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3 Source of Data and Projection
3 Source of Data and Projection
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Source of data
• Analogue data - a physical product displaying
information visually on paper or film
• Digital data - information formatter or a
computer readable file
• Analog: a number of different sources are
available
• Standardized map sheets
• Mylar map transparencies
• Aerial photos
• Tabular Data
• Written reports
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Hard disk
Georeferencing
Hard disk
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Elipsoid
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Ellipsoid
Different Ellipsoid
Everest Nagarkot
WGS 84
6,356,075m
6356 752m
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1880 Clarke 1880 6378 248 6356 515 293.46 Africa, Middle East
1866 Clarke 1860 6878 206 6356 584 294.89 USA, Canada,
Philippines
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Datum
A mathematical model must be related to real-world
features.
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Horizontal Datums
Regional vs. Global Approach
Global replaces regional datums with a common, accurate standard
One system for maps of the entire planet
Coordinate Systems
• Geospatial data should be geographically referenced
(called georeferenced or geocoded) in a common
coordinate system.
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3d Orthogonal Coordinates
Three dimensional (3d) orthogonal coordinates are also used to locate
points with the plane coordinates (x, y) and height or depth (z) as shown
in Figure 1.3 (a) and (b).
In case of locating points on the Earth on the assumption of a sphere,
latitude (), the angle measured between the equatorial plane and the
point along the meridian and longitude (), the angle measured on the
equatorial plane between the meridian of the point and the Greenwich
meridian (or called the central meridian)) are used as shown in Figure 1.3
(c). Longitude has values range from 0o (Greenwich, U.K.) to + 180 o
(eastly) and from 0 o to – 180 o (westly).
N
Longitude Greenwich, UK
Equator
Prime Meridian
Latitude
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Map Projection
• Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are
curved. Transforming, three-dimensional space onto
a two dimensional map is called "projection". This
process inevitably distorts at least one of the
following properties:
• Shape,
• Area,
• Distance,
• Direction, and often more.
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84o N
Equator
80o S
180o 0o 180o
1 30 60
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UTM
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System The UTM system is
used for mapping and GIS in many countries. The basic details of
this system include:
• World is divided into 60 N-S 'zones' (Nepal in 44 and 45 zones)
• Each zone is 6 degrees longitude wide
• Zone varies in width: 668 km at equator, 115 km at 80N
• Distortion = 0 at Central Meridian (zone center)
• Misaligned with earth graticule away from CM
• Coordinates given by 'easting' (first) and 'northing'
• Easting (6 digits): relative to CM = 500,000 (metres)
• Northing (7 digits): relative to Equator = 0 (metres)
• Equator to Pole = 10,000,000 metres
• Adjacent map sheets and digital tiles match within a zone
• Adjacent sheets and tiles DON'T match between zones
• Used for scales > = 1 : 250,000; not used for smaller scales
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2. Scale Factor
• Scale must vary over a projection or otherwise it would be a
globe. The stated scale is only an average or approximation for
part of the map, hence we get the concept of a 'scale factor'
(SF) where:
• SF (at a point) = scale at that point divided by the 'principal
scale' *
e.g. if principal scale = 1:1 million and actual scale at a point =
1:2 million,
then SF at that point = 1/2million divided by
1/1million = 1/2
• *Principal scale comes from the representative fraction (RF) of
a reference globe. The reference globe is created by mapping
the earth surface onto a hypothetical globe reduced to a scale
chosen for the flat map. Thus, the SF will always be 1 on a
globe.
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3. False Easting
• Many projections have an original point,
which might be located at the intersection of
the CM and SP or the CM and the latitude of
the projection’s origin.
• The False Easting is the X-coordinate value
assigned relative to this origin. For instance, if
the origin of projection (in latitude/longitude)
is in the center of the map, all areas west of
the origin would be negative when False
Easting of zero is assigned. To make the
coordinate positive for the entire map, set the
False Easting to a positive number.
4. False Northing
The false Northing is similar to false Easting
except that it is an arbitrary y-shift. For
instance, if the origin of projection (in
latitude/longitude) is in the center of the map, all
areas south of the origin would be negative
unless a positive False Northing was assigned.
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PRECISION ACCURACY
SCALE
(RESOLUTION) (DETECTION)
1:1,000,000 500 metres 1000 metres
Fig 2-5
1:250,000 125 m 250 m
1:100,000 50 m 100 m
1:50,000 25 m 50 m
1:20,000 10 m 20 m
1:5,000 2.5 m 5m
1:1,000 0.5 m 1m
As you can see from this table, precision is usually finer than
accuracy (i.e. it's easier to be precise than
accurate). Technically in GIS databases and mapping, it is
possible to be more precise and accurate than on hardcopy
maps, but this depends on the quality of the data.
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Map Scale
ERRORS IN GIS
• Types of Errors:
– Positional accuracy (in spatial data)
• about the width of a line = 0.5mm. Hence at a scale
of 1:50,000, error can be no more than 25 metres on
the ground; at 1:250,000 error must be <125
metres.Positional accuracy can be measured in Root
Mean Square Error or 'RMS' = a measure of the
average distance between the true and estimated
location, or the error (e) in x and y.
– Attribute accuracy
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+ o
Detail Calculation of Positional Accuracy
O +
A
B
+o
C O + D
+ Map Position
O Real Position
A 50 50 49 51 1.41
B 150 35 148 35 2.0
C 170 130 170 131 1.0
D 100 170 101 169 1.41
Distance Error of
Individual Pair =
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sd= 0.36
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• Example 1:
– 1:25000 scale USGS, UTM Coordinate in maters
– Acceptable error on the ground = Error on the map scale conversion units
conversion
– = 1/30 inch *25000 *0.0254
– = 21.16 meters
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground/Z score probability of
occurrence)
– = 21.166/1.64 = 12.90 meters
• Example 2:
– A assumption is that a typical error of cartographer = 0.25mm or 0.01 inch
1:2500 Scale is needed to be produced.
– Acceptable error on the ground = Error on the map scale conversion
units conversion
– = 0.25mmx2500x0.001 meters
– = 0.625 meters
– Allowable RMS = (Acceptable error on the ground /Z score probability of
occurrence)
– = 0.625/1 = 0.625 meters
• Accuracy Standard based on probability objective
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