses sponge lead as the anode and lead peroxide as the
cathode. This is the lead-acid type cell and will be used to explain the general chemistry of
the secondary cell. The materials which make up the parts of a cell are different, but that the
chemical action is essentially the same. Figure 4.3 view A shows a lead-acid secondary cell
that is fully charged. The anode is pure sponge lead, the cathode is pure lead peroxide, and
the electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. Figure 4.3 view B shows the
secondary cell discharging. A load is connected between the cathode and anode; electrons
flow negative to positive as shown. This electron flow creates the same process as was
explained for the primary cell with the following exceptions:

In the primary cell, the zinc anode was eaten away by the sulphuric acid. In the
secondary cell, the sponge-like construction of the anode retains the lead sulphate formed by
the chemical action of the sulphuric acid and the lead.

In the primary cell, the carbon cathode was not chemically acted upon by the
sulphuric acid. In the secondary cell, the lead peroxide cathode is chemically changed to lead
sulphate by the sulphuric acid.
When the cell is fully discharged it will be as shown in Figure 4.3 view C. The
cathode and anode retain some lead peroxide and sponge lead but the amount of lead sulphate
in each is maximum. The electrolyte has a minimum amount of sulphuric acid. With this
condition no further chemical action can take place within the cell. As you know, the
secondary cell can be recharged. Recharging is the process of reversing the chemical action
that occurs as the cell discharges. To recharge the cell, a voltage source, such as a generator,
is connected as shown in Figure 4.3 view D. The negative terminal of the voltage source is
connected to the cathode of the cell and the positive terminal of the voltage source is
connected to the anode of the cell.

With this arrangement the lead sulphate is chemically changed back to sponge lead in
the cathode, lead peroxide in the anode, and sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. After all the
lead sulphate is chemically changed, the cell is fully charged as shown in Figure 4.3 view A.
Once the cell has been charged, the discharge-charge cycle may be repeated. Notice in the
above paragraph that the Anode and Cathode appear to have changed polarity. This is
because a cell being recharged is an electrolytic cell (rather than a voltaic or galvanic cell, as
it was when discharging). In an electrolytic cell, the anode is positive, and the cathode is
negative.
 7. Polarization of the Cell
The chemical action that occurs in the cell while the current is flowing causes
hydrogen bubbles to form on the surface of the anode. This action is called polarization.
Some hydrogen bubbles rise to the surface of the electrolyte and escape into the air, some
remain on the surface of the anode. If enough bubbles remain around the anode, the bubbles
form a barrier that increases internal resistance. When the internal resistance of the cell
increases, the output current is decreased and the voltage of the cell also decreases. A cell that
is heavily polarized has no useful output. There are several methods to prevent polarization or
to depolarize the cell.

One method uses a vent on the cell to permit the hydrogen to escape into the air. A
disadvantage of this method is that hydrogen is not available to reform into the electrolyte
during recharging. This problem is solved by adding water to the electrolyte, such as in an
automobile battery. A second method is to use material that is rich in oxygen, such as
manganese dioxide, which supplies free oxygen to combine with the hydrogen and form
water. A third method is to use a material that will absorb the hydrogen, such as calcium. The
calcium releases hydrogen during the charging process. All three methods remove enough
hydrogen so that the cell is practically free from polarization.

8. Local Action

When the external circuit is removed, the current ceases to flow, and, theoretically, all
chemical action within the cell stops. However, commercial zinc contains many impurities,
such as iron, carbon, lead, and arsenic. These impurities form many small electrical cells
within the zinc electrode in which current flows between the zinc and its impurities. Thus, the
chemical action continues even though the cell itself is not connected to a load. Local action
may be prevented by using pure zinc (which is not practical), by coating the zinc with
mercury, or by adding a small percentage of mercury to the zinc during the manufacturing
process. The treatment of the zinc with mercury is called amalgamating (mixing) the zinc.
Since mercury is many times heavier than an equal volume of water, small particles of
impurities weighing less than mercury will float to the surface of the mercury. The removal
of these impurities from the zinc prevents local action. The mercury is not readily acted upon
by the acid. When the cell is delivering current to a load, the mercury continues to act on the
impurities in the zinc. This causes the impurities to leave the surface of the zinc electrode and
float to the surface of the mercury. This process greatly increases the storage life of the cell.
 9. Types of Cells

The development of new and different types of cells in the past decade has been so
rapid that it is virtually impossible to have a complete knowledge of all the various types. A
few recent developments are the silver-zinc, nickel-zinc, nickel-cadmium, silver-cadmium,
organic and inorganic lithium, and mercury cells.

