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ARIHANT Handbook of Mathematics
ARIHANT Handbook of Mathematics
ARIHANT Handbook of Mathematics
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hand book
KEY NOTES TERMS
DEFINITIONS FORMULAE
Mathematics
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Amit Rastogi
Supported by
Love Agarwal
Brijesh Dwivedi
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© Publisher
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web or otherwise without the written permission of the publisher. Arihant has obtained
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all the information in this book from the sources believed to be reliable and true. However,
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Arihant or its editors or authors or illustrators don’t take any responsibility for the absolute
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accuracy of any information published and the damages or loss suffered there upon.
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ISBN : 978-93-13196-50-1
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PREFACE
Handbook means reference book listing brief facts on a
subject. So, to facilitate the students in this we have
released this Handbook of Mathematics. This book has
been prepared to serve the special purpose of the students,
to rectify any query or any concern point of a particular
subject.
This book will be of highly use whether students are
looking for a quick revision before the board exams or just
before other examinations like Engineering Entrances or
any similar examination, they will find that this handbook
will answer their needs admirably.
This handbook can even be used for revision of a subject
in the time between two shift of the exams, even this
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students conveniently.
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Authors
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CONTENTS
1. Sets and Relations 1-9 ! Cube Roots of Unity
! Set ! nth Roots of Unity
! Subset and Superset ! Geometry of Complex
! Venn Diagram Numbers
! Operations on Sets
4. Theory of Equations and
! Ordered Pair
Inequations 46-61
! Relation
! Composition of Relation ! Polynomial
! Quadratic Equation
2. Functions and Binary ! Quadratic Expression
Operations 10-27 Inequality
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Linear Inequality
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! Functions !
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Sequence
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! Standard Real Functions and
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! Series
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their Graphs
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!
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! Trigonometric Functions of
Algebra of Matrices
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Compound Angles
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Transpose of Matrix
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! Transformation Formulae
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Trigonometric Functions of
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Symmetric Matrices
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Multiple Angles
Elementary Operations
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Trigonometric Periodic
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(Transformations of a
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Functions
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Matrix)
! Conjugate of a Matrix ! Trigonometric Equations
! Rank of a Matrix
12. Solution of
9. Determinants 102-112 Triangles 141-147
! Determinant ! Basic Rules of Triangle
! Minor and Cofactors ! Trigonometrical Ratios of
! Adjoint of a Matrix Half of the Angles of
! Inverse of a Matrix Triangle
! Homogeneous and Non- ! Area of a Triangle
homogeneous System of
Linear Equations 13. Heights and
Distances 148-150
10. Probability 113-123 ! Angle of Elevation
! Experiment ! Angle of Depression
! Algebra of Events
! Baye’s Theorem
!
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Quadrilateral Normal
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! ! Integral Function
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Functions
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Types of Function
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Polar Equations
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! Coordinate System
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! Direction Cosines
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Problem
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! Line in Space
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! Plane
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Programming Problems
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! Polygon
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35. Elementary
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1
Sets and Relations
Set
Set is a collection of well defined objects which are distinct from each
other. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C ,K and
elements are usually denoted by small letters a , b, c,... .
If a is an element of a set A, then we write a ∈ A and say a belongs to A
or a is in A or a is a member of A. If a does not belongs to A, we write
a ∉ A.
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Standard Notations
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Q+ / Q−
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Types of Sets
(i) Empty/Null/Void Set A set containing no element, it is denoted
by φ or { }.
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2 Handbook of Mathematics
A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A.
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Power Set
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The set formed by all the subsets of a given set A, is called power set of
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A, denoted by P ( A).
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Non-comparable Sets
For two sets A and B, if neither A ⊆ B nor B ⊆ A, then A and B are
called non-comparable sets.
Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are called disjoint, if A ∩ B = φ . i.e. they do not have
any common element.
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Intervals as Subsets of R
(i) The set of real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b is called a closed
interval and denoted by [a , b] i.e. [a, b] = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x ≤ b}.
(ii) The set of real number x, such that a < x < b is called an open
interval and is denoted by ( a , b)
i.e. ( a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a < x < b}
(iii) The sets [a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x < b} and
( a , b] = { x : x ∈ R , a < x ≤ b } are called semi-open or
semi-closed intervals.
Venn Diagram
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a rectangular
region and its subset is represented by circle or a closed geometrical
figure inside the rectangular region.
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Operations on Sets
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1. Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all those
elements which are either in A or in B or both in A and B.
A U
B
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4 Handbook of Mathematics
2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted U
by A ∩ B, is the set of all those elements A
B
which are common to both A and B.
If A1 , A 2 ,... , A n is a finite family of sets, then
their intersection is denoted by
n
∩ Ai or A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n .
i =1
Laws of Intersection
For any three sets, A, B and C, we have
(i) A ∩ φ = φ (Identity law)
(ii) U ∩ A = A (Universal law)
(iii) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(iv) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)
(v) ( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law)
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(vi) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
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(vii) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C )
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3. Difference of Sets
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For two sets A and B, the difference A − B is the set of all those
elements of A which do not belong to B.
A B U
Symmetric Difference
For two sets A and B, symmetric difference is the set ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A)
denoted by A ∆ B.
A U
B
A–B B–A
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set U − A .
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(ii) (a) A ∪ A′ = U
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(b) A ∩ A′ = φ
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(complement laws)
(iii) (a) φ′ = U
(b) U ′ = φ (laws of empty set and universal set)
(iv) ( A ∪ B) ′ = U − ( A ∪ B)
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6 Handbook of Mathematics
Ordered Pair
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particular order.
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(iv) A × ( B ∩ C ) = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
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(v) A × ( B − C ) = ( A × B) − ( A × C )
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(vi) ( A × B) ∩ (C × D ) = ( A ∩ C ) × ( B ∩ D )
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(vii) A × ( B′ ∪ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
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(viii) A × ( B ′ ∩ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C )
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(x) If A ⊆ B, then A × A ⊆ ( A × B) ∩ ( B × A)
(xi) If A ⊆ B, then A × C ⊆ B × C for any set C.
(xii) A × B = B × A ⇔ A = B
(xiii) If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A
(xiv) If either A or B is an infinite set, then A × B is an infinite set.
(xv) If A and B be any two non-empty sets having n elements in
common, then A × B and B × A have n 2 elements in common.
Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a relation R from A to B is a
subset of A × B.
If R ⊆ A × B and ( a , b) ∈ R , then we say that a is related to b by the
relation R, written as aRb.
If R ⊆ A × A, then we simply say R is a relation on A.
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8 Handbook of Mathematics
Representation of a Relation
(i) Roster form In this form, we represent the relation by the set
of all ordered pairs belongs to R.
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { −3, − 2, − 1, 1, 2, 3} to set
B = { 1, 4, 9, 10}, defined by aRb ⇔ a 2 = b,
Then, ( −3)2 = 9,( −2)2 = 4,( −1)2 = 1, ( 2)2 = 4,( 3)2 = 9.
Then, in roster form, R can be written as
R = {( −1, 1), ( − 2, 4), (1, 1),( 2, 4),( − 3, 9),( 3, 9)}
(ii) Set-builder form In this form, we represent the relation R
from set A to set B as
R = {( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and the rule which relate the elements
of A and B}
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { 1, 2, 4, 5} to set
1 1 1
B = 1, , , such that
2 4 5
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R = (1, 1), 2, 4, 5,
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R = ( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and b =
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Note We cannot write every relation from set A to set B in set-builder form.
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Types of Relations
(i) Empty or Void Relation As φ ⊂ A × A, for any set A, so φ is a
relation on A, called the empty or void relation.
(ii) Universal Relation Since, A × A ⊆ A × A , so A × A is a
relation on A, called the universal relation.
(iii) Identity Relation The relation I A = {( a , a ) : a ∈ A} is called
the identity relation on A.
(iv) Reflexive Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
reflexive relation, if every element of A is related to itself.
Thus, ( a , a ) ∈ R , ∀ a ∈ A ⇒ R is reflexive.
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Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if it is
simultaneously reflexive, symmetric and transitive on A.
Equivalence Classes
Let R be an equivalence relation on A (≠ φ). Let a ∈ A .
Then, the equivalence class of a denoted by [a ] or ( a ) is defined as the
set of all those points of A which are related to a under the relation R.
Inverse Relation
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defined by R −1 = {( b, a ) : ( a , b) ∈ R }.
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Composition of Relation
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2
Functions and
Binary Operations
Function
Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then a function f from set A to set
B is a rule which associates each element of A to a unique element of B.
f
It is represented as f : A → B or A → B and function is also called the
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mapping.
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Characteristics of a Function f : A → B
(i) For each element x ∈ A, there is unique element y ∈ B.
(ii) The element y ∈ B is called the image of x under the function f.
Also, y is called the value of function f at x i.e. f ( x ) = y.
(iii) f : A → B is not a function, if there is an element in A which has
more than one image in B. But more than one element of A may
be associated to the same element of B.
(iv) f : A → B is not a function, if an element in A does not have an
image in B.
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X′ X X′ X
O O
Y′ Y′
(i) (ii)
In figure (i), the vertical parallel line intersects the curve at two points, thus the
expression is a relation whereas in figure (ii), the vertical parallel line intersects
the curve at one point. So, the expression is a function.
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Types of Functions
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(iii) Monotonically If the function is increasing or decreasing in
whole domain, then the function is one-one.
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12 Handbook of Mathematics
2. Many-One Function
A function f : A → B is called many-one function, if two or more
than two different elements in A have the same image in B.
Method to Test Many-One
(i) Analytically If x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) for some x1 , x2 ∈ A, then
the function is many-one.
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= n!, n=m
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0, n>m
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4. Into Function
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14 Handbook of Mathematics
Equal Functions
Two functions f and g are said to be equal iff
(i) domain of f = domain of g.
(ii) codomain of f = codomain of g.
(iii) f ( x ) = g( x ) for every x belonging to their common domain and
then we write f = g.
The domain of the real function f ( x ) is the set of all those real numbers
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for which the expression for f ( x ) or the formula for f ( x ) assumes real
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values only.
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The range of a real function of a real variable is the set of all real
values taken by f ( x ) at points of its domain.
Working Rule for Finding Range of Real Functions
Let y = f ( x ) be a real function, then for finding the range we may use
the following steps
Step I Find the domain of the function y = f ( x ).
Step I Transform the equation y = f ( x ) as x = g ( y ).
i.e. convert x in terms of y.
Step III Find the values of y from x = g( y ) such that the values of x
are real and lying in the domain of f.
Step IV The set of values of y obtained in step III be the range of
function f.
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X' X
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Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = { c}.
2. Identity Function
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The function which associates each real number x to the same number
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i.e. y = f ( x ) = x , ∀x ∈ R.
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45°
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Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R
3. Linear Function
If a and b are fixed real numbers, then the linear function is defined as
y = f ( x ) = ax + b. The graph of a linear function is given in the
following diagram, which is a straight line with slope tanα.
Y Y
y = ax + b, y = ax + b, a < 0 , b > 0
a > 0,
b > 0,
(0, b) (0, b)
α α
X' X X' X
O O
Y' Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R.
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16 Handbook of Mathematics
4. Quadratic Function
If a , b and c are fixed real numbers, then the quadratic function is
expressed as
y = f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0
2
b 4ac − b2
⇒ y = a x + +
2a 4a
which represents a downward parabola, if a < 0 and upward parabola,
b 4ac − b2
if a > 0 and vertex of this parabola is at − , .
2a 4a
Y Y – b , 4ac – b2
2a 4a
y = ax2 + bx + c, a > 0 A
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A y = ax2 + bx + c, a < 0
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2a 4a
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Domain of f ( x ) = R
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4ac − b2 4ac − b2
Range of f ( x ) is − ∞ , , if a < 0 and , ∞ , if a > 0.
4a 4a
5. Power Function
The power function is given by y = f ( x ) = x n , n ∈ I , n ≠ 1, 0.
The domain and range of y = f ( x ), is depend on n.
(a) If n is positive even integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x 2 , x 4 , ...
Y
y = x n, n is positive even integer
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X' X
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Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R
(c) If n is negative even integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x − 2 , x − 4 , K
Y y = x n, n is negative even integer
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Domain of f ( x ) = R − { 0} and Range of f ( x ) = R − { 0}
y= x
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Domain of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ ) and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ )
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18 Handbook of Mathematics
X' X
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8. Signum Function
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|x| x
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y = f(x) = x or |x|
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0, if x = 0 0, if x = 0
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y=1
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Symbolically, signum function is denoted by sgn ( x ).
Thus, y = f ( x ) = sgn (x)
−1, if x < 0
where, sgn ( x ) = 0, if x = 0
1, if x > 0
Domain of sgn ( x ) = R and Range of sgn ( x ) = { −1, 0, 1}
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3
2
1
–2 –1
X' X
1 2 3 4
–1
–2
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x [ x]
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–2≤ x < –1
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20 Handbook of Mathematics
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1
X' X
1 2 3 4
–1
–2
Y'
n < x ≤ n + 1, then ( x ) = n + 1
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∴ f ( x ) = ( x ) = [x ] + 1
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–1< x ≤ 0 0
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0< x ≤ 1
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1< x ≤ 2 2
2 <x≤3 3
– 2 < x≤ –1 –1
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Domain of f = R and Range of f = I
2
+
–
x
x
=
=
y
X' X
–2 –1 O 1 2 3
Y'
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Y' Y'
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(i) (ii)
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X' X
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O (1, 0)
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
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22 Handbook of Mathematics
f
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f f f(x)
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g g g( x )
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x f(x)
g (f (x))
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Inverse of a Function
Let f : A → B is a bijective function, i.e. it is one-one and onto
function. Then, we can define a function g : B → A, such that
f ( x ) = y ⇒ g( y ) = x, which is called inverse of f and vice-versa.
Symbolically, we write g = f −1
f
A B
x y
g = f –1
Periodic Functions
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24 Handbook of Mathematics
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Binary Operations
Let S be a non-empty set. A function * from S × S to S is called a binary
operation on S i.e. * : S × S → S is a binary operation on set S.
Note Generally binary operations are represented by the symbols *, ⊕, ... etc.,
instead of letters figure etc.
Closure Property
An operation * on a non-empty set S is said to satisfy the closure
property, if
a ∈S , b ∈S ⇒ a * b ∈S , ∀ a, b ∈S
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26 Handbook of Mathematics
Identity Element
Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set S. An element e ∈ S, if it
exist, such that a * e = e * a = a, ∀ a ∈ S, is called an identity elements
of S, with respect to *.
For addition on R, zero is the identity element in R.
Since, a + 0 = 0 + a = a, ∀ a ∈ R
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Inverse of an Element
Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set S and let e be the
identity element.
