1. (a) State the difference between an antigen and an antibody.

2. .........Antigens are molecules capable of stimulating an immune response. Each antigen has distinct surface
features, or epitopes, resulting in specific responses. Antibodies (immunoglobins) are Y-shaped globular proteins
produced by B cells of the immune system in response to exposure to antigens.... (1)

(b) Explain antibody production. …

■ B lymphocytes (B cells) are antibody-producing cells that develop in the bone marrow to produce a highly specific
antibody that recognises one type of antigen
■ When wandering macrophages encounter a pathogen, they digest it and present the antigenic fragments on their
surface to helper T lymphocytes (T​ cells) H​

■ These cells activate the appropriate B cell which divides and differentiates into short-lived plasma cells that
produce massive quantities of antibody (~2,000 molecules per second for ~4 - 5 days)
■ A small proportion of B cell clones develop into memory cells, which may survive for years providing long-term
immunity.(3)

(c) State two other substances, apart from antibodies, transported by the blood.

CO2, O2(1) (Total 5 marks)

2. (a) Explain briefly the principle of negative feedback in homeostasis. ……..

.Homeostasis is generally maintained by a negative feedback loop that includes a stimulus, sensor, control center, and
effector.Negative feedback involves a response that is the reverse of the change detected (it functions to ​reduce​ the
change)A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce an opposite effect – this promotes
equilibrium...Examples of processes that use negative feedback loops include homeostatic systems, such
as:……thermoregulation, blood sugar regulation and osmoregulation……Negative feedback loops control body temperature
and the blood glucose level.

(b) Draw an arrow on the diagram below to show where negative feedback occurs.

Decreased Body Temperature Temperature Receptors Response e.g. Sweat Glands Decreased Sweating Skin Arterioles
Decreased Blood Flow Skeletal Muscle Shivering Increased Body Temperature (1)

An arrow from “increased body temperature” pointing to “temperature receptors” .

(c) State the system used to control the response of the skin arterioles. ...................autonomic) nervous system
................................................................................................................. (1) (Total 5 marks)

3. Explain the need for, and the mechanism of, ventilation of the lungs in humans. (Total 8 marks)

draws fresh air, oxygen into the lungs; removal / excretion of CO2, maintains concentration gradient of O2 / CO2 /
respiratory gases; diaphragm contracts; (external) intercostal muscles contract; increased volume (of thorax / thoracic
cavity); decreasing air pressure in lungs, air rushes in down air pressure gradient

4. The surface area to volume ratio is an important variable in determining biological structure.
(a) Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size. .

As a cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area , volume ratio decreases; Тhe rate of consumption of resources ,
nutrients , oxygen is a function of volume; the rate of production of wastes is a function of volume; the rate of exchange of
wastes / nutrients is a function of surface area; the rates of diffusion are too low relative to cell needs for larger cells... (2)

(b) Define the term absorption. ................Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance, by the
skin.... (1)

(c) State one feature of alveoli that adapts them to gas exchange.

a wall consisting of a single layer of flattened cells... (1)

(d) Figure 1 below shows a cross-section through the small intestine and Figure 2 an enlarged longitudinal section through a
single villus.

Using these diagrams, outline three ways in which the structure of the small intestine is related to its function of absorbing
food.

● villus intestinal wall has folds to increase surface area,

● surface of villus is close to blood vessels and materials can easily diffuse
● surface of villus is close to lymph vessels and lipids can be easily absorbed
● greater surface area related to greater rate of diffusion
● villus wall consists of single layer of cells (3) (Total 7 marks)

5.Explain the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.​(Total 8 marks)

Causes:

● c​ollection of symptoms and infections caused by the destruction of the immune system by HIV
● While HIV infection results in a lowering in immunity over a number of years, AIDS describes the final stages when
observable symptoms develop

Transmission:

● HIV is transmitted through the exchange of bodily fluids (including unprotected sex, blood transfusions, breast
feeding, child birth, etc.)
● The risk of exposure to HIV through sexual contact can be reduced by using latex protection (condoms)
● A minority of people are immune to HIV infection (they do not have the CD4+ T cell receptor that HIV needs to
infect the cell)
● Social Implications:
■ People with HIV may be stigmatised and discriminated against, potentially leading to unemployment and poverty
■ Majority of people who die from AIDS are at a productive age, which may cripple a country's workforce and
economic growth
■ It can result in an increased number of orphans, taxing a country's welfare resources
■ Poverty may increase transmission of AIDS (due to poor education and high cost of treatments), creating a moral
obligation for assistance from wealthier countries