9.1 Primary Dry Cell

The dry cell is the most popular type of primary cell. It is ideal for simple applications
where an inexpensive and non-critical source of electricity is needed. The dry cell is not
actually dry. The electrolyte is not in a liquid state, but is a moist paste. If it should become
totally dry, it would no longer be able to transform chemical energy to electrical energy.

The construction of a common type of dry cell is shown in Figure 4.4. These dry cells
are also referred to as Leclanche's cells. The internal parts of the cell are located in a
cylindrical zinc container. This zinc container serves as the negative electrode (anode) of the
cell. The container is lined with a non-conducting material, such as blotting paper, to separate
the zinc from the paste. A carbon electrode is located in the center, and it serves as the
positive terminal (cathode) of the cell. The paste is a mixture of several substances such as
ammonium chloride, powdered coke, ground carbon, manganese dioxide, zinc chloride,
graphite, and water.

This electrolyte paste also serves to hold the cathode rigid in the center of the cell.
When the paste is packed in the cell, a small space is left at the top for expansion of the
electrolytic paste caused by the depolarization action. The cell is then sealed with a cardboard
or plastic seal. Since the zinc container is the anode, it must be protected with some insulating
material to be electrically isolated. Therefore, it is common practice for the manufacturer to
enclose the cells in cardboard and metal containers.

The dry cell (Figure 4.4) is basically the same as the simple voltaic cell (wet cell)
described earlier, as far as its internal chemical action is concerned. The action of the water
and the ammonium chloride in the paste, together with the zinc and carbon electrodes,
produces the voltage of the cell. Manganese dioxide is added to reduce polarization when
current flows and zinc chloride reduces local action when the cell is not being used. A cell
that is not being used will gradually deteriorate because of slow internal chemical changes
(local action). This deterioration is usually very slow if cells are properly stored. If unused
cells are stored in a cool place, their shelf life will be greatly preserved. Therefore, to
minimize deterioration, they should be stored in refrigerated spaces. The cell is sealed at the
top to keep air from entering and drying the electrolyte. Care should be taken to prevent
breaking this seal.

9.2 The Leclanche Cell

Georges Leclanche invented and patented in 1866 his battery, the Leclanche cell. It
contained a conducting solution (electrolyte) of ammonium chloride, a cathode (positive
terminal) of carbon, a depolarizer of manganese dioxide, and an anode (negative terminal) of
zinc. The Leclanche battery was essentially a self-contained version of an earth battery, and
fairly copied its design. The Leclanche battery (or wet cell as it was referred to) was the
forerunner of the modern dry cell zinc-carbon battery.

9.3 The Daniell Cell

 The Daniell cell, also called the gravity cell or crowfoot cell was invented in 1836 by
John Frederic Daniell, who was a British chemist and meteorologist. The Daniell cell was a
great improvement over and is somewhat safer than the voltaic cell used in the early days of
battery development. The Daniell cell's theoretical voltage is 1.1 volts. The Daniell proper
consists of a central zinc anode dipping into a porous earthenware pot containing zinc
sulphate solution. The porous pot is, in turn, immersed in a solution of copper sulphate
contained in a copper can, which acts as the cell's cathode. The use of a porous barrier
prevents the copper ions in the copper sulphate solution from reaching the zinc anode and
undergoing reduction. This would render the cell ineffective by bringing the battery to
equilibrium without driving a current.

9.4 Mercuric-Oxide Zinc Cell

The mercuric-oxide zinc cell (mercury cell) is a primary cell that was developed
during World War II. Two important assets of the mercury cell are its ability to produce
current for a long period of time and a long shelf life when compared to the dry cell shown in
Figure 5.4.The mercury cell also has a very stable output voltage and is a power source that
can be made in a small physical size. With the birth of the space program and the
development of small transceivers and miniaturized equipment, a power source of small size
was needed. Such equipment requires a small cell which is capable of delivering maximum
electrical energy at a constant discharge voltage. The mercury cell, which is one of the
smallest cells, meets these requirements.