Suppose a ∈S , we say that a is invertible, if there exists an element
b ∈ S such that a * b = b * a = e
Also, in this case, b is called the inverse of a and we write, a −1 = b
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invertible element.
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than 1 is invertible.
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3
Complex Numbers
Complex Number
A number of the form z = x + iy, where x , y ∈ R, is called a complex
number. Here, the symbol i is used to denote −1 and it is called iota.
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C.
Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number Let z = x + iy
be a complex number, then x is called the real part and y is called the
imaginary part of z and it may be denoted as Re( z ) and Im ( z ),
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respectively.
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Iota
Mathematician Euler, introduced the symbol i (read as iota) for − 1
with property i 2 + 1 = 0. i.e. i 2 = − 1. He also called this symbol as the
imaginary unit. Integral power of iota (i) are given below.
i = −1 , i 2 = − 1, i3 = − i , i 4 = 1
So, i 4n + 1 = i , i 4n + 2 = − 1, i 4n +3 = − i , i 4n + 4 = 1
( −1)n / 2 , if n is an even integer
In other words, i n = n −1
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Complex Numbers 29
z1 − z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) − ( x2 + iy2 )
= ( x1 − x2 ) + i( y1 − y2 )
Note The difference of two complex numbers z1 − z2 , follows the closure
property, but this operation is neither commutative nor associative, like in real
numbers. Also, there does not exist any identity element for this operation and
so inverse element also does not exists.
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30 Handbook of Mathematics
z2
ap
np
z1 ( x1 + iy1 ) ( x1x2 + y1 y2 ) + i( x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
tio
= =
es
provided, z 2 ≠ 0.
@
am
z1
gr
Note The division of two complex numbers , follows the closure property, but
le
z2
Te
this operation is neither commutative nor associative, like in real numbers. Also,
there does not exist any identity element for this operation and so inverse
element also does not exists.
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Complex Numbers 31
Properties of Conjugate of Complex Numbers
For any complex number z , z1 , z 2, we have
(i) ( z ) = z
(ii) z + z = 2 Re( z ), z + z = 0 ⇔ z is purely imaginary.
(iii) z − z = 2i [Im( z )], z − z = 0 ⇔ z is purely real.
(iv) z 1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2
(v) z 1 − z 2 = z 1 − z 2
(vi) z 1 ⋅ z 2 = z 1 ⋅ z 2
z1 z1
(vii) = , z2 ≠ 0
z 2 z 2
(viii) z1 z 2 ± z1 z 2 = 2 Re( z1 z 2 ) = 2 Re( z1 z 2 )
(ix) ( z )n = ( z n )
(x) If z = f ( z1 ), then z = f ( z1 )
er
ap
a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
np
tio
(xi) If z = b1 b2 b3 , then z = b1
es
b2 b3
qu
et
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
ne
@
(xii) z z = {Re ( z )} 2 + { Im ( z )} 2
le
Te
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32 Handbook of Mathematics
(x)|z n | =|z|n
np
tio
(xi)||z 1| −|z 2||≤|z1 + z 2|≤|z1| +|z 2| i.e. greatest and least possible
es
qu
(xiii)|z 1 + z 2|2 = ( z 1 + z 2 ) ( z 1 + z 2 )
gr
le
Te
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Complex Numbers 33
y
θ
x X
O M Real axis
i.e.|z|= length of OP = x 2 + y 2 .
tio
es
qu
et
Argument
ne
@
The angle made by the line joining point z to the origin, with the
am
y
arg (z) = θ = tan−1
x
Argument of z is not unique, general value of the argument of z is
2nπ + θ, where n is an integer. But arg (0) is not defined.
A purely real number is represented by a point on real axis.
A purely imaginary number is represented by a point on imaginary
axis.
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34 Handbook of Mathematics
Properties of Argument
π, if z is purely negative real number
(i) arg ( z ) =
− arg( z ), otherwise
(ii) arg( z 1z 2 ) = arg ( z 1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) + 2 kπ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
In general,
arg ( z1z 2z3K z n ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) + arg( z3 )
+ K + arg ( z n ) + 2kπ , ( k is an integer)
z1
(iii) arg = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) + 2kπ ( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
z2
(iv) arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) +2kπ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
z
(v) arg = 2 arg ( z ) + 2 kπ , (k = 0, 1 or − 1)
z
(vi) arg ( z n ) = n arg ( z ) + 2kπ, (k is an integer)
z 2 z
(vii) If arg = θ , then arg 1 = 2kπ − θ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
er
ap
z1 z2
np
tio
π , if arg ( z ) > 0
et
− π , if arg ( z ) < 0
@
am
z π
Te
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Complex Numbers 35
(d) If z = 1 − cos θ − i sin θ, then
θ π θ
arg (z) = − and|z| = 2 sin
2 2 2
(xv) If|z1|≤ 1,|z 2|≤ 1, then
(a)|z1 − z 2|2 ≤ (|z1| −|z 2|)2 + [arg ( z1 ) − arg( z 2 )]2
(b)|z1 + z 2|2 ≤ (|z1| +|z 2|)2 − [arg( z1 ) − arg( z 2 )]2
P (x, y)
er
y
ap
np
θ
tio
X´ X
es
x Q
qu
et
ne
Y´
@
am
If the general value of the argument is considered, then the polar form
gr
De-Moivre’s Theorem
A simplest formula for calculating powers of complex numbers in the
standard polar form is known as De-Moivre’s theorem.
If n ∈ I (set of integers), then (cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ and if
n ∈ Q (set of rational numbers), then cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the
values of (cos θ + i sin θ )n .
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36 Handbook of Mathematics
Note
gr
le
π π π π
(iii) cos + i sin = i (iv) cos − i sin = − i
2 2 2 2
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Complex Numbers 37
(iv) Cube roots of unity lie on the unit circle z = 1 and divide its
circumference into 3 equal parts.
(v) It always forms an equilateral triangle.
(vi) Cube roots of − 1 are − 1, − ω , − ω 2.
(ii) x 2 – x + 1 = ( x + ω)( x + ω2 )
(iii) x 2 + xy + y 2 = ( x − yω)( x − yω2 )
(iv) x 2 − xy + y 2 = ( x + ωy )( x + yω2 )
(v) x 2 + y 2 = ( x + iy )( x − iy )
(vi) x 3 + y 3 = ( x + y )( x + yω)( x + yω2 )
(vii) x 3 − y 3 = ( x − y )( x − yω)( x − yω2 )
(viii) x 2 + y 2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx = ( x + yω + zω2 )( x + yω2 + zω)
er
ap
or
qu
The nth roots of unity, it means any complex number z, which satisfies
the equation z n = 1 or z = (1)1/ n
2kπ 2kπ
or z = cos + i sin , where k = 0, 1, 2, K , ( n − 1)
n n
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38 Handbook of Mathematics
P
N
(a1,b1)
X
O L K M
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Complex Numbers 39
Y
Q(a2, b2)
P(a1, b1)
O
X′ X
Q(z2)
qu
)
+θ 2
et
P(z1)
θ 1 r 2 (θ 1
ne
@
r1
θ1 θ2
am
X
gr
O L
le
Te
r1 R(z1/z2)
(r1/r2) Q(z2)
θ2 (θ1 – θ2)
r2
θ1
O θ2
X
L
r
R has the polar coordinates 1 , θ1 − θ 2 and it represents the complex
r2
number z1/ z 2.
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40 Handbook of Mathematics
θ
X′ X
–θ
P(x, – y)
Y′
Concept of Rotation
np
tio
es
Y C(z3)
am
gr
le
Te
B(z2)
Q(z3 – z1) A(z1)
α P(z2 – z1)
X
O
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Complex Numbers 41
(ii) The point P ( z ) which divides the join of segment AB internally in
the ratio m : n is given by
mz 2 + nz1
z=
m+n
If P divides the line externally in the ratio m : n, then
mz 2 − nz1
z=
m−n
z= 1
ap
a+ b+ c
np
tio
es
given by
ne
@
z1 z1 1
am
1
∆= z2 z2 1
gr
2
le
Te
z3 z3 1
For an equilateral triangle,
z12 + z 22 + z32 = z 2z3 + z3 z1 + z1z 2
(iii) The triangle whose vertices are the points represented by
complex numbers z1 , z 2 and z3 is equilateral, if
1 1 1
+ + =0
z 2 − z3 z3 − z1 z1 − z 2
i.e. z12 + z 22 + z32 = z1z 2 + z 2z3 + z3 z1
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42 Handbook of Mathematics
az + az + λ = 0, where λ ∈ R.
es
qu
az − az + iλ = 0, where λ ∈ R.
@
am
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Complex Numbers 43
z − z1
(c) arg = 0 or π, then locus z is a straight line passing
z − z2
through z1 and z 2.
(xiii)
Y Q(zeiα)
P(z)
α
X′ θ
X
O
Y′
iα
(a) ze is the complex number whose modulus is |z| and
argument θ + α.
(b) Multiplication by e− iα to z rotates the vector OP in clockwise
sense through an angle α.
(xiv) If z1 , z 2 and z3 are the affixes of the points A, B and C in the
er
ap
z − z1
es
z 2 − z1
et
ne
@
z3 − z1 z3 − z1
= (cos α + i sin α ), where α = ∠BAC.
am
(b)
z 2 − z1 z 2 − z1
gr
le
Te
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44 Handbook of Mathematics
(v) If z1 and z 2 are the fixed complex numbers, then the locus of a
es
z − z1
qu
z − z2
ne
@
z + 1 π
le
z − 1 2
as origin.
(vii) If|z − z1|2 +|z − z 2|2 =|z1 − z 2|2, then locus of z is a circle with z1
and z 2 as the extremities of diameter.
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Complex Numbers 45
(ii) i is neither positive, zero nor negative.
(iii) Argument of 0 is not defined.
π π
(iv) Argument of purely imaginary number is or − .
2 2
(v) Argument of purely real number is 0 or π.
1 a + a2 + 4
(vi) If z + = a, then greatest value of|z| = and least
z 2
− a + a2 + 4
value of|z| =
2
(vii) The value of i i = e− π / 2
(viii) The non-real complex numbers do not possess the property of
order,
i.e. x + iy < (or) > c + id is not defined.
(ix) The area of the triangle on the argand plane formed by the
er
1
complex numbers z , iz and z + iz is |z|2.
ap
np
2
tio
(x) If ω1 and ω 2 are the complex slope of two lines on the argand
es
qu
(a) perpendicular, if ω1 + ω 2 = 0.
@
am
(b) parallel, if ω1 = ω 2.
gr
le
Te
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4
Theory of Equations
and Inequations
Polynomial
An algebraic expression of the form a0 + a1x + a2x 2 +...+ an x n , where
n ∈ N , is called a polynomial. It is generally denoted by p( x ), q( x ),
f ( x ), g( x ) etc.
er
Real Polynomial
ap
np
Complex Polynomial
am
gr
le
Degree of a Polynomial
A polynomial f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + a3 x3 + K + an x n , real or complex
is a polynomial of degree n, if an ≠ 0.
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Polynomial Equation
If f ( x ) is a polynomial, real or complex, then f ( x ) = 0 is called a
polynomial equation.
Quadratic Equation
A quadratic polynomial f ( x ) when equated to zero is called quadratic
equation.
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a , b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0.
2. Direct Formula
@
am
− b + b2 − 4ac − b − b2 − 4ac
α= ,β =
2a 2a
− b+ D − b− D
or α= ,β =
2a 2a
where, D = ∆ = b2 − 4ac is called discriminant of the equation.
Above formulas also known as Sridharacharya formula.
Nature of Roots
(i) Let quadratic equation be ax 2 + bx + c = 0, whose discriminant
is D.
Also, let a , b , c ∈ R and a ≠ 0. Then,
(a) D < 0 ⇒ Complex roots
(b) D > 0 ⇒ Real and distinct roots
b
(c) D = 0 ⇒ Real and equal roots as α = β = −
2a
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48 Handbook of Mathematics
Note If a, b, c ∈ Q, a ≠ 0, then
(a) D > 0 and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are unequal and rational.
(b) D > 0, a = 1; b, c ∈ I and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are integral.
(c) D > 0 and D is not a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are irrational and unequal.
(ii) Conjugate Roots The irrational (complex) roots of a quadratic
equation, whose coefficients are rational (real) always occur in
conjugate pairs. Thus,
(a) if one root be α + iβ, then other root will be α − iβ.
(b) if one root be α + β , then other root will be α − β .
(iii) Let D1 and D2 are the discriminants of two quadratic equations.