Present mercury cells are manufactured in three basic types as shown in Figure 5.7.
The wound-anode type, shown in Figure 4.7 view A, has an anode composed of a corrugated
zinc strip with a paper absorbent. The zinc is mixed with mercury, and the paper is soaked in
the electrolyte which causes it to swell and press against the zinc and make positive contact.
This process ensures that the electrolyte makes contact with the cathode.

If the anode and cathode of a cell are connected together without a load, a short circuit
condition exists. Short circuits (shorts) can be very dangerous. They cause excessive heat
pressure, and current flow which may cause serious damage to the cell or be a safety hazard
to personnel. Warning, do not short the mercury cell. Shorted mercury cells have exploded
with considerable force.

10. Other Types of Cells

There are many different types of primary cells. Because of such factors as cost, size,
ease of replacement, and voltage or current needs, many types of primary cells have been
developed. The following is a brief description of some of the primary cells in use today. If
the anode and cathode of a cell are connected together without a load, a short circuit
condition exists. Short circuits (shorts) can be very dangerous. They cause excessive heat
pressure, and current flow which may cause serious damage to the cell or be a safety hazard
to personnel.
The Manganese Dioxide-Alkaline-Zinc Cell is similar to the zinc-carbon cell except
for the electrolyte used. This type of cell offers better voltage stability and longer life than the
zinc-carbon type. It also has a longer shelf life and can operate over a wide temperature
range. The manganese dioxide-alkaline-zinc cell has a voltage of 1.5 volts and is available in
a wide range of sizes. This cell is commonly referred to as the alkaline cell. The Magnesium-
Manganese Dioxide Cell uses magnesium as the anode material. This allows a higher output
capacity over an extended period of time compared to the zinc-carbon cell. This cell produces
a voltage of approximately 2 volts. The disadvantage of this type of cell is the production of
hydrogen during its operation. The Lithium-Organic Cell and the Lithium-Inorganic Cell are
recent developments of a new line of high-energy cells. The main advantages of these types
of cells are very high power, operation over a wide temperature range, they are lighter than
most cells, and have a remarkably long shelf life of up to 20 years. Lithium cells contain
toxic materials under pressure. Do not puncture, recharge, short-circuit, expose to excessively
high temperatures, or incinerate. Use these batteries/cells only in approved equipment. Do not
throw it in bin.

10.1 Disposable Cells

These are not designed to be rechargeable and often called as primary cells.
"Disposable" may also imply that special disposal procedures must take place for proper
disposal according to regulation, depending on battery type, such as :

Zinc-carbon: mid cost, used in light drain applications.

Zinc-chloride: similar to zinc-carbon but slightly longer life.

Alkaline: alkaline/manganese "long life" batteries widely used in both light-drain and heavy-
drain applications.

Silver-oxide: commonly used in hearing aids, watches, and calculators.

Lithium Iron Disulphide: commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches
and computer clocks. Very long life (up to ten years in wristwatches) and capable of
delivering high currents but expensive. Will operate in sub-zero temperatures.

Lithium-Thionyl Chloride: used in industrial applications, including computers, electric

meters and other devices which contain volatile memory circuits and act as a "carryover"
voltage to maintain the memory in the event of a main power failure. Other applications
include providing power for wireless gas and water meters. The cells are rated at 3.6 Volts
and come in 1/2AA, AA, 2/3A, A, C, D & DD sizes. They are relatively expensive, but have
a long shelf life, losing less than 10% of their capacity in ten years.

Mercury: formerly used in digital watches, radio communications, and portable electronic
instruments. Manufactured only for specialist applications due to toxicity.

Zinc-air: commonly used in hearing aids.

Nickel Oxyhydroxide: Ideal for applications that use bursts of high current, such as digital
cameras. They will last two times longer than alkaline batteries in digital cameras.