(a) If D1 + D2 ≥ 0, then atleast one of D1 and D2 ≥ 0
Thus, if D1 < 0, then D2 > 0, if D2 < 0, then D1 > 0 or D1 and
er
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2. Cubic Equation
If α , β and γ are the roots of cubic equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0.
b
Then, ∑ α =α +β + γ = −
er
a
ap
np
c
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα =
tio
es
a
qu
et
d
αβγ = −
ne
@
a
am
gr
3. Biquadratic Equation
le
Te
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50 Handbook of Mathematics
Symmetric Roots
If the roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) are α and β,
then
b2 − 4ac ± D
(i) (α − β ) = (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± =
a a
b − 2ac
2
(ii) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2 αβ =
a2
b b2 − 4ac ±b D
(iii) α 2 − β 2 = (α + β ) (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± 2
=
a a2
b( b − 3ac)
2
(iv) α3 + β3 = (α + β )3 − 3 αβ(α + β ) = −
a3
± ( b2 − ac) b2 − 4ac
(v) α3 − β3 = (α − β )3 + 3 αβ(α − β ) =
a3
2
er
b2 − 2ac 2c2
ap
(vi) α 4 + β 4 = {(α + β )2 − 2 αβ } 2 − 2α 2β 2 = − 2
np
2
a a
tio
es
qu
± b( b2 − 2ac) b2 − 4ac
et
(vii) α 4 − β 4 = (α 2 − β 2 ) (α 2 + β 2 ) =
ne
a4
@
am
b − ac
2
(viii) α 2 + αβ + β 2 = (α + β )2 − αβ =
gr
le
a2
Te
α β α +β 2
(α + β ) − 2 αβ b2 − 2ac
2 2
(ix) + = = =
β α αβ αβ ac
bc
(x) α β + β α = αβ(α + β ) = − 2
2 2
a
2 2
α β α 4 + β 4 (α 2 + β 2 )2 − 2 α 2 β 2 b2D + 2a 2c2
(xi) + = = =
β α α2 β2 α2 β2 a 2c 2
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3. Biquadratic Equation
If α , β , γ and δ are the roots of a biquadratic equation, then the
equation is
x 4 − S1x3 + S 2x 2 − S3 x + S 4 = 0
i.e. x 4 − (α + β + γ + δ )x3 + (αβ + βγ + γδ + αδ + βδ + αγ )x 2
− (αβγ + αβδ + βγδ + γδα )x + αβγδ = 0
2
am
α β
gr
, ⇒ k2ax 2 + kbx + c = 0
le
k k
(vi) α1/ n , β1/ n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a( x n )2 + b( x n ) + c = 0 [replace x by x n ]
The quadratic function f ( x ) = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c is
always resolvable into linear factor, iff
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
a h g
or h b f =0
g f c
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52 Handbook of Mathematics
By Cramer’s Rule
α2 α 1
= =
− c1 b1 a1 − c1 a1 b1
− c2 b2 a2 − c2 a2 b2
α2 α 1
or = =
b1c2 − b2c1 a2c1 − a1c2 a1b2 − a2b1
a2c1 − a1c2 b c − b2c1
∴ α= = 1 2 ,α ≠ 0
a1b2 − a2b1 a2c1 − a1c2
Hence, the condition for only one root common is
( c1a2 − c2a1 )2 = ( b1c2 − b2c1 )( a1b2 − a2b1 )
= =
ap
a2 b2 c2
np
tio
es
(i) To find the common roots of two equations, make the coefficient
qu
A x=b A C x=b
X X
O x=a O x=a B
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( k + 1)2 b2
ap
= .
np
k ac
tio
es
qu
et
Quadratic Expression
ne
@
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54 Handbook of Mathematics
X-axis
X-axis
ap
np
D>0
tio
a>0
es
qu
b
(ii) For D = 0, parabola touch X-axis in one point, x = −
et
.
ne
2a
@
am
a<0 D=0
X-axis
gr
le
Te
X-axis
a>0 D=0
(iii) For D < 0, parabola does not cut X-axis (i.e. imaginary value
of x).
a<0 D<0
X-axis
X-axis
a>0 D<0
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Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then f ( x ) > 0 for
es
qu
Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then, f ( x ) < 0 for
gr
le
5. Intervals of Roots
In some problems, we want the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 to
lie in a given interval. For this we impose conditions on a , b and c.
b c
Since, a ≠ 0, we can take f ( x ) = x 2 + x + .
a a
(i) Both the roots are positive i.e., they lie in ( 0, ∞ ), iff roots are real,
the sum of the roots as well as the product of the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = > 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
Similarly, both the roots are negative i.e. they lie in (− ∞, 0), iff
roots are real, the sum of the roots is negative and the product of
the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = < 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
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56 Handbook of Mathematics
(ii) Both the roots are greater than a given number k, iff the
following conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, > k and af ( k) > 0
2a
–b/2a
X' X X' X
k (–b/2a) k
(iii) Both the roots are less than a given number k, iff the following
conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, < k and af ( k) > 0
2a
(iv) Both the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff the following
conditions are satisfied
er
−b
ap
2a
tio
es
or f ( k1 ) ⋅ f ( k2 ) > 0
qu
et
ne
@
am
gr
(–b/2a)
le
X' X X' X
Te
k1 (–b/2a) k2 k1 k2
(v) Exactly one of the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff D > 0 and
f ( k1 ) f ( k2 ) < 0.
k2 k1
X' X X' X
k1 k2
(vi) A given number k lies between the roots, iff af ( k) < 0 and D > 0.
k
X' X
Note The roots of the equation will be of opposite sign, iff 0 lies between the
roots.
⇒ af (0 ) < 0, D > 0
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Lagrange’s Identity
If a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R, then
( a12 + a22 + a32 )( b12 + b22 + b32 ) − ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3 )2
= ( a1b2 − a2b1 )2 + ( a2b3 − a3 b2 )2 + ( a3 b1 − a1b3 )2
(iv) An odd degree equation has atleast one real root whose sign is opposite
et
to that of its last term (constant term), provided that the coefficient of
ne
@
(v) Every equation of an even degree whose constant term is negative and
gr
le
the coefficient of highest degree term is positive has atleast two real
Te
Inequality
A statement involving the symbols >, <, ≤ or ≥ is called an inequality
or inequation.
Here, the symbols < (less than), > (greater than), ≤ (less than or equal
to) and ≥ (greater than or equal to) are known as symbol of
inequalities.
e.g. 5 < 7, x ≤ 2, x + y ≥ 11
Types of Inequalities
(i) Numerical inequality An inequality which does not involve
any variable is called a numerical inequality.
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58 Handbook of Mathematics
Linear Inequality
An inequality is said to be linear, if the variable (s) occurs in first
degree only and there is no term involving the product of the variables.
e.g. ax + b ≤ 0, ax + by + c > 0, ax ≤ 4.
er
ap
np
Open Interval
The set of all real numbers x, such that a < x < b, is called an open
interval and is denoted by (a, b) or ] a, b [.
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Solution of an Inequality
Any solution of an inequality is the value(s) of variable(s) which makes
it a true statement.
er
ap
np
1. Addition or Subtraction
tio
es
qu
a + c > b + c or a − c > b − c
am
gr
le
2. Multiplication or Division
Te
Solution Set
The set of all solutions of an inequality is called the solution set of the
inequality.
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60 Handbook of Mathematics
(ii)|x|≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ( a > 0)
et
ne
@
(iv)|x|≥ a ⇒ x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ( a > 0)
gr
le
Te
Important Inequalities
1. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Mean Inequalities
a+b 2
(i) If a , b > 0, then ≥ ab ≥
2 (1 / a ) + (1 / b)
(ii) If ai > 0, where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n, then
a1 + a2 + K + an n
≥ ( a1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ .... ⋅ an )1/ n ≥
n 1 1 1
+ +K +
a1 a2 an
(iii) If a1 , a2 ,... , an are n positive real numbers and m1 , m2 ,... , mn are
n positive rational numbers, then
1
m1a1+ m2a2 +...+ mn an
≥ ( a1m1 ⋅ a2m 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ anm n ) m1 + m 2 +... + m n
m1 + m2 +...+ mn
i.e. Weighted AM ≥ Weighted GM
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(vii) If a < x < b and a, b are positive real numbers, then a2 < x 2 < b2
et
ne
(viii) If a < x < b and a is negative number and b is positive number, then
@
am
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5
Sequences
and Series
Sequence
Sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers or
some subset of the type { 1, 2, 3,... , k}. We represents the images of
er
sequence.
m
l
gr
le
infinite sequence.
Te
Progression
A sequence whose terms follow a certain pattern is called a progression.
Series
If a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , an ,... is a sequence, then the sum expressed as
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an +... is called a series.
l A series having finite number of terms is called finite series.
l A series having infinite number of terms is called infinite series.
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difference.
qu
et
d
respectively, where d = common
gr
common difference kd or
le
k
Te
Selection of Terms in an AP
(i) Any three terms in AP can be taken as
( a − d ), a , ( a + d )
(ii) Any four terms in AP can be taken as
( a − 3d ), ( a − d ), ( a + d ), ( a + 3d )
(iii) Any five terms in AP can be taken as
( a − 2d ), ( a − d ), a , ( a + d ), ( a + 2d )
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a + a2 + ... + an
np
A= 1
tio
es
n
qu
et
and b, where
gr
na + b
le
Te
A1 = a + d =
n +1
( n − 1)a + 2b
A2 = a + 2d =
n +1
M M M
a + nb b− a
An = a + nd = and d =
n +1 n +1
(b) Sum of n AM’s between a and b is nA
a+b
i.e. A 1 + A 2 + A 3 + K + An = nA, where A =
2
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Important Results on AP
(i) If ap = q and aq = p , then ap + q = 0, ar = p + q − r
(ii) If pap = qaq , then ap + q = 0
1 1
(iii) If ap = and aq = , then apq = 1
q p
(iv) If S p = q and S q = p , then S p + q = − ( p + q)
(v) If S p = S q , then S p + q = 0
(vi) If a2 , b2 and c2 are in AP, then
1 1 1 a b c
, , and , , both are also in AP.
b+ c c+ a a+b b+ c c+ a a+b
(vii) If a1, a2 ,..., an are the non-zero terms of an AP, then
1 1 1 1 n −1
+ + + .... + =
a1 a2 a2 a3 a3 a4 an − 1 an a1 an
Geometric Progression GP
er
ap
np
A sequence in which the ratio of any term (except first term) to its just
tio
common ratio (r ).
et
ne
an + 1
i.e. = r, ∀ n ≥ 1
@
an
am
gr
If a is the first term, r is the common ratio and l is the last term of a
le
Te
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66 Handbook of Mathematics
Selection of Terms in a GP
a
(i) Any three terms in a GP can be taken as , a and ar.
r
a a
(ii) Any four terms in a GP can be taken as 3 , , ar and ar3 .
r r
a a
(iii) Any five terms in a GP can be taken as 2 , , a , ar and ar 2.
r r
er
ap
a (1 − r n )
et
, if r < 1
ne
1−r
@
am
S n = a (r − 1) , if r > 1
n
gr
le
Te
r −1
na , if r = 1
a − lr lr − a
(ii) S n = , r < 1 or S n = ,r > 1
1−r r −1
where, l = last term of the GP
Geometric Mean GM
(i) If a , G , b are in GP, then G is called the geometric mean of a and
b and is given by G = ab.
(ii) GM of n positive numbers a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , an are given by
G = ( a1a2... an )1/ n
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Important Results on GP
er
ap
np
1
xn−q p−q
tio
es
y
et
ne
m
q 2 n
gr
am = pq and an = p
le
Te
p
(iii) If a, b and c are the pth, qth and rth terms of a GP, then
a q − r × b r − p × c p −q = 1
(iv) Sum of n terms of b + bb + bbb + K is
b 10 (10 n − 1)
an = − n ; b = 1, 2, K , 9
9 9
(v) Sum of n terms of 0 ⋅b + 0 ⋅bb + 0 ⋅bbb + K is
b (1 − 10 −n )
an = n − ; b = 1, 2, K , 9
9 9
(vi) If a1 , a2 , a3 , K , an and b1 , b2 , b3 , ... , bn are in GP, then the sequence
a1 ± b1, a2 ± b2 , a3 ± b3 K will not be a GP.
(vii) If pth, qth and rth term of geometric progression are also in geometric
progression, then p, q and r are in arithmetic progression.
(viii) If a, b and c are in AP as well as in GP, then a = b = c.
(ix) If a, b and c are in AP, then x a , x b and x c are in geometric progression.
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1 1 1 a1 a2 − l( n − 1)( a1 − a2 )
ap
− ( n − 1) −
np
l a2 a1
tio
es
qu
1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) + = + = +
@
1
Te
Harmonic Mean
(i) If a , H and b are in HP, then H is called the harmonic mean of
2ab
a and b and is given by H =
a+b
(ii) Harmonic Mean (HM) of a1 , a2 , a3 ,K , an is given by
1 11 1 1 1
= + + +..... +
H n a1 a2 a3 an
(iii) If a , H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , .... , H n , b are in HP, then
(a) H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , K , H n
are called n harmonic means between a and b, where
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Important Results on HP
(i) If in a HP, am = n and an = m, then
mn mn
er
am + n = , amn = 1, ap =
ap
m+n p
np
tio
then ar = pq
et
ne
@
1 1 1 1
(b) + = +
H − a H −b a b
H+ a H+b
(c) + =2
H − a H −b
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H 1H 2 H 1 + H 2
np
tio
es
qu
Arithmetic-Geometric Progression
et
ne
@
Method of Difference
Let a1 + a2 + a3 + ... be a given series.
Case I If a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 ,K are in AP or GP, then an and S n can be
found by the method of difference.
Clearly, S n = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + K + an
or Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + K + an −1 + an
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Exponential Series
@
am
1 1 1 1
gr
1! 2! 3! 4!
number e.
1 1 1 1
∴ e=1+ + + + +K
1! 2! 3! 4!
(i) e lies between 2 and 3.
(ii) e is an irrational number.
x x 2 x3
(iii) ex = 1 + + + + K ∞, x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3
(iv) e− x = 1 − + − + K ∞, x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
a
(v) For any a > 0, a x = ex log e
x2 x3
= 1 + x (loge a ) + (loge a )2 + (loge a )3 + K ∞, x ∈ R
2! 3!
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Logarithmic Series
x 2 x3 x 4
(i) loge (1 + x ) = x − + − + K ∞, ( −1 < x ≤ 1)
2 3 4
∞
xn
= ∑ ( −1)n − 1 , ( −1 < x ≤ 1)
n =1 n
x 2 x3 x 4
(ii) loge (1 − x ) = − x − − − − K ∞, ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
⇒ − loge (1 − x ) = x + + + + K ∞, ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
2 3 4
1 + x x3 x5
(iii) loge = 2 x + + + K ∞ , ( −1 < x < 1)
1 − x 3 5
1 1 1 1
(iv) loge 2 = 1 − + − + −K ∞
2 3 4 5
er
ap
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ ∑ ∑
es
(i) =e= = =e
qu
n! ( n − 1)! ( n − k)!
et
n =0 n =1 n =k
ne
∞
@
1 1 1 1
(ii) ∑ = + + +K ∞ = e − 1
am
n ! 1! 2! 3!
gr
n =1
le
Te
∞
1 1 1 1
(iii) ∑ = + +
n ! 2! 3! 4!
+K ∞ = e − 2
n =2
∞
1 1 1 1
(iv) ∑ = + +
( n + 1)! 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
+K ∞ = e − 1
n =0
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
(v) ∑ ( n + 1)!
= ∑ = + +
( n + 2)! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !
+K ∞ = e − 2
n =1 n =0
∞
1 1 1 1 e + e −1 ∞
1
(vi) ∑ ( 2n )!
=1+ + +
2! 4! 6!
+K =
2
= ∑ ( 2n − 2)!
n =0 n =1
∞ −1 ∞
1 1 1 1 e−e 1
(vii) ∑ = + +
( 2n − 1)! 1 ! 3 ! 5 !
+K =
2
= ∑ ( 2n + 1)!
n =1 n =0
( ax ) ( ax )2 ( ax )3 ( ax )n
(viii) eax = 1 + + + +K + +K ∞
1! 2! 3! n!
∞ ∞
n n
(ix) ∑ =e= ∑
n = 0 n! n =1 n!