Paper: In August 2007, a research team at RPI (led by Drs. Robert Linhardt, Pulickel
M.Ajayan, and OmkaramNalamasu) developed a paper battery with aligned carbonnanotubes,
designed to function as both a lithium-ion battery and a super-capacitor,using ionic liquid,
essentially a liquid salt, as electrolyte. The sheets can be rolled, twisted, folded, or cut into
numerous shapes with no loss of integrity or efficiency, or stacked, like printer paper (or a
voltaic pile), to boost total output. As well, they can be made in a variety of sizes, from
postage stamp to broadsheet. Their light weight and low cost make them attractive for
portable electronics, aircraft, and automobiles, while their ability to use electrolytes in blood
make them potentially useful for medical devices such as pacemakers. In addition, they are
biodegradable, unlike most other disposable cells.

10.2 Rechargeable Cells

Also known as secondary batteries or accumulators. The National Electrical
Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for rechargeables is growing
twice as fast as demand for non-rechargeables. There are a few main types:

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd): Best used for motorized equipment and other high-discharge,
short-term devices. NiCd batteries can withstand even more drain than NiMH; however,
themAh rating is not high enough to keep a device running for very long, and the memory
effect is far more severe.
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH): Best used for high-tech devices. NiMH batteries can last up
to four times longer than alkaline batteries because NiMH can withstand high current for a
long while.

Rechargeable alkaline: Uses similar chemistry as non-rechargeable alkaline batteries and

are best suited for similar applications. Additionally, they hold their charge for years, unlike
NiCd and NiMH batteries.

Lithium Ion (Li-Ion): Continuing in the tradition of modern battery chemistries, the lithium
ion battery has an increased energy density and can provide a respectable amount of current.
High discharge rates don't significantly reduce its capacity, nor does it lose very much
capacity after each cycle, still retaining 80% of its energy capacity after 500 recharge cycles.
This is a volatile technology, early versions were prone to exploding in the labs. It is the
volatile nature of lithium that gives this battery its punch, though. These benefit come with a
price, of course (perhaps to pay for equipment damaged in the research?).

Fuel Cells: The fuel cell isn't so much a battery as it is a catalytic chemical engine that
creates electricity from hydrogen and oxygen. The fuel is typically a variation of hydrogen,
such as the hydrocarbon fuels methanol, natural gas, or even gasoline.

The output of the fuel cell is electricity and water.

11. Secondary Wet Cells

Secondary cells are sometimes known as wet cells. There are four basic types of wet
cells, the lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, silver-zinc, and silver-cadmium.

Lead Acid Cell

 The lead-acid cell is the most widely used secondary cell. The previous explanation of
the secondary cell describes exactly the manner in which the lead-acid cell provides electrical
power. The discharging and charging action presented in electrochemical action describes the
lead-acid cell. You should recall that the lead-acid cell has an anode of lead peroxide, a
cathode of sponge lead, and the electrolyte is sulphuric acid and water.

Nickel-Cadmium Cell
The nickel-cadmium cell (NiCad or NiCd) is far superior to the lead-acid cell. In comparison
to lead-acid cells, these cells generally require less maintenance throughout their service life
in regard to the adding of electrolyte or water. The major difference between the nickel-
cadmium cell and the lead-acid cell is the material used in the cathode, anode, and electrolyte.
In the nickel-cadmium cell the cathode is cadmium hydroxide, the anode is nickel hydroxide,
and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide and water. The nickel-cadmium and lead-acid cells
have capacities that are comparable at normal discharge rates, but at high discharge rates the
nickel-cadmium cell can deliver a larger amount of power. In addition the nickel-cadmium
cell can:

• Be charged in a shorter time

• Stay idle longer in any state of charge and keep a full charge when stored for a longer
period of time

• Be charged and discharged any number of times without any appreciable damage.

• Due to their superior capabilities, nickel-cadmium cells are being used extensively in many
aircraft applications that require a cell with a high discharge rate.

Silver-Zinc Cells
The silver-zinc cell is used extensively to power emergency equipment. This type of cell is
relatively expensive and can be charged and discharged fewer times than other types of cells.
When compared to the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium cells, these disadvantages are
overweighed by the light weight, small size, and good electrical capacity of the silver-zinc
cell. The silver-zinc cell uses the same electrolyte as the nickel-cadmium cell (potassium
hydroxide and water), but the anode and cathode differ from the nickel-cadmium cell. The
anode is composed of silver oxide and the cathode is made of zinc.

Silver-Cadmium Cell

The silver-cadmium cell is a fairly recent development for use in storage batteries. The silver-
cadmium cell combines some of the better features of the nickel-cadmium and silver-zinc
cells. It has more than twice the shelf life of the silver-zinc cell and can be recharged many
more times. The disadvantages of the silver-cadmium cell are high cost and low voltage
production. The electrolyte of the silver-cadmium cell is potassium hydroxide and water as in
the nickel-cadmium and silver-zinc cells. The anode is silver oxide as in the silver-zinc cell
and the cathode is cadmium hydroxide as in the NiCad cell. You may notice that different
combinations of materials are used to form the electrolyte, cathode, and anode of different
cells. These combinations provide the cells with different qualities for many varied
applications.

12. Cell Capacity

The capacity of a cell relates to the amount of current that the cell is capable of
supplying. The capacity will depend upon the area of the plates: the larger the area, the
greater the capacity. The voltage produced is independent of plate size and is purely related to
the materials of the cell. In Figure 4.10 the two examples use identical materials but are of
different sizes. The voltages produced by each cell, therefore, are identical but the capacities
are different.
 13. Cells in Series and Parallel Cells in Series

If cells are connected in series, as shown in Figure 4.11, the total voltage will increase. The
terminal voltages of the individual cells are added together to obtain the battery terminal
voltage. The overall capacity, however, does not increase.

13.1 Cells in Parallel

If cells or batteries are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 4.12, the total capacity will
increase.

13.2 Cells in Series-Parallel

Figure 4.13 depicts a battery network supplying power to a load requiring both a voltage and
a current greater than one cell can provide. To provide the required 4.5 volts, groups of three
1.5volt cells are connected in series. To provide the required 1/2 ampere of current, four
series groups are connected in parallel, each supplying 1/8 ampere of current.

The connections shown have been used to illustrate the various methods of combining cells
toform a battery. Series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits will be covered in detail in the
next chapter, "Direct Current." Some batteries are made from primary cells. When a primary-
cell battery is completelydischarged, the entire battery must be replaced. Because there is
nothing else that can be doneto primary cell batteries, the rest of the discussion on batteries
will be concerned with batteriesmade of secondary cells.

4.4.14 Battery Construction

4.4.14.1 The Lead-Acid Cell

The basic lead-acid cell consists of two sets of plates, one of which is negative and the other
positive. They are interleaved and prevented from coming into contact with each other by
porous separators. The separators have high insulation qualities but permit the unobstructed
circulation of the electrolyte at the plate surfaces. The basic lead-acid cell components are
shown in Figure 4.14.
 The positive plates are made up of grids of lead and antimony filled with lead
peroxide. The negative plates are made up of similar grids, but filled with spongy lead. The
electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid and water in contact with both sets of plates. The
type of cell construction permits the electrolyte to circulate freely and also provides a path for
sediment to settle at the bottom of the cell. When an external circuit is connected to a fully
charged cell, electrons flow from the negative lead plates, via the circuit, to the positive lead
peroxide plates. As the electrons leave the negative plates, positive ions form. These attract
negative sulphateions from the sulphuric acid of the electrolyte. This causes lead sulphate to
form on the negative plates. The electrons arriving at the positive plates, from the external
circuit, drive negative oxygen ions from the lead peroxide into the electrolyte. These combine
with hydrogen, which has lost sulphate ions, to form water. The positive lead ions that are left
on the positive plates also attract and combine with sulphateU ions from the electrolyte to
form lead sulphate on the positive plates. Once lead sulphate collects on both the positive and
negative plates and the electrolyte becomes diluted by the water, which has formed in it, the
cell is considered discharged. A discharged cell is recharged using a direct current of the
correct voltage. When the positive plates of the cell are connected to the positive of the
charging source and the negative plates to the negative of the source, electrons are drawn
from the positive plates and forced onto the negative plates. Electrons arriving at the negative
plates drive negative sulphate ions out of the lead sulphate back into the electrolyte. The
sulphate ions join with hydrogen to form sulphuric acid.

When electrons flow from the positive plates they leave positively charged lead ions.
These attract oxygen from the water in the
When the cell is fully charged the positive plates again become lead peroxide and the
negative plates lead. The electrolyte becomes a high concentration of sulphuric acid. The
specific gravity of the electrolyte of a fully charged cell is approximately 1.260. This falls to
about 1.150 when the cell is completely discharged. These values will depend upon the
manufacturer's instructions.