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∑ r = 1 + 2 +K + n =
ap
(xvi)
np
r =1 2
tio
es
i.e. 2 + 4 + 6 + K + 2n = n( n + 1)
ne
@
i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + K + ( 2n − 1) = n 2
gr
le
Te
n
n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
(xix) ∑ r 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + K + n 2 = 6
r =1
2
n
n( n + 1)
(xx) ∑ r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + K + n3 = 2
r =1
n
n( n + 1)( 6n3 + 9n 2 + n − 1)
(xxi) ∑ r 4 = 14 + 24 + 34 + K + n 4 = 30
r =1
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6
Permutations and
Combinations
Fundamental Principles of Counting
There are two Fundamental Principles of Counting
er
ap
1. Multiplication Principle
np
tio
2. Addition Principle
Te
Factorial
For any natural number n, we define factorial as
n ! or |n = n( n − 1)( n − 2) K 3 × 2 × 1.
The rotation n ! represent the present of first n natural numbers.
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Permutation
Each of the different arrangement which can be made by taking some
or all of a number of things is called a permutation.
Mathematically The number of ways of arranging n distinct
objects in a row taking r ( 0 < r ≤ n ) at a time is denoted by P ( n , r )
or n Pr .
n!
i.e. n
Pr =
( n − r )!
Properties of Permutation
er
ap
np
(i) n
Pn = n ( n − 1) ( n − 2)... 1 = n !
tio
es
n!
qu
(ii) n
P0 = =1
et
n!
ne
@
(iii) n P1 = n
am
gr
(iv) n
Pn − 1 = n !
le
Te
n −1 n −2 n −3
(v) n
Pr = n ⋅ Pr −1 = n( n − 1) ⋅ Pr − 2 = n( n − 1)( n − 2) ⋅ Pr − 3
n −1 n −1
(vi) Pr + r ⋅ Pr −1 = Pr
n
n
Pr
(vii) n
= n −r +1
Pr − 1
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Restricted Permutation
(i) Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time,
(a) when a particular thing is to be included in each arrangement
is r ⋅ n − 1Pr − 1.
er
ap
np
n −1
tio
n −m n −m
(a) excluded = Pr (b) included = Pr − m × r !
gr
le
Te
Circular Permutation
In a circular permutation, firstly we fix the position of one of the
objects and then arrange the other objects in all possible ways.
(i) Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all
at a time is ( n − 1)! . If clockwise and anti-clockwise orders are
taken as different.
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Combination
er
ap
taken r at a time is
am
gr
n
le
n!
C( n , r ) or n Cr or i.e. n Cr = , 0≤r ≤ n
Te
r !( n − r )!
r
Properties of Combination
(i) n
C0 = n Cn = 1
(ii) n
C1 = n
(iii) n
Cr = n Cn − r
(iv) If n Cr = n C p, then either r = p or r + p = n
n
Pr
(v) n
Cr =
r!
n +1
(vi) n Cr + n Cr − 1 = Cr
n −1
(vii) n ⋅ Cr − 1 = ( n − r + 1) n Cr −1
n n −1 n ( n − 1) n −2
(viii) n
Cr = Cr − 1 = Cr − 2
r r (r − 1)
(ix) n
C0 + n C1 + n C2 + K + n Cn = 2n
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(x) n
C0 + n C2 + n C4 + K = n C1 + n C3 + K = 2n − 1
2n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 1
(xi) C0 + C1 + C2 + K + 2n +1 Cn = 22n
n +1 n +2 2n − 1
(xii) n
Cn + Cn + Cn + K + Cn = 2n
Cn +1
n
(xiii) If n is even, then the greatest value of Cr is n Cn / 2.
(xiv) If n is odd, then the greatest value of n Cr is n C ( n +1)
2
1. Number of Functions
et
ne
@
n
Pm , m ≤ n.
Te
2. Use in Geometry
(i) Given, n distinct points in the plane, no three of which are
collinear, then the number of line segments formed = n C2.
(ii) Given, n distinct points in the plane, in which m are collinear
( m ≥ 3), then the number of line segments is ( n C2 − mC2 ) + 1.
(iii) Given, n distinct points in the plane, no three of which are
collinear, then the number of triangle formed = n C3
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n
∑ (n + 1 − r )( p + 1 − r ).
np
any size is
tio
r =1
es
qu
et
(ix) Suppose n straight lines are drawn in the plane such that no two
ne
@
lines are parallel and no three lines are concurrent, then number
am
3. Prime Factors
Any natural number > 1, can be expressed as product of primes.
Let n = p1α 1 p2α 2 p3α 3 K prα r , where
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4. Integral Solutions
(i) The number of integral solutions of
er
n+r −1
x1 + x2 + K + xr = n , where x1 , x2 ,K xr ≥ 0 is Cr −1 or
ap
np
n + r −1
Cn .
tio
es
qu
n −1
ne
x1 + x2 + K + xr = n, where x1 , x2 , K , xr ≥ 1, is Cr − 1.
@
am
gr
5. Sum of Digits
le
Te
(i) Sum of the numbers formed by taking all the given n digits
= (Sum of all the n digits) × ( n − 1)! × (1
111
42......
43 1).
n-times
(ii) The sum of all digits in the unit place of all numbers formed with
the help of a1 , a2 , K , an all at a time (repetition of digits is not
allowed) is ( n − 1)!( a1 + a2 + K + an ).
(iii) The sum of all digits of numbers that can be formed by using the
digits a1 , a2 ,K , an (repetition of digits is not allowed) is
10n − 1
( n − 1)!( a1 + a2 + K + an )
9
6. Arrangements
(i) The number of ways in which m (one type of different things) and
n (another type of different things) can be arranged in a row so
that all the second type of things come together is n !( m + 1)!.
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2
ap
np
x x2 xl x x2 xm
gr
r ! 1 + + + K + 1 + + +K +
le
Te
1! 2! l ! 1! 2! m !
x x2 xn
1 + + +K + .
1! 2! n !
7. Dearrangements
If n distinct objects are arranged in a row, then the number of ways in
which they can be dearranged so that no one of them occupies the
1 1 1 1
place assigned to it is n ! 1 − + − + K ( −1)n and it is
1! 2! 3! n !
denoted by D ( n ).
8. Selection
There are two types of selection, which are as follows
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82 Handbook of Mathematics
( p + 1)( q + 1)(r + 1) 2n − 1.
np
io
st
n− p n− p n− p n− p
@
Cr + Cr −1 + Cr − 2 + ... + C0, if r ≤ p
a m
n− p n− p n− p n− p
Cr + Cr −1 + Cr − 2 + ... + Cr − p, if r > p
gr
and
le
Te
(vi) If there are m items of one kind, n items of another kind and so
on. Then, the number of ways of choosing r items out of these
items = coefficient of x r in
(1 + x + x 2 + K + x m ) (1 + x + x 2 + K + x n )K
(vii) If there are m items of one kind, n items of another kind and so
on. Then, the number of ways of choosing r items out of these
items such that atleast one item of each kind is included in every
selection = coefficient of x r in
( x + x 2 + K + x m )( x + x 2 + K + x n )K
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( 2n )!
es
.
qu
2 !( n !)2
et
ne
@
( 3n )!
In this case, number of ways = .
3 !( n !)3
(iv) The number of ways in which mn different things can be divided
equally it into m groups each containing n objects, if order of the
group is not important is
( mn )!
.
( n !)m m !
(v) If the order of the group is important, then number of ways of
dividing mn different things equally into m distinct groups each
containing n objects is
( mn )!
.
( n !)m
(vi) The number of ways of dividing n different things into r groups is
1 n r
[r − C1(r − 1)n + rC2(r − 2)n − rC3 (r − 3)n + K ].
r!
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84 Handbook of Mathematics
of x n − r in the expansion of (1 + x + x 2 + K + x k − 1 )r .
am
gr
le
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7
Binomial Theorem
and Principle of
Mathematical Induction
An algebric expression consisting of two terms with positive and
negative sign between them is called binomial expression.
n
qu
i.e. ( x + a )n = ∑ n
Cr x n − r a r …(i)
et
ne
r=0
@
am
binomial coefficients.
Te
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+ ... + ( −1)n n Cn x n
ap
np
n
tio
i.e. (1 − x )n = ∑ ( −1)r n
Cr ⋅ x r
es
qu
r=0
et
ne
expansion of (1 − x )n is ( −1)r n Cr .
gr
le
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Tr + 1 n −r +1 a
= ×
@
am
Tr r x
gr
n ( n + 1)
( x – 1) ( x – 2)....( x – n ) = −
2
(b) The coefficient of x n − 1 in the expansion of
n ( n + 1)
( x + 1) ( x + 2)....( x + n ) =
2
(vi) If the coefficient of pth and qth terms in the expansion of (1 + x )n
are equal, then p + q = n + 2.
n
x
(vii) If the coefficients of x r and x r + 1 in the expansion of a + are
b
equal, then n = (r + 1)( ab + 1) − 1.
(viii) The number of terms in the expansion of
( x1 + x2 + K + xr )n is n + r − 1Cr − 1.
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Greatest Coefficient
Binomial coefficient of middle term is the greatest binomial coefficient.
(i) If n is even, then in ( x + a )n , the greatest coefficient is n Cn / 2.
(ii) If n is odd, then in ( x + a )n , the greatest coefficient is n C n −1
2
or n C n + 1 .
2
Greatest Term
er
ap
In the expansion of ( x + a )n ,
np
tio
n +1
is an integer = p (say), then greatest terms are
es
(i) If
qu
x
+1
et
ne
a
@
am
T p and T p + 1.
gr
n +1 n +1
le
Te
Divisibility Problems
From the expansion, (1 + x )n = 1 + n C1x + n C2x 2 +...+ n Cn x n
We can conclude that
(i) (1 + x )n − 1 = n C1x + n C2x 2 +...+ n Cn x n is divisible by x i.e. it is a
multiple of x.
or (1 + x )n − 1 = M ( x )
(ii) (1 + x )n − 1 − nx = n C2x 2 + n C3 x3 +...+ n Cn x n = M ( x 2 )
n( n − 1) 2 n
(iii) (1 + x )n − 1 − nx − x = C3 x3 + n C4x 4 +...+ n Cn x n = M ( x3 )
2
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4
np
(viii) C0 − C1 + C2 − C3 + K + ( − 1)n Cn = 0
tio
es
qu
(ix) C1 − 2 ⋅ C2 + 3 ⋅ C3 − K = 0
et
ne
(x) C0 + 2 ⋅ C1 + 3 ⋅ C2 + K + ( n + 1) ⋅ Cn = ( n + 2) 2n −1
@
am
gr
( 2n )!
= 2n
Cn + r =
( n − r )!( n + r )!
( 2n )!
(xii) C02 + C12 + C22 +...+ Cn2 = 2n
Cn =
( n !)2
0, if n is odd.
(xiii) C02 − C12 + C22 − C32 + ... + ( −1)n ⋅ Cn2 =
( − 1) ⋅
n/ 2 n
Cn / 2 if n is even.
,
2 2
(xiv) C1 − 2C2 + 3C32 − K + ( − 1)n n ⋅ Cn2
n
−1 n n!
= ( −1) 2 . . , when n is even.
2 n n
! !
2 2
C1 C2 Cn 2n +1 − 1
(xv) C0 + + +K + =
2 3 n + 1 ( n + 1)
C1 C2 C3 Cn 1
(xvi) C0 − + − + ... + ( − 1)n =
2 3 4 n +1 n +1
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90 Handbook of Mathematics
n
C1 C2 C3 C 3
(xvii) C0 + + 2 + 3 + K + nn =
2 2 2 2 2
n 1 3r 7r 15r
(xviii) ∑ ( −1)r n
Cr r + 2r + 3 r + 4r +.... upto m terms
r=0 2 2 2 2
2 −1
mn
= mn n
2 ( 2 − 1)
Multinomial Theorem
For any n ∈ N ,
n ! r1 r2
(i) ( x1 + x2 )n = ∑ x x
r1 !r2 ! 1 2
r1 + r2 = n
n!
(ii) ( x1 + x2 +...+ xn )n = ∑ x r1 x r2K xkrk
r1 !r2 !K rk ! 1 2
r 1 + r 2 +K+ rk = n
er
ap
n!
tio
x r1 x r2K xkrk
es
r1 !r2 !K rk ! 1 2
qu
et
n!
am
m−r
, where q and r are the quotient and remainder
gr
( q !) [( q + 1)!]r
le
Te
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x x
ap
np
a n ( n − 1) a
2
n( n − 1)( n − 2) a
3
tio
= x n 1 + n ⋅ + + +....
es
x x
qu
x 2! 3!
et
ne
x
Case II When x < a i.e. < 1
@
am
a
gr
n n
x x
le
In this case, ( x + a )n = a 1 + = a n 1 +
Te
a a
x n ( n − 1) x
2
n ( n − 1)( n − 2) x
3
= a n 1 + n ⋅ + + +....
a a
a 2! 3!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(iv) (1 − x )− n = 1 + nx + x + x +K
1⋅ 2 1⋅ 2⋅ 3
n( n + 1)( n + 2)K ( n + r − 1) r
+ x + ...
r!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(v) (1 + x )− n = 1 − nx + x − x +K
2! 3!
n ( n + 1)( n + 2) ... ( n + r − 1) r
+ ( −1)r x + ...
r!
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1) ( n − 2) 3
(vi) (1 − x )n = 1 − nx + x − x +K
2! 3!
n ( n − 1)( n − 2) ... ( n − r + 1) r
+ ( −1)r x +...
r!
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92 Handbook of Mathematics
Statement
np
io
st
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8
Matrices
Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or complex)
which may be represented as
a11 a12 a13 .... a1n
a a22 a23 .... a2 n
A = 21 .
.... .... .... .... ....
a amn
m1 am 2 am3 ....
er
ap
np
Matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( ).
io
st
Element of a Matrix
@
m
The numbers a11 , a12 ,K etc., in the above matrix are known as the
a
gr
Order of a Matrix
In above matrix has m rows and n columns, then A is of order m × n.
Types of Matrices
(i) Row Matrix A matrix having only one row and any number of
columns is called a row matrix.
(ii) Column Matrix A matrix having only one column and any
number of rows is called column matrix.
(iii) Null/Zero Matrix A matrix of any order, having all its elements
are zero, is called a null/zero matrix, i.e. aij = 0, ∀ i , j.
(iv) Square Matrix A matrix of order m × n, such that m = n, is
called square matrix.
(v) Diagonal Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]m × n is called a
diagonal matrix, if all the elements except those in the leading
diagonals are zero, i.e. aij = 0 for i ≠ j. It can be represented as
A = diag [a11 a22K ann ].
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94 Handbook of Mathematics
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Matrices 95
Algebra of Matrices
1. Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m × n. Then, the sum of
matrices A + B is defined only if matrices A and B are of same order.
If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]m × n . Then, A + B = [aij + bij ]m × n .
Properties of Addition of Matrices
If A, B and C are three matrices of order m × n , then
(i) Commutative Law A + B = B + A
(ii) Associative Law ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
(iii) Existence of Additive Identity A zero matrix (0) of order
m × n (same as of A), is additive identity, if
A+ 0= A= 0+ A
(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse If A is a square matrix, then
er
A + ( − A) = 0 = ( − A) + A
np
io
st
2. Subtraction of Matrices
a
gr
le
matrices, A − B, is defined as
A − B = [aij − bij ] m × n ,
where A = [aij ]m × n , B = [bij ]m × n
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96 Handbook of Mathematics
4. Multiplication of Matrices
Let A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]n × p are two matrices such that the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, then
n
multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by cij = ∑ aikbkj ,
k=1
BA = CA ⇒ B = C
m
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Matrices 97
Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix
Let A be a square matrix. Then, we can define
(i) An + 1 = An ⋅ A, where n ∈ N .
(ii) Am ⋅ An = Am + n .
(iii) ( Am )n = Amn , ∀m , n ∈ N
Matrix Polynomial
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n − 1 + a2x n − 2 + K + an . Then,
f ( A) = a0 An + a1 An − 2 + K + an I n is called the matrix polynomial.
Transpose of a Matrix
Let A = [aij ]m × n , be a matrix of order m × n. Then, the n × m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A′ or AT .
er
A′ = AT = [a ji ]n × m
ap
np
io
st
e
Properties of Transpose
qu
et
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98 Handbook of Mathematics
(b) AB + BA is symmetric.
tio
es
transformation.
(i) Interchanging any two rows (or columns), denoted by
Ri ←→ R j or Ci ←→ C j .
(ii) Multiplication of the element of any row (or column) by a
non-zero scalar quantity and denoted by
Ri → kRi or Ci → kC j .
(iii) Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any row to the
corresponding element of any other row, denoted by
Ri → Ri + kR j or Ci → Ci + kC j .
Elementary Matrix
A matrix obtained from an identity matrix by a single elementary
operation is called an elementary matrix.
Equivalent Matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one can be obtained
from the other by a sequence of elementary transformation.
The symbol ≈ is used for equivalence.
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Matrices 99
Trace of a Matrix
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the
trace of A, denoted by trace (A) or tr (A).
Conjugate of a Matrix
er
ap
(i) ( A ) = A (ii) ( A + B) = A + B
(iii) ( AB) = AB (iv) ( kA) = kA
(v) ( A ) = ( A )
n n
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2. Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent, if A2 = A .
Properties of Idempotent Matrix
(i) If A and B are two idempotent matrices, then
(a) AB is idempotent, iff AB = BA.
er
ap
idempotent and AB = BA = O.
am
gr
3. Involutory Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be involutory, if A2 = I
4. Nilpotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix, if there exists a
positive integer m such that Am = 0. If m is the least positive integer
such that Am = 0, then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A.
5. Unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be unitary, if A′ A = I
6. Periodic Matrix
If Ak+1 = A, where k is a positive integer, then A is known as periodic
matrix and k is known as period of matrix A.
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Matrices 101
Rank of a Matrix
A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non-zero matrix A, if
(i) there exists at least one minor in A of order r which is not zero.
(ii) every minor in A of order greater than r is zero, rank of a matrix A
is denoted by ρ( A) = r.
(vi) ρ( A′ ) = ρ( A)
est
qu
(vii) ρ( A* ) = ρ( A)
et
ne
@
(viii) ρ( A + B) ≤ ρ( A) + ρ( B)
am
gr
(ix) If A and B are two matrices such that the product AB is defined,
le
Te
then rank ( AB) cannot exceed the rank of the either matrix.
(x) If A and B are square matrix of same order and ρ( A) = ρ( B) = n,
then ρ( AB) = n
(xi) Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order has rank less than its
order.
(xii) Elementary operations do not change the rank of a matrix.
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9
Determinants
Determinant
Every square matrix A is associated with a number, called its
determinant and it is denoted by ∆ (read as delta) or det (A) or| A|.
Only square matrices have determinants. The matrices which are not
square do not have determinants.
(i) First Order Determinant
If A = [a ], then det (A) =| A| = a.
er
ap
np
a a12
qu
If A = 11 , then
a22
et
ne
a21
@
am
| A| = a11a22 − a21a12
gr
le
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Determinants 103
The value of the determinant, this will be the sum of the product of
element in line parallel to the diagonal minus the sum of the product of
elements in line perpendicular to the line segment. Thus,
∆ = a11a22a33 + a12a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 − a13 a22a31 − a11a23 a32 − a12a21a33 .
er
ap
np
Note This method doesn’t work for determinants of order greater than 3.
tio
es
qu
Properties of Determinants
et
ne
@
| A′| =| A|
le
e.g.
Te
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other row (or column), then the value of the new determinant
remains unchanged,
e.g.
a11 a12 a13 a11 + ka31 a12 + ka32 a13 + ka33
a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
(viii) If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then
its value is zero.
(ix) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, then
its value is zero.
(x) If each element of row (or column) of a determinant is expressed
as a sum of two or more terms, then the determinant can be
expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
(xi) If r rows (or r columns) become identical, when a is substituted
for x, then ( x − a )r −1 is a factor of given determinant.
er
ap
(i)| AB| =| A||B|, where A and B are square matrices of the same
es
qu
order.
et
(ii)| An | =| A|n
ne
@
am
(iii) If A, B and C are square matrices of the same order such that ith
gr
and C and all other columns (or rows) of A, B and C are identical,
then| A| =|B| +|C|
(iv)|I n| = 1, where I n is identity matrix of order n.
(v)|On| = 0, where On is a zero matrix of order n.
(vi) If ∆( x ) be a 3rd order determinant having polynomials as its
elements.
(a) If ∆( a ) has 2 rows (or columns) proportional, then ( x − a ) is a
factor of ∆( x ).
(b) If ∆( a ) has 3 rows (or columns) proportional, then ( x − a )2 is
a factor of ∆( x ).
(vii) A square matrix A is non-singular, if | A| ≠ 0 and singular, if
| A| = 0.
(viii) Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is zero and
of even order is a non-zero perfect square.
(ix) In general, |B + C| ≠|B| +|C|
(x) Determinant of a diagonal matrix
= Product of its diagonal elements
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Determinants 105
(xi) Determinant of a triangular matrix
= Product of its diagonal elements
(xii) A square matrix of order n is non-singular, if its rank r = n i.e. if
| A| ≠ 0, then rank ( A) = n
f1( x ) f2( x ) f3 ( x )
(xiii) If ∆( x ) = g1( x ) g2( x ) g3 ( x ) , then
a b c
n n n
Σ f1( x ) Σ f2( x ) Σ f3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1
n n n n
(a) Σ ∆( x ) = Σ g1( x ) Σ g2( x ) Σ g3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1 x =1
a b c
n n n
Π f1( x ) Π f2( x ) Π f3 ( x )
er
x =1 x =1 x =1
ap
n n n n
np
x =1 x =1 x =1 x =1
es
qu
et
a b c
ne
@
1
am
| A|
le
Te
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a21 a22
and M13 = minor of a13 =
a31 a32
n
∑
gr
i =1
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Determinants 107
(iii) Let two points are A( x1 , y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and P ( x , y ) be a point on the
line joining points A and B, then the equation of line is given by
x y 1
1
x1 y1 1 = 0
2
x2 y2 1
Adjoint of a Matrix
Adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of the
given matrix,
T
C11 C12 C13 C11 C21 C31
i.e. adj(A) = C21 C22 C23 = C12 C22 C32
C31 C32 C33 C13 C23 C33
Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be a non-zero square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B,
such that AB = BA = I , is called inverse of A, denoted by A−1.
1
i.e. A− 1 = (adj A) given in properties
| A|
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(a) AB = AC ⇒ B = C
es
(b) BA = CA ⇒ B = C
et
Note
am
−1
Te
Differentiation of Determinant
a( x ) b (x) c( x )
If ∆( x ) = p ( x ) q( x ) r( x ) , then
u( x ) v( x ) w ( x )
a ′ ( x ) b′ ( x ) c′ ( x ) a( x ) b( x ) c( x )
d∆
= p ( x ) q( x ) r( x ) + p′ ( x ) q ′ ( x ) r ′ ( x )
dx
u( x ) v( x ) w ( x ) u( x ) v( x ) w ( x )
a( x ) b( x ) c( x )
+ p ( x ) q( x ) r( x )
u ′ ( x ) v′ ( x ) w ′ ( x )
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Determinants 109
Integration of Determinant
a11( x ) a12( x ) a13 ( x )
If ∆( x ) = a21 a22 a23 , then
a31 a32 a33
equations.
es
qu
et
ne
The values of the variables satisfying all the linear equations in the
gr
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solutions.
qu
et
solution i.e. X = 0.
Te
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Determinants 111
(ii) If D = 0 and D1 = D2 = 0, then the system is consistent and has
infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If D = 0 and one of D1 and D2 is non-zero, then the system is
inconsistent.
Case II Let the system of equations be a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1,
a2x + b2 y + c2z = d2 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 . Then, the solution of
D D D
the system of equation is x = 1 , y = 2 , z = 3 , it is called
D D D
Cramer’s rule.
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
where, D = a2 b2 c2 , D1 = d2 b2 c2 , D2 = a2 d2 c2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3
a1 b1 d1
and D3 = a2 b2 d2 .
er
ap
a3 b3 d3
np
tio
es
solution.
ne
@
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1 1 1
(iii) a b c = ( a − b)(b − c)( c − a)[( a2 + b2 + c2 ) + ( ab + bc + ca)]
a4 b4 c4
1 1 1
(iv) a2 b2 c2 = ( a − b) (b − c) ( c − a)( ab + bc + ca)
a3 b3 c3
x 2 ( x + a)2 ( x − a)2
(v) y 2 ( y + a)2 ( y − a)2 = − 4 a3 ( x − y )( y − z)( z − x )
z2 ( z + a)2 ( z − a)2
1 1 1
(vi) a b c = a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca
b a c
1
= [(b − c)2 + ( c − a)2 + ( a − b)2 ]
er
2
ap
np
a b c
tio
a = − ( a + b + c) ( a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)
es
(vii) b c
qu
et
c a b
ne
= − ( a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc)
@
am
x+a b c d
gr
le
x +b
Te
a c d
(viii) = x 3 ( x + a + b + c + d)
a b x+c d
a b c x+d
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10
Probability
Experiment
An operation which produce some well-defined results or outcomes is
called an experiment.
Types of Experiments
1. Deterministic Experiment
Those experiments, which when repeated under identical conditions
produce the same result or outcome are known as deterministic
er
ap
experiment.
np
io
2. Probabilistic/Random Experiment
est
qu
do not produce the same outcome every time but the outcome produced
@
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Algebra of Events
Let A and B are two events associated with a random experiment,
whose sample space is S. Then,
(i) the event ‘not A’ is the set A′ or S − A
(ii) the events A or B is the set A ∪ B
er
ap
np
Probability—
gr
le
Te
Axiomatic Approach
Let S = { w1 , w2 , w3 , ... wn } be a sample space, then according to
axiomatic approach we have the following
(i) 0 ≤ P ( wi ) ≤ 1 for each wi ∈ S
(ii) P ( w1 ) + P ( w2 ) + ... + P ( wn ) = 1
(iii) For any event A, P ( A) = ΣP ( wi ), wi ∈ A.
Note
l Theoretical approach is valid only when the outcomes are equally likely and
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Probability 115
Different Types of Events and Their Probabilities
(i) Equally Likely Events The given events are said to be
equally likely, if none of them is expected to occur in preference to
the other.
Thus, if the events E and F are equally likely, then P ( E ) = P ( F )
(ii) Mutually Exclusive Events A set of events is said to be
mutually exclusive, if the happening of one event excludes the
happening of the other.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then ( A ∩ B) = φ.
∴ The probability of mutually exclusive events is P ( A ∩ B) = 0.
(iii) Probability of Exhaustive Events A set of events is said to
be exhaustive, if atleast one of them necessarily occurs whenever
the experiment is performed.
If E1 , E2 , K , En are exhaustive events, then
E1 ∪ E2 ∪ K ∪ En = S .
er
ap
and so P ( E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ∪ K ∪ En ) = 1 .
np
tio
es
n
qu
i =1
@
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n n
qu
P( U A i ) = ∑ P( Ai ) − ∑ ∑ P( A i ∩ A j )
et
ne
i =1 i =1 1≤i <j ≤n
@
am
+ ∑ ∑ ∑ P( A i ∩ A j ∩ A k ) − K
gr
le
+ ( −1)n − 1 P ( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ K ∩ A n )
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Probability 117
(iv) If B ⊆ A, then
(a) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) − P ( B)
(b) P ( B) ≤ P ( A)
(v) If A and B are two events, then
P ( A ∩ B) ≤ P ( A)( or P ( B)) ≤ P ( A ∪ B) ≤ P ( A) + P ( B)
(vi) If A, B and C are three events, then
(a) P(exactly one of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A) + P ( B) + P (C ) − 2P ( A ∩ B) − 2P ( B ∩ C )
− 2P ( A ∩ C ) + 3P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(b) P (atleast two of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A ∩ B) + P ( B ∩ C ) + P (C ∩ A) − 2P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(c) P (exactly two of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A ∩ B) + P ( B ∩ C ) + P ( A ∩ C ) − 3P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(vii) (a) P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B), if A and B are mutually exclusive
er
ap
events.
np
tio
Ai ∩ Aj = φ for i ≠ j, then
am
gr
P ( A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A3 ∪ K ∪ A n ) = P ( A1 ) + ( A2 ) + K + P ( An )
le
Te
and P ( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A3 ∩ K ∩ A n ) = P ( φ ) = 0
(ix) If A1 , A 2 , K , A n are independent events associated with a
random experiment, then probability of occurrence of atleast one
= P ( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ K ∪ An ) = 1 − P ( A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ K ∪ A n )
= 1 − P ( A1 )P ( A 2 ) K P ( A n )
(x) If A1 , A 2 , K , A n are n events associated with a random
experiment, then
n
(a) P ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ K ∩ An ) ≥ Σ P ( Ai ) − ( n − 1)
i =1
(Bonferroni’s Inequality)
Or
P ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An ) ≥ 1 − P ( A1 ) − P ( A2 ) ... − P ( An )
n n
(b) P ( ∪ Ai ) ≤
i =1
∑ P( A i ) (Booley’s Inequality)
i =1
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Conditional Probability
Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment. Then,
the probability of occurrence of event A under the condition that B has
already occurred and P ( B) ≠ 0, is called the conditional probability and
it is given by
P ( A ∩ B)
er
P ( A / B) =
ap
np
P ( B)
tio
P ( A ∩ B)
es
P ( A)
et
ne
P( A / B) = P( A).
gr
le
Te
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Probability 119
Baye’s Theorem
Let S be the sample space and let E1 , E2 ,... , En be a partition of the
sample space S. If A is any event which occurs with E1 or E2 or … or
En , then probability of occurrence of Ei , when A occurred, is
P ( Ei )P ( A / Ei )
P ( Ei / A) = n , i = 1, 2, K , n
Σ P ( Ei )P ( A / Ei )
i =1
er
ap
E
and P i , i = 1, 2,... , n is known as posteriori probability
qu
A
et
ne
@
am
gr
Coin
A coin has two sides, head and tail. If an experiment consists of more than one
coin, then coins are considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
Die
A die has six face marked with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. If an experiment consists of
more than one die, then all dice are considered as distinct, if not otherwise
stated.