The specific, gravity, therefore, is a good indication of the state of charge of the cell and is
measured using a hydrometer. Using the rubber bulb, enough electrolyte is drawn up into the
hydrometer, to float the float.

During the charging of the cell hydrogen gas is released from the electrolyte and bubbles to
the surface. As the cell nears full charge more hydrogen is released and the bubbling
increases. A vent is, therefore, incorporated in the cell cap. The voltage of a fully charged cell
is approximately 2.2 volts (2 volts nominal) and in the discharged state 1.8 volts.

Generally lead-acid batteries are made up of cells in a common case so that cells cannot be
removed individually.

The Nickel-Cadmium Cell

The nickel-cadmium, or NiCad, battery has a very distinct advantage in that its internal
resistance is very low. Its output voltage, therefore, remains almost constant until it is nearly
totally discharged. The NiCad cell has positive plates made from powdered nickel which is
fused, or sintered, to a porous nickel mesh and the negative plates are of the same
construction but are impregnated with cadmium hydroxide.

Separators of nylon and cellophane, in the form of a continuous strip wound between the
plates, keeps the plates from touching each other. Cellophane is used because it has low
electrical resistivity and also acts as a gas barrier preventing oxygen, given off at the positive
plates during overcharge, from passing to the negative plates.
The electrolyte is an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled or de-ionized
water with a specific gravity of 1.24 to 1.30. The specific gravity of the electrolyte does not
change during charge or discharge so it cannot be used to indicate the state of charge.

The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical reaction and is used only to
provide a path for current flow. The electrolyte is forced out of both sets of plates during
charging so that the electrolyte level in the cell rises. The electrolyte level is, therefore, only
checked and any water added when the cell is fully charged.

These factors all contribute to a process known as "thermal runaway", which ultimately
results in the destruction of the cell.

a) The sealed type where the cell is completely sealed, as used in small capacity batteries.

b) The semi-sealed type where the cell is almost fully sealed but has a safety pressure valve.

c) The semi-open type which has a non-return valve, allowing the cell to gas yet preventing
the electrolyte from being contaminated by the air. This type is used in the main aircraft
battery.

Although the nickel-cadmium battery has become the preferred type in today's aircraft, there
are also the nickel-iron and silver- zinc types of alkaline cell. The capacity of each cell is
added together to obtain the total capacity. In effect the area of the plates has been increased.
The voltage, on the other hand, does not increase.

Battery Internal Resistance

Each cell in a battery has a certain internal resistance. The terminal voltage of the battery
when it is off load is not affected by this internal resistance. The voltage available to the
external circuit at the battery terminals will now be the original off load terminal voltage
minus the volts drop across the internal resistance. The terminal voltage will, therefore,
decrease with an increase in circuit current or an increase in internal resistance.
Battery Maintenance

The following information concerns the maintenance of secondary-cell batteries and is of a

general nature. You must check the appropriate technical manuals for the specific type of
battery prior to performing maintenance on any battery.

1. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a certain amount of a given substance
compared to the weight of the same amount of pure water. The specific gravity of
pure water is 1.0. Any substance that floats has a specific gravity less than 1.0. Any
substance that sinks has a specific gravity greater than 1.0. The acceptable range of
specific gravity for a given battery is provided by the battery's manufacturer. To
measure a battery's specific gravity, use an instrument called a hydrometer.

2. The Hydrometer

To test an electrolyte, draw it into the hydrometer using the suction bulb. Draw
enough electrolyte into the hydrometer to make the float rise. Do not draw in so many
electrolytes that the float rises into the suctionbulb. The float will rise to a point
determined by the specific gravity of the electrolyte. If the electrolyte contains a large
amount of active ingredient, its specific gravity will be relatively high.
3. Other Maintenance
The routine maintenance of a battery is very simple. Terminals should be checked
periodically for cleanliness and good electrical connection. The battery case should be
inspected for cleanliness and evidence of damage. The level of electrolyte should be
checked and if the electrolyte is low, distilled water should be added to bring the
electrolyte to the proper level. Maintenance procedures for batteries are normally
determined by higher authority and each command will have detailed procedures for
battery care and maintenance.
Safety Precautions with Batteries

All types of batteries should be handled with care:

 never short the terminals of a battery

 carrying straps should be used when transporting batteries.
 protective clothing, such as rubber apron, rubber gloves, and a face shield should be
worn when working with batteries.
 no smoking, electric sparks, or open flames should be permitted near charging
batteries.
 care should be taken to prevent spilling of the electrolyte.