Playing Cards
A pack of playing cards has 52 cards, which are divided into 4 suits (spade,
heart, diamond and club) each having 13 cards.
The cards in each suit are ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2.
King, queen and jack are called face cards, so there are in all 12 face cards. Also,
there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit namely ace, king, queen and jack.
The suits, clubs and spades are of black colour while the suits hearts and
diamonds are of red colour. So, there are 26 red cards and 26 black cards.
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Random Variable
Let S be a sample space associated with a given random experiment. A
real valued function X defined on S , i.e.
X : S → R, is called a random variable.
There are two types of random variable
(i) Discrete Random Variable If the range of the function
X : S → R is a finite set or countably infinite set of real numbers,
then it is called a discrete random variable.
e.g. In tossing of two coins S = {HH , HT , TH , TT }, let X denotes
number of heads in tossing of two coins, then
X ( HH ) = 2, X (TH ) = 1, X ( HT ) = 1, X (TT ) = 0
(ii) Continuous Random Variable If the range of X is an
interval (a, b) of R, then X is called a continuous random variable.
X x1 x2 x3 … xn
et
ne
P(X) …
@
p1 p2 p3 pn
am
gr
or
Probability distribution gives the values of the random variable along
with the corresponding probabilities.
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Probability 121
Standard Deviation
σ = V ( X ) = E( X 2 ) − ( E( X ))2
Bernoulli Trials
np
tio
(iii) each trial has exactly two outcomes success and failure
gr
le
Binomial Distribution
The probability of r successes in n-Bernaulli trials is denoted by
P ( X = r ) and is given by
P ( X = r ) = n Cr pr q n − r , r = 0, 1, 2, ... n.
where, p = probability of success
q = probability of failure and p + q = 1
This can be represented by the following :
X 0 1 2 ... n
1 n−1 2 n− 2 n
P(X ) n
C0 p q0 n n
C1 p q n
C2 p q ... Cn p n
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Important Results
(i) If p = q, then probability of r successes in n trials is n Cr pn .
(ii) Mean = E( X ) = µ = np
(iii) Variance = σ 2x = npq
(iv) Standard deviation = σ x = npq
(v) Mean is always greater than variance.
(vi) If the total number of trials is n in any attempt and if there are N
such attempts, then the total number of r successes is
N ( n Cr pr q n − r )
Geometrical Probability
If the total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment is
infinite, in such cases, the definition of probability is modified and the
general expression for the probability P of occurrence of an event is
er
ap
given by
np
P=
es
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Probability 123
(iii) (a) Selection of Shoes from a Cupboard Out of n pair of shoes, if k shoes
are selected at random, the probability that there is no pair is
n
C 2k
P = 2 nk
Ck
(b) The probability that there is atleast one pair is (1− P).
(iv) Selection of Squares from the Chessboard If r (1 ≤ r ≤ 7) squares are
selected at random from a chessboard, then probability that they lie on a
diagonal is
4 [ 7Cr + 6Cr + K + 1Cr ] + 2( 8 Cr )
64
Cr
(v) If A and B are two finite sets and if a mapping is selected at random from
the set of all mapping from Ato B, then the probability that the mapping is
n(B)
Pn ( A)
(a) a one-one function = , provided n(B) ≥ n( A)
n(B) n ( A)
n(B)
Pn ( A)
(b) a many-one function = 1 − , provided n(B) ≥ n( A)
er
n(B) n ( A)
ap
np
n(B)
tio
n(B) n ( A)
qu
et
n( A)!
(d) a one-one onto function = , provided n( A) = n(B)
ne
@
n(B) n ( A)
am
gr
le
Te
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11
Trigonometric Functions,
Identities and Equations
Angle
When a ray OA starting from its initial B
position OA rotates about its end point O
de
si
and takes the final position OB, we say
al
that angle AOB (written as ∠ AOB) has
in
r m
er
Te
been formed.
ap
θ°
np
A
O
es
(Vertex)
of the angle.
et
ne
@
Te
m
rm
r
Te
in
al
θ°
si
d
A
e
O Initial side B
(Positive angle) (Negative angle)
Measurement of Angles
There are three system for measuring the angles, which are given
below
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180°
et
22
or 1 radian = = 57°16′ 22′ ′ where, π = = 3.14159
ne
π
@
7
am
π
gr
180
(iii) If D is the number of degrees, R is the number of radians and G
is the number of grades in an angle θ, then
D G 2R
= =
90 100 π
1c
r P
l Length of arc
θ= = or l = r θ
r Radius
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Perpendicular
Hypotenuse AC
e
n us
Base AB
te
cos θ = =
o
,
yp
Hypotenuse AC
H
Perpendicular BC
tan θ = = , θ
Base AB A B
Base
1
cosec θ =
sin θ
1 cos θ 1
sec θ = , cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ tan θ
er
ap
np
Let X ′OX and YOY ′ be the coordinate axes. Taking O as the centre
et
ne
Y
le
Te
B
P(x, y)
1 l
y
θ
X' A' O x M A X
B'
Y'
arc AP θ l
Q∠AOP = radius OP = 1 = θ °, using θ = r
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1. Graph of sin x
tio
es
Y y = sinx
qu
π, 1
(– 3π , 1) ( )
et
ne
2 1 2
y=1
@
am
gr
O
le
X' X
Te
–2π – 3π –π –π π π 3π
2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y=–1
(– π , –1 ) ( 3π , –1
)
2 2
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
2. Graph of cos x
Y
y = cosx
(– 2π, 1) 1 (0, 1) (2π, 1)
y=1
D
X' O X
–2π – 3π −π –π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
y = –1
(– π, –1) –1 (π, –1)
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
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3. Graph of tan x
Y y = tanx
X' X
–π –π O π π π
–π
– 3π 2 4
3π
2 4 2 2
–1
Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ )
(iii) Period = π
4. Graph of cot x
Y
y = cotx
er
ap
np
tio
es
qu
et
X' X
–π O π π
ne
–2π – 3π –π 3π 2π
@
2 2 2 2
am
gr
le
Te
Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I (ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ ) (iii) Period = π
5. Graph of sec x
Y
y = sec x
(–2π, 1) (2π, 1)
y=1
1
X' X
–2π – 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y = –1
(–π, –1) (π, –1)
Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
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Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I
(ii) Range = ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
er
ap
cosine functions
Te
1 1
(i) sin θ = or cosec θ =
cosec θ sin θ
1 1
(ii) cos θ = or sec θ =
sec θ cos θ
1 cos θ 1 sin θ
(iii) cot θ = = or tan θ = =
tan θ sin θ cot θ cos θ
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Transformation of One Trigonometric Function to
Another Trigonometric Function 130
Trigonometric tan θ sec θ cosec θ
sin θ cos θ cot θ
function
tan θ 1 1
(sec2 θ − 1)
sin θ sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) 2 2 cosec θ
(1 + tan θ) 1 + cot θ
sec θ
1 cot θ 1 (cosec2 θ − 1)
cos θ (1 − sin2 θ) cos θ (1 + cot2 θ)
(1 + Ttan
el 2 θ) sec θ cosec θ
e gr
1
am
sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) @ 1
tan θ tan θ (sec2 θ − 1)
(1 − sin2 θ)
ne cot θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
cos θ et
Handbook of Mathematics
qu
1
es
(1 − sin2 θ) cos θ 1 tio (cosec2 θ − 1)
cot θ 2
tan θ cot
np θ 2
sin θ (1 − cos θ) ap (sec θ − 1)
er
1 1 1 + cot2 θ sec θ cosec θ
sec θ 2 (1 + tan2 θ)
(1 − sin θ) cos θ cot θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
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Note Above table is applicable only when θ ∈ ( 0 ° , 90 ° ).
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270°
ap
360°
3π 3π
np
2 2
es
tan θ and cot θ are positive. cos θ and sec θ are positive.
qu
et
Y′
am
gr
le
Trigonometric Ratios of
Te
sin θ 4− 2 − 6 3 −1 5 −1 1
2− 2
1
10 − 2 5
2 2 4 2 4
2 2
tan θ ( 3 − 2 )( 2 − 1 ) 2− 3 5 −1 2 −1 10 − 2 5
10 + 2 5 5+1
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tan A + tan B
(v) tan ( A + B) =
@
1 − tan A tan B
am
gr
le
tan A − tan B
Te
(vi) tan( A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
cot A cot B − 1
(vii) cot( A + B) =
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot( A − B) =
cot B − cot A
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Transformation Formulae
(i) 2 sin A cos B =
sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B =
sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
(iii) 2 cos A cos B =
cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
(iv) 2 sin A sin B =
cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
C + D C − D
(v) sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2
C + D C − D
(vi) sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin
2 2
C + D C − D
(vii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
C + D C − D
(viii) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin sin
2 2
C + D D − C
= 2 sin sin
2 2
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A
2 tan
es
A A
qu
2 2 1 + tan2 A
ne
@
2
am
A
gr
1 − tan2
le
A 2 A 2 A 2 A
Te
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sin A + ( n − 1) sin
ap
2
np
2
=
tio
B
es
sin
qu
2
et
ne
nB
gr
sin
2 cos A + ( n − 1)B
le
=
Te
sin
B 2
2
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A B C A B C
(viii) cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B B C C A
(ix) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
(v)
ap
np
even.
tio
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions sinh z , cosh z , tanh z , cosech z , sec h z , coth z
are angles of the circular functions, defined by removing is appearing
in the complex exponentials.
ex − e− x
(i) sinh x =
2
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cosh x R [1, ∞)
ap
(− 1, 1)
np
tanh x R
tio
cosech x R − { 0} R − { 0}
es
qu
sech x R (0, 1]
et
R − { 0} R − [ −1, 1]
ne
coth x
@
am
Identities
gr
le
Te
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x + y x − y
(iii) cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh cosh
2 2
x + y x − y
(iv) cosh x − cosh y = 2 sinh sinh
2 2
(v) 2 sinh x cosh y = sinh ( x + y ) + sinh( x − y )
(vi) 2 cosh x sinh y = sinh ( x + y ) − sinh( x − y )
(vii) 2 cosh x cosh y = cosh ( x + y ) + cosh ( x − y )
(viii) 2 sinh x sinh y = cosh( x + y ) − cosh ( x − y )
=
np
1 − tanh2 x
tio
es
2 tanh x
qu
(iii) tanh 2x =
et
1 + tanh2 x
ne
@
am
3 tanh x + tanh3 x
(vi) tanh 3x =
1 + 3 tanh2 x
Important Formulae
1. (i) sinh2 x − sinh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh ( x − y )
(ii) cosh2 x + sinh2 y = cosh( x + y ) cosh( x − y )
(iii) cosh2 x − cosh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh( x − y )
2. (i) sinix = i sinh x (ii) cos(ix ) = cosh x
(iii) tan(ix ) = i tanh x (iv) cot(ix ) = − i coth x
(v) sec(ix ) = sech x (vi) cosec (ix ) = − i cosech x
3. (i) sinh x = − i sin(ix ) (ii) cosh x = cos (ix )
(iii) tanh x = − i tan(ix ) (iv) coth x = i cot(ix )
(v) sech x = sec(ix ) (vi) cosech x = i cosec(ix )
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Trigonometric Equations
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown
angle is called a trigonometric equation.
π
(ii) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) , where n ∈ z
@
am
2
gr
π π
(iv) sin θ = sin α ⇒ θ = nπ + ( − 1)n α, where α ∈ − , and n ∈ z
2 2
(v) cos θ = cos α ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α, where α ∈ [0, π ] and n ∈ z
π π
(vi) tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α, where α ∈ − , and n ∈ z
2 2
(vii) sin2 θ = sin2 α , cos2 θ = cos2 α, tan2 θ = tan2 α
⇒ θ = n π ± α, where n ∈ z
π
(viii) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ = ( 4n + 1) , where n ∈ z
2
(ix) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ = 2nπ, where n ∈ z
(x) cosθ = − 1 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) π, where n ∈ z
sin θ = sin α and cos θ = cos α
(xi) sin θ = sin α and tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = 2nπ + α, where n ∈ z
tan θ = tan α and cos θ = cos α
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n −1
nπ
np
2
es
qu
n
et
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12
Solution of Triangles
A
ap
np
tio
b
es
c
qu
et
ne
B
@
a C
am
a+ b+ c
gr
.
Te
2
sin A sin B sin C 1
(i) Sine Rule = = = , where R is radius of the
a b c 2R
circumcircle of ∆ABC.
b2 + c2 − a 2 a 2 + c2 − b2
(ii) Cosine Rule cos A = , cos B =
2bc 2ac
a 2 + b2 − c2
and cosC =
2ab
(iii) Projection Rule a = b cos C + c cos B, b = c cos A + a cos C
and c = a cos B + b cos A
B−C b− c A
(iv) Napier’s Analogy tan = cot ,
2 b+ c 2
C− A c−a B A− B a− b C
tan = cot and tan = cot
2 c+a 2 2 a+b 2
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Trigonometrical Ratios of
Half of the Angles of Triangle
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − c)( s − a )
(i) sin = , sin = ,
2 bc 2 ac
C ( s − a )( s − b)
sin =
2 ab
A s( s − a ) B s( s − b) C s( s − c)
(ii) cos = , cos = , cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − a )( s − c)
(iii) tan = , tan =
2 s( s − a ) 2 s( s − b)
C ( s − a )( s − b)
tan =
s( s − c)
er
2
ap
np
tio
Area of a Triangle
es
qu
1 1 1
@
2 2 2
gr
le
(ii) ∆ = = =
2 sin C 2 sin A 2 sin B
(iii) ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c), its known as Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = [semi-perimeter of triangle]
2
abc
(iv) ∆ = = rs, where R and r are radii of the circumcircle and the
4R
incircle of ∆ABC, respectively.
Solutions of a Triangle
Elements of a Triangle
There are six elements of a triangle, in which three are its sides and
other three are its angle. If three elements of a triangle are given,
atleast one of which is its side, then other elements can be uniquely
calculated. This is called solving the triangle.
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c
a
A C
b
(i) the solution when two sides are given
Given To be calculated
a, b a a
tan A = ; B = 90° − A, c =
b sin A
a, c a
sin A = ; B = 90° − A
c
b = c cos A or b = c2 − a2
(ii) the solution when one side and one acute angle are given
er
Given To be calculated
ap
np
a, A a
B = 90° − A, b = a cot A, c =
tio
sin A
es
qu
2∆ 2∆ 2∆
sin A = , sin B = , sin C =
bc ac ab
a+ b+ c
where, ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c) in which s =
2
and A + B + C = 180°.
(ii) When two sides and the included angle are given, then
A − B a − b C A+ B C a sin C
(a) tan = cot , = 90° − , c =
2 a+b 2 2 2 sin A
B − C b − c A B+C A b sin A
(b) tan = cot , = 90° − , a =
2 b+ c 2 2 2 sin B
C − A c − a B C+ A B c sin B
(c) tan = cot , = 90° − , b =
2 c+a 2 2 2 sin C
This is called as Napier’s analogy.
(iii) When one side a and two angles A and B are given, then
c sin B a sin C
C = 180° − ( A + B) ⇒ b = and c =
sin C sin A
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1. Circumcircle
et
ne
The circle passing through the vertices of the ∆ABC is called the
@
am
A
Te
O R
B C
a b c abc
∴ R= = = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4∆
2. Incircle
The circle touches the three sides of the triangle internally is called the
inscribed or the incircle of the triangle and its radius r is called the
inradius of circle.
A
r
B C
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∆ A
∴ r= = ( s − a ) tan
s 2
B C A B C
r = ( s − b) tan = ( s − c) tan = 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2
B C C A A B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
and r= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2
3. Escribed Circle
The circle touches BC and the two sides AB and AC produced of ∆ABC
externally is called the escribed circle opposite to A. Its radius is
denoted by r1.
er
B
ap
np
r1
tio
es
qu
et
ne
A
C
@
am
of ∆ABC. Here,
B C
a cos cos
∆ A A B C 2 2
(i) r1 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−a 2 2 2 2 cos
A
2
C A
b cos cos
∆ B B C A 2 2
(ii) r2 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−b 2 2 2 2 cos
B
2
A B
c cos cos
∆ C C A B 2 2
(iii) r3 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−c 2 2 2 2 cos
C
2
(iv) r1 + r2 + r3 = 4R + r
r r r
(v) r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3r1 = 1 2 3
r
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F E
B D C
The ∆DEF formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal
triangle.
(i) Distance of the orthocentre of the triangle from the angular
points are 2R cos A, 2R cos B, 2R cos C and its distances from the
sides are 2 R cos B cos C, 2 R cos C cos A, 2 R cos A cos B.
er
ap
1 1
es
2 2
et
ne
1
@
and CF = 2a 2 + 2b2 − c2
am
2
gr
le
Te
O A
D
R π π R
n n
r
B L C
a π
(i) Radius of circumcircle ( R ) = cos ec
2 n
a π
(ii) Radius of incircle (r ) = cot , where a is the length of a side of
2 n
polygon.
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A
es
qu
et
α β
ne
b
@
c
am
gr
le
θ
Te
B m C
D n
(a) (m + n) cotθ = m cotα − n cotβ
(b) (m + n) cotθ = n cotB − m cotC
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13
Heights and
Distances
Height and distance is the important application of Trigonometry, in
which we measure the height and distance of different object as towers,
building etc.
Angle of Elevation
er
ap
np
P
qu
et
t
igh
ne
fs
@
eo
Lin
am
gr
le
Te
O X
Horizontal line
If the object P is at higher level than eye, then ∠ POX is called the
angle of elevation.
Angle of Depression
If the object P is a lower level than O, then ∠ POX is called the angle
of depression.
O Horizontal line
X
θ
Lin
eo
fs
igh
t
Note P
(i) Angle of elevation and depression are always acute angle.
(ii) Angle of elevation of an object from an observer is same as angle of
depression of an observer from the object.
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A α β
a B r C
α + β
(ii) If AB = CD , then x = y tan
2
A
y
D
er
ap
α β
np
C
tio
x E
B
es
qu
et
H sin(β − α )
ne
(iii) h =
@
cos α sin β
am
h cot α
gr
and H =
le
Te
cot α − cot β
⇒ H = x cot α tan (α + β )
A
E α H
B
h β
D C
h cot β
(iv) H =
cot α
D
B
H
h
α β
A C
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BH
β x
D α
x C
α sin(α + β )
(vi) H =
sin (β − α )
C
α H
D B
β
a
E A
er
H
ap
np
F
tio
es
qu
α β
B C
D d
a
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14
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Inverse Function
If y = f ( x ) and x = g ( y ) are two functions such that f ( g ( y )) = y and
g ( f ( y )) = x, then f and y are said to be inverse of each other,
i.e. g = f −1. If y = f ( x ), then x = f −1( y ).
their natural domain and range, so their inverse do not exist but if we
es
restrict their domain and range, then their inverse may exists.
qu
et
ne
− π , π −3π , − π , π , 3π etc.
y = tan −1 x R
2 2 2 2 2 2
π π 3π
y = sec −1 x R − ( −1, 1) [ 0, π ] − [ −π , 0] − – , [ π , 2π ] − etc.
2 2 2
− π , π − {0} −3π , − π − {– π }, π , 3π − {π }
y = cosec −1 x R − ( −1, 1) 2 2 2 2 2 2
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– —–
2
ap
np
Y′
tio
es
Y
qu
5π
et
—–
ne
2
@
2π
am
3π Y
gr
—– y=cos–1 x
2
le
π π
Te
π/2 y=x
π/2
−1 1
y = cos x X′ X
1
–1 0 π
–—
2
y=cos x
–π X′ π X
–1 0 1 π/2
3π
– —–
2
–2π Y′
5π
– —–
2
Y′
Y 2π Y y=tan x
π
3— y=x
2 π/2
π y=tan–1 x
π –π/2
y = tan −1 x — X′ X
–2 –1 2 0 π/2
X′ –1 0 1 2 X
π –π/2
–— 2
–π
Y′ Y′
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Y
2π Y
3π π
—
2
π/2
π 1 y=sec–1x
y = sec −1 π X′
x — –1 01 π/2 π X
X′ –2 –1 2
–1 0 1 2
X –1
–—π
2 y=sec x
–π Y′
Y′
Y
2π
Y y=cosec x
3π π/2
— y=x
2
1 y=cosec–1 x
π
π
er
— –π/2 –1
ap
y = cosec −1 x 2 X′ X
1 π/2
np
–2 –1 0
tio
X′ X
es
–1 0 1 2 –1
π
qu
–— π/2
et
2
ne
–π Y′
@
am
Y′
gr
le
Te
Y
2π
3π Y
—
2 π y=cot x y=x
π –1 π
y=cot x —
−1
2
y = cot x π/2
–2 –1 X′ X
X′
–1 0 1 2
X 0 π/2
π
–—
2
–π Y′
Y′
Elementary Properties of
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Property I
−π π
(i) sin−1 (sin θ ) = θ; θ ∈ ,
2 2
(ii) cos−1 (cos θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ [0, π ]
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π π
(iii) tan−1 (tan θ ) = θ; θ ∈ − ,
2 2
−1 π π
(iv) cosec ( cosec θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ − , , θ ≠ 0
2 2
−1 π
(v) sec (sec θ ) = θ; θ ∈ [0, π ], θ ≠
2
(vi) cot−1 (cot θ ) = θ; θ ∈( 0, π )
Property II
(i) sin (sin−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(ii) cos (cos−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(iii) tan (tan−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
(iv) cosec ( cosec−1x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(v) sec (sec−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(vi) cot (cot−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
er
ap
Property III
np
tio
Property V
π
(i) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
2
π
(ii) tan−1 x + cot−1 x = ; x ∈ R
2
π
(iii) sec−1 x + cosec−1x = ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
2
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if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1 or
2 2
if xy < 0 and x + y > 1
2 2
−1
y = π − sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x } ;
2 2
(i) sin−1 x + sin−1
if 0 < x , y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
− π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 };
if − 1 ≤ x , y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
sin−1{ x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };
er
ap
if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1
2 2
np
tio
qu
et
ne
−1
(ii) sin−1 x − sin−1 y = π − sin { x 1 − y − y 1 − x };
2 2
@
am
if 0 < x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
gr
le
Te
− π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };
if − 1 ≤ x < 0 , 0 < y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
Property VII
(i) cos−1 x + cos−1 y
cos−1 { xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≥ 0
=
2π − cos−1{ xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 0
(ii) cos−1 x − cos−1 y
cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x ≤ y
=
− cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0, 0 < x ≤ 1 and x ≥ y
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Property VIII
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y
−1 x + y
tan ; if xy < 1
1 − xy
x+ y
= π + tan−1 ; if x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1
1 − xy
−1 x + y
− π + tan 1 − xy ; if x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1
−1 −1
(ii) tan x − tan y
−1 x − y
tan ; if xy > − 1
1 + xy
x− y
= π + tan−1 ; if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < − 1
1 + xy
−1 x − y
er
1 + xy
np
tio
es
qu
Property IX
et
ne
x 1 − x2
@
1 − x2 x
gr
le
Te
1 1
= sec−1 = cosec−1 , x ∈( 0, 1)
1 − x2 x
1 − x2
(ii) cos−1 x = sin−1 1 − x 2 = tan−1
x
x
1
= cot−1 = sec−1
1− x 2 x
1
= cosec−1 , x ∈( 0, 1)
1 − x2
x 1 1
(iii) tan−1 x = sin−1 = cos−1 = cot−1
1 + x2 1 + x2 x
1 + x2
= cosec−1
x
= sec−1( 1 + x 2 ), x ∈ ( 0, ∞ )
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−1 2x
tan ; if − 1 < x < 1
1 − x2
2x
(iii) 2 tan−1 x = π + tan−1 ; if x > 1
1 − x2
−1 2x
er
− π + tan ; if x < − 1
ap
1 − x2
np
tio
es
qu
Property XI
et
ne
−1 1 1
@
sin ( 3x − 4x ); if − ≤ x ≤
3
am
2 2
gr
1
le
−1 −1
(i) 3 sin x = π − sin ( 3x − 4x );3
if < x ≤ 1
Te
2
− π − sin−1 ( 3x − 4x3 ); if − 1 ≤ x < − 1
2
−1 3 1
cos ( 4x − 3x ); if ≤ x ≤ 1
2
1 1
(ii) 3 cos−1 x = 2π − cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − ≤ x ≤
2 2
2π + cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1
2
−1 3x − x
3
1 1
tan ; if − < x<
1 − 3x
2
3 3
3 x − x3
1
(iii) 3 tan−1 x = π + tan−1 ; if x >
1 − 3x
2
3
3x − x 3
1
− π + tan−1 ; if x < −
1 − 3 x 2
3
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Property XII
−1 2x
sin ; if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
1 + x2
2x
(i) 2 tan−1 x = π − sin−1 ; if x > 1
1 + x2
−1 2x
− π − sin ; if x < − 1
1 + x2
−1 1 − x
2
cos ; if 0 ≤ x < ∞
1 + x
2
−1
(ii) 2 tan x =
− cos−1 1 − x ;
2
if − ∞ < x < 0
1 + x
2
x + y + z − xyz
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = tan−1
np
,
tio
1 − xy − yz − zx
es
qu
π
(ii) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 1
@
am
2
gr
π
(iv) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
2
(v) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = π, then
x 1 − x 2 + y 1 − y 2 + z 1 − z 2 = 2xyz
(vi) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = 3π, then xy + yz + zx = 3
(vii) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = π, then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
3π
(viii) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 3
2
(ix) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y = θ , then cos−1 x + cos−1 y = π − θ
(x) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y = θ, then sin−1 x + sin−1 y = π − θ
π
(xi) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
π
(xii) If cot−1 x + cot−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
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R
ap
tanh−1 x ( −1, 1) R
np
cosech −1 x
tio
R − {0} R − {0}
es
sech−1 x ( 0, 1] R
qu
et
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15
Rectangular Axis
Coordinate Geometry
The branch of mathematics in which we study the position of any
object lying in a plane with the help of two mutually perpendicular
lines in the same plane, is called coordinate geometry.
er
ap
Rectangular Axis
np
tio
Let XOX ′ and YOY ′ be two fixed straight lines, which meet at right
es
qu
angles at O. Then,
et
ne
@
Y
am
gr
le
Te
P (x, y)
X' X
O
Y'
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Quadrants
The X and Y-axes divide the coordinate plane into four parts, each part
is called a quadrant which is given below
Y
(–, +) (+, +)
II Quadrant I Quadrant
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
X' X
(–, –) (+, –)
III Quadrant IV Quadrant
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
Y'
Polar Coordinates
In ∆OPQ,
er
ap
np
Y
tio
P (x, y)
es
qu
r
et
y
ne
θ
X′
@
x X
O Q
am
gr
le
Te
Y′
x y
cosθ = and sinθ = ⇒ x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ
r r
y
where, r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1
x
The polar coordinate is represented by the symbol P (r , θ ).
Distance Formulae
(i) Distance between two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 ), is
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .
P (x1, y1) Q ( x2 , y2 )
(ii) If points are (r1 , θ1 ) and (r2 , θ 2 ), then distance between them is
r12 + r22 − 2 r1r2 cos(θ1 − θ 2 ).
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Section Formulae
(i) The coordinate of the point which divides the joint of ( x1 , y1 ) and
( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio m1 : m2 internally, is
m1x2 + m2x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1
,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
A R C
(x 1 , y 1 ) m1 m2 (x2, y2)
m x − m2x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1
and externally is 1 2 .
er
,
m1 − m2 m1 − m2
ap
np
tio
ratio − y1 : y2.
et
ne
@
− x1 : x2.
gr
le
x + x2 y1 + y2
Te
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Area of Triangle/Quadrilateral
er
A (x1, y1)
es
qu
et
ne
@
am
gr
x1 y1 1
1 1 x1 − x3 x2 − x3
∆= x2 y2 1 =
2 2 y1 − y3 y2 − y3
x3 y3 1
These points A, B and C will be collinear, if ∆ = 0.
(ii) Area of the quadrilateral formed by joining the vertices
1 x1 − x3 x2 − x4
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) and ( x4 , y4 ) is .