Capacity and Rating of Batteries

The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hours. The ampere-hour capacity is equal to

the product of the current in amperes and the time in hours during which the battery will
supply this current. The ampere-hour capacity varies inversely with the discharge current. All
standard batteries deliver 100 percent of their available capacity if discharged in 20 hours or
more, but they will deliver less than their available capacity if discharged at a faster rate. The
faster they discharge, the less ampere-hour capacity they have.

Battery Charging

Batteries are usually charged in battery shops. Each shop will have specific charging
procedures for the types of batteries to be charged. The following types of charges may be
given a storage battery:

 Initial charge : When a new battery is shipped dry, the plates are in an uncharged
condition. After the electrolyte has been added, it is necessary to charge the battery.
This is accomplished by giving the battery a long low-rate initial charge.
 Normal charge : A normal charge is a routine charge that is given in accordance with
the nameplate data during the ordinary cycle of operation to restore the battery to its
charged condition.
 Equalizing charge : An equalizing charge is a special extended normal charge that is
given periodically to batteries as part of a maintenance routine
 Floating charge :The floating charge is used to keep a battery at full charge while the
battery is idle or in light duty.
 Fast charge : A fast charge is used when a battery must be recharged in the shortest
possible time.
 Charging rate : Normally, the charging rate of aircraft storage batteries is given on the
battery nameplate. If the available charging equipment does not have the desired
charging rates, the nearest available rates should be used.
 Charging time : The charge must be continued until the battery is fully charged.
Gassing

When a battery is being charged, a portion of the energy breaks down the water in the
electrolyte. Hydrogen is released at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates.

These gases bubble up through the electrolyte and collect in the air space at the top of the
cell. If violent gassing occurs when the battery is first placed on charge, the charging rate is
too high. If the rate is not too high, steady gassing develops as the charging proceeds,
indicating that the battery is nearing a fully charged condition.

Thermocouples

In 1821, the German-Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any
conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This
is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. This additional conductor will
then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will
oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use.
Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs
generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement.

It is important to note that thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two
points, not absolute temperature. A thermocouple can produce current, which means it can be
used to drive some processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources.

Operation

In the simplest arrangement the thermocouple would be connected directly to a meter, the
meter terminals being the cold junction. In an aircraft, however, the hot junction is in the
engine and the meter indicator on the flight deck.

If the thermocouple cold junction were to be connected to the meter by copper wires, the
potential at the cold junction would be as if points "A" and "B" were joined together
(provided that "A" and "B" were at the same temperature). This would still allow the meter to
read the difference between V1 and V2.
If however, the hot and cold junctions were relatively close together, the temperature
difference between them would not be so great as if they were far apart.

The thermocouple and its connections are housed in a protective metal sheath or probe which
allows the hot junction to be exposed to the engine gases. Thermocouples can be connected in
series with each other to form a thermopile, where all the hot junctions are exposed to the
higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature. Thus, the voltages of the
individual thermocouple add up, which allows for a larger voltage and increased power.

Materials

Thermocouple materials are available in several different metallurgical formulations per type,
such as: (listed in decreasing levels of accuracy and cost) Special limits of error, Standard,
and Extension grades. Changes in metallurgy along the length of the thermocouple (such as
termination strips or changes in thermocouple type wire) will introduce another thermocouple
junction which affects measurement accuracy. Also, industry standards are that the
thermocouple colour code is used for the insulation of the positive lead, and red is the
negative lead.

Types

A variety of thermocouples are available, suitable for different measuring applications. They
are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed. The thermocouple
types are listed below with the positive electrode first, followed by the negative electrode.

1. Type K (chromel-alumel)
is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is inexpensive and,
owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. Another potential
problem arises in some situations since one of the constituent metals, nickel, is
magnetic. The characteristic of the thermocouple undergoes a step change when a
magnetic material reaches its Curie point. They are available in the -200°C to
+1350°C range.
2. Type E (chromel-constantan)
has a high output (68 μV/°C) which makes it well suited to cryogenic use.
Additionally, it is non-magnetic.
3. Type J (iron-contantan)
 is less popular than type K due to its limited range (-40 to +750°C). The main
application is with old equipment that cannot accept modern thermocouples.
4. Type N (nicrosil-nisil)
thermocouples are suitable for use at high temperatures, exceeding 1200°C, due to
their stability and ability to resist high temperature oxidation.

5. Type B, R, and S thermocouples

use platinum or a platinum-rhodium alloy for each conductor. These are among the
most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity, approximately 10 μV/°C, than
other types.
6. Type B thermocouples
use a platinum-rhodium alloy for each conductor. One conductor contains 30%
rhodium while the other conductor contains 6% rhodium. These thermocouples are
suited for use at up to 1800°C.
7. Type R thermocouples
use a platinum-rhodium alloy containing 13% rhodium for one conductor and pure
platinum for the other conductor. Type R thermocouples are used up to 1600°C.
8. Type S thermocouples
use a platinum-rhodium alloy containing 10% rhodium for one conductor and pure
platinum for the other conductor, type S thermocouples are used up to 1600°C.
9. Type T (copper-constantan)
thermocouples are suited for measurements in the -200 to 350°C range. Often used as
a differential measurement since only copper wire touches the probes.
10. Type C (tungsten 5% rhenium – tungsten 26% rhenium)
thermocouples are suited for measurements in the 0°C to 2320°C range. This
thermocouple is well-suited for vacuum furnaces at extremely high temperatures and
must never be used in the presence of oxygen at temperatures above 260°C.
11. Type M thermocouples
use a nickel alloy for each wire. The positive wire contains 18% molybdenum while
the negative wire contains 0.8% cobalt. These thermocouples are used in the vacuum
furnaces for the same reasons as with type C.

Thermocouples Comparison and Identification

The table below describes properties of several different thermocouple types. Within the
tolerance columns, T represents the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees Celsius. For
example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of ±0.0025xT would have a tolerance of ±2.5°C at

1000°C.

Applications

A practical thermocouple

Two basic types of probe are employed for measuring exhaust gas temperatures in turbine
engines

.
The stagnation probe has a large entry port and a small exit port so that the gas is brought
almost to rest, preventing errors caused by the kinetic energy of the gas flow. This type is
designed for high velocity gas flow. The rapid response probe is designed for slow exhaust
gas velocity. The gas flows from the inlet port, over the junction, to the diametrically
opposite outlet port.

Exhaust gas thermocouples are mounted radially around the engine tail pipe. There are
usually a minimum of four. The RB 211 engine, however, has seventeen connected in a
parallel arrangement which has the advantage that the failure of one or more thermocouples
does not cause complete failure of the output signal.

Photocells

Photocells undergo a change in their electrical parameters when exposed to light energy and
are known as photoelectric devices. They are affected by light in three different ways as
follows

Photo-emission

Where the application of light causes the emission of electrons from a prepared surface. With
the positive potential of a supply connected to the anode of the cell and the negative to the
cathode, the current in the circuit will depend upon the amount of light falling on the device:
no light, no current; high intensity light, high current
Photo-voltaic

Where the application of light causes the production of a voltage. The photo-voltaic (or solar
cell), can be used toproduce electrical energy for a variety of purposes. If a large number of
cells are

connectedtogether to form a solar panel the power generated is limited only by the number of
cells employed. The silicon solar cell consists of a wafer of silicon which has been doped to
make it a semiconductor. A thin layer of boron is thendiffused into it. The wafer is reinforced
with metal and provided with electrical contacts to enable it to be connected to other cells.

Photo-conduction

Where a device undergoes a change of resistance with a variation in light intensity. The
photo-conductive cell or light dependent resistor is a solid state device. The effective area of
the light collecting photo-conductive material is increased by etching it onto the substrate in a
serpentine manner. When there is an increase in light intensity the additional photon
bombardment releases more electrons from the atomic bond which increases the current
through the device. The resistance has, therefore, decreased. The reverse occurs with a
reduction in light intensity.