2 y1 − y3 y2 − y4
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X′ X
O
Y′ Y′
x = X + h, y = Y + k
er
ap
np
Rotation of Axes
tio
es
Let ( x , y ) be the coordinates of any point P referred to the old axes and
qu
et
( X , Y ) be its coordinates referred to the new axes (after rotating the old
ne
Y P X
θ
O M
θ
θ
X' X
O
Y'
X'
Y'
Note If origin is shifted to point (h, k) and system is also rotated by an angle θ
in anti-clockwise, then coordinate of new point P′ ( x ′ , y′ ) is obtained by
replacing
x ′ = h + x cos θ + y sin θ
and y′ = k − x sin θ + y cos θ
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Locus
The curve described by a point which moves under given condition(s) is
called its locus.
Equation of Locus
The equation of curve described by a point, which moves under given
conditions(s), is called the equation of locus.
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16
Straight Line
A straight line is the locus of all those points which are collinear with
two given points.
General equation of a line is ax + by + c = 0
Note
er
l We can have one and only one line through a fixed point in a given direction.
ap
np
The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line makes with the
@
am
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(i) Slope Intercept Form The equation of a line with slope m and
et
ne
y = mx + c
gr
le
Te
If the line passes through the origin, then its equation will be
y = mx
(ii) One Point Slope Form The equation of a line which passes
through the point ( x1 , y1 ) and has the slope m is given by
( y − y1 ) = m ( x − x1 )
(iii) Two Points Form The equation of a line passing through the
points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given by
y − y1
( y − y1 ) = 2 ( x − x1 )
x2 − x1
This equation can also be determined by the determinant
method, that is
x y 1
x1 y1 1 = 0
x2 y2 1
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(iv) Intercept Form The equation of a line which cuts off intercept
a and b respectively on the X and Y-axes is given by
x y
+ =1
a b
The general equation Ax + By + C = 0 can be converted into the
intercept form, as
x y
+ =1
− (C / A) − (C / B)
(v) Normal Form The equation of a straight line upon which the
length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and angle made
by this perpendicular to the X-axis is α, is given by
x cos α + y sin α = p
Y
er
B
ap
C
np
p
tio
es
α
qu
X′ X
et
O A
ne
@
am
gr
Y′
le
Te
X′ θ X
A x1 M L
Y′
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(iv) A point ( x1 , y1 ) will lie on the opposite side of the origin relative to
es
qu
Condition of Concurrency
am
gr
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 = 0 is
a3 ( b1c2 − b2c1 ) + b3 ( c1a2 − a1c2 ) + c3 ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) = 0
a1 b1 c1
or a2 b2 c2 = 0
a3 b3 c3
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1 + m2
ax + by + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.
np
tio
es
ax + by + c = 0 is bx − ay + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.
et
ne
@
( x2 , y2 ), then
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 −2 ( ax1 + by1 + c)
= =
a b a 2 + b2
(i) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to X-axis is
Q( x1 , − y1 ).
(ii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to Y-axis is Q( − x1 , y1 ).
(iii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to mirror y = x is
Q( y1 , x1 ).
(iv) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line mirror
y = x tanθ is
x = x1 cos 2 θ + y1 sin 2 θ
y = x1 sin 2 θ − y1 cos 2 θ
(v) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the origin is the
point ( − x1 , − y1 ).
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Pair of Lines
ap
np
tio
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0.
et
ne
a h g
Te
or h b f =0
g f c
Important Properties
(i) Let ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 be an equation of pair of straight lines.
Then,
− h + h 2 − ab
(a) Slope of first line, m1 =
b
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− h − h 2 − ab
and slope of the second line, m2 =
b
2h Coefficient of xy
∴ m1 + m2 = − =−
b Coefficient of y 2
a Coefficient of x 2
and m1m2 = =
b Coefficient of y 2
Here, m1 and m2 are
(1) real and distinct, if h 2 > ab. (2) coincident, if h 2 = ab.
(3) imaginary, if h 2 < ab.
(b) Angle between the pair of lines is given by
2 h 2 − ab
tan θ =
|a + b|
(1) If lines are coincident, then h 2 = ab.
(2) If lines are perpendicular, then a + b = 0.
er
ap
ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
es
qu
(c) The joint equation of bisector of the angles between the lines
am
x 2 − y 2 xy
Te
= ⇒ hx 2 − ( a − b) xy − hy 2 = 0.
a−b h
(d) The equation of the pair of lines through the origin and
perpendicular to the pair of lines given by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
is bx 2 − 2hxy + ay 2 = 0.
(ii) If the equation of a pair of straight lines is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx
+ 2 fy + c = 0, then the point of intersection is given by
hf − bg gh − af
, .
ab − h 2 ab − h 2
(iii) The general equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 will
a h g
represent two parallel lines, if g2 − ac > 0 and = = and the
h b f
g2 − ac f 2 − bc
distance between them is 2 or 2 .
a ( a + b) b ( a + b)
(iv) The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
represented by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are given by
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hypotenuse.
es
qu
et
(v) If D , E and F are the mid-point of the sides BC , CA and AB of ∆ABC, then the
gr
le
(ix) The area of the triangle formed by the lines y = m1x + c1 , y = m2 x + c2 and
y = m3 x + c3 is
1 ( c − c )2
∆ = Σ 1 2 .
2 m1 − m2
Cont...
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(x) Three given points A, B , C are collinear i.e. lie on the same straight line, if any
of the three points (say B) lie on the straight line joining the other two
points.
⇒ AB + BC = AC
(xi) Area of the triangle formed by the line ax + by + c = 0 with the coordinate
c2
axes is ∆ = .
2| ab |
(xii) The foot of the perpendicular(h , k ) from ( x1 , y1) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is
h − x1 k − y1 ( ax + by + c)
given by = = − 1 2 12 .
a b a +b
2c2
(xiii) Area of rhombus formed by ax ± by ± c = 0 is .
ab
(xiv) Area of the parallelogram formed by the lines
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 , a1x + b1y + d1 = 0
er
ap
np
and a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0 is
tio
es
( d1 − c1) ( d2 − c2 )
.
qu
a1b2 − a2b1
et
ne
@
a + b a + b
gr
, .
le
2 2
Te
Cont...
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Y
P(x1, y1)
y = mx + c
α
M α N
L θ1 θ2
X' θ X
O R S
Y'
(xix) The equation of the family of lines passing through the intersection of the
lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
( a1x + b1y + c1) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(xx) Line ax + by + c = 0 divides the line joining the points ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) in
ax + by1 + c
er
ax2 + by2 + c
np
tio
externally.
et
ne
@
1 x1 y1 x2 y2 xn yn
gr
= + + ... +
x1 y1
le
2 x2 y2 x3 y3
Te
(xxii) Equation of the pair of lines through (α , β) and perpendicular to the pair of
lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is b ( x − α )2 − 2h ( x − α )( y − β) + a ( y − β)2 = 0.
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17
Circles
Circle
Circle is defined as the locus of a point which moves in a plane such
that its distance from a fixed point in that plane is constant.
P (x, y)
r
C (0, 0)
er
ap
np
The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called
tio
the radius.
es
qu
et
ne
of a circle.
Some Particular Cases of the Central Form
(i) When centre is ( 0, 0), then equation of circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2.
Y
a
X
O a
(ii) When the circle passes through the origin, then equation of the
circle is x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky = 0.
Y
C(h, k)
a
k
O h M X
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Circles 177
(iii) When the circle touches the X-axis, the equation is
x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ay + h 2 = 0.
Y
C (h, k)
a
O X
M
(iv) Equation of the circle, touches the Y-axis is
x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ky + k2 = 0.
Y
C (h, k)
M a
er
ap
np
tio
X
es
O
qu
et
x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ay + a 2 = 0.
am
gr
Y
le
Te
M a C (a, a)
a
X
O
(vi) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the X-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0.
Y
X' a
O X
C (a, 0)
Y'
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(vii) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the Y-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ay = 0.
Y
C
(0, a)
X' X
O
Y'
(viii) Equation of the circle through the origin and cutting intercepts a
and b on the coordinate axes is x 2 + y 2 − ax − by = 0.
Y
b
C(h, k)
er
X' X
ap
(0, 0) a
np
tio
es
Y'
qu
et
ne
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Circles 179
General Equation of a Circle
The general equation of a circle is given by x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0,
whose centre = ( − g,− f ) and radius = g2 + f 2 − c
(i) If g2 + f 2 − c > 0, then the radius of the circle is real and hence
the circle is also real.
(ii) If g2 + f 2 − c = 0, then the radius of the circle is 0 and the circle is
known as point circle.
(iii) If g2 + f 2 − c < 0, then the radius of the circle is imaginary. Such
a circle is imaginary, which is not possible to draw.
2 g2 − c and 2 f 2 − c respectively.
@
am
(i) If g2 > c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are real
gr
le
Equation of Tangent
A line which touch only one point of a circle.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of the tangent at the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to a circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
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2. Slope Form
(i) The equation of the tangent of slope m to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are
y + f = m ( x + g) ± ( g2 + f 2 − c) (1 + m 2 )
(ii) The equation of the tangents of slope m to the circle
( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 are y − b = m ( x − a ) ± r 1 + m 2 and the
coordinates of the points of contact are
mr r
a ± ,bm .
1 + m2 1 + m 2
(iii) The equation of tangents of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 are
y = mx ± r 1 + m 2 and the coordinates of the point of contact
er
ap
np
are
tio
es
± rm r .
qu
,m
1 + m 2
et
1 + m2
ne
@
am
3. Parametric Form
gr
le
Equation of Normal
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent is known as a normal.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
y +f
y − y1 = 1 ( x − x1 )
x1 + g
or ( y1 + f ) x − ( x1 + g) y + ( gy1 − fx1 ) = 0.
(ii) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x y
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is = .
x1 y1
2. Slope Form
The equation of a normal of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
my = − x ± r 1 + m 2 .
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Circles 181
3. Parametric Form
The equation of normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 at the point
(r cos θ , r sin θ ) is
x y
= or y = x tan θ.
r cos θ r sin θ
circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 , if r =
ap
1+ m
2
np
tio
± mr m r
es
qu
1 + m2 1 + m2
ne
@
x cosθ + y sinθ = r.
(vii) The point of intersection of the tangent at the points P(θ1) and Q(θ2 ) on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 is given by
θ + θ θ + θ
r cos 1 2 r sin 1 2
2 2
x= and y = .
θ1 − θ2 θ1 − θ2
cos cos
2 2
(viii) A line intersect a given circle at two distinct real points, if the length of the
perpendicular from the centre is less than the radius of the circle.
(ix) Length of the intercept cut off from the line y = mx + c by the circle
a2 (1 + m2 ) − c2
x 2 + y 2 = a2 is 2
1 + m2
(x) If P is a point and C is the centre of a circle of radius r, then the maximum
and minimum distances of P from the circle are CP + r and |CP − r |
respectively.
(xi) Power of a point ( x1 , y1) with respect to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c.
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Pair of Tangents
(i) The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a
point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
Q
P O
(x1, y1)
R
(x + y − r
2 2 2
) ( x12 + y12 − r ) = ( xx1 + yy1 − r 2 )2
2
or SS1 = T 2
where, S = x 2 + y 2 − r 2 , S1 = x12 + y12 − r 2
and T = xx1 + yy1 − r 2
(ii) The length of the tangents from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is equal to
er
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
am
gr
le
xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
Te
O M α C(x1, y1)
r 2x r 2y
(a) Coordinates of M 2 1 2 , 2 1 2
x1 + y1 x1 + y1
x12 + y12 − r 2
(b) AB = 2r
x12 + y12
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Circles 183
r
(e) Area of ∆ ABC = ( x12 + y12 − r 2)3/ 2
x12 + y12
r3
(f) Area of ∆ OAB = x12 + y12 − r 2
x12 + y12
r
(g) Angle between two tangents ∠ ACB is 2 tan−1 .
S1
(v) In general, two tangents can be drawn to a circle from a given
point in its plane. If m1 and m2 are slope of the tangents drawn
from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2, then
2x1 y1 y12 − a 2
m1 + m2 = and m1 × m2 =
x12 − a 2 x12 − a 2
(vi) The pair of tangents from ( 0, 0) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are at right angle, if g 2 + f 2 = 2c.
er
ap
Director Circle
le
Te
R
P (x1, y1)
T (h, k) Q
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possible.
np
C1C2 > r1 + r2
tio
Condition,
es
qu
A
ne
@
P′
B
am
r1 Q
gr
r2
le
Te
C1 T C2 D
Q′
P B′
A′ Direct common tangents
C1D r1
Clearly, = [externally]
C2D r2
C1T r1
and = [internally]
C2T r2
Length of direct common tangent
AB = A′ B′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 − r2 )2
Length of transverse common tangent
PQ = P ′Q ′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 + r2 )2
(ii) When two circles touch externally, three common tangents are
possible.
Condition, C1C2 = r1 + r2
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Circles 185
A
B
r1
T r2 D
C1 C2
A
ap
np
C1 C2 D
ne
@
am
Common chord
gr
le
(S1 – S2 = 0)
Te
r2
C1 C2
r1 Common tangent
S1 – S2 = 0
(v) When one circle contains another circle, no common tangent is
possible.
Condition, C1C2 <|r1 − r2|
C1 C2
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Orthogonal Circles
Two circles are said to be intersect orthogonally, if their angle of
intersection is a right angle.
If two circles
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 and
S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0 are orthogonal, then
2g1g2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c2
er
ap
np
Common Chord
tio
es
Common chord
am
Y M
gr
le
P
Te
c1
Q c2
X′ X
O
Y′
(i) If S1 = 0 and S 2 = 0 be two intersecting circles, such that
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0
and S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0,
then their common chord is given by S1 − S 2 = 0
(ii) If C1 , C2 denote the centre of the given intersecting circles, then
their common chord
PQ = 2 PM = 2 (C1P )2 − (C1M )2
(iii) If r1 and r2 be the radii of two orthogonally intersecting circles,
2 r1r2
then length of common chord is .
r12 + r22
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Circles 187
Family of Circles
(i) The equation of a family of circles passing through the
intersection of a circle S = x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 and line
L = lx + my + n = 0 is S + λL = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(ii) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point
A( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) is
x y 1
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) + λ x1 y1 1 = 0.
x2 y 2 1
(iii) The equation of the family of circles touching the circle
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c + λ [xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c] = 0
er
S = 0 at ( x1 , y1 ) and λ ∈ R.
tio
es
(iv) Any circle passing through the point of intersection of two circles
qu
Radical Axis
gr
le
Te
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Limiting Points
Limiting points of a system of coaxial circles are the centres of the
point circles belonging to the family.
er
∴ Radius of circle = g2 − c
tio
es
qu
∴ g2 − c = 0 ⇒ g = ± c
@
am
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Circles 189
C1 r r
C2
(– g, – f )
lx + my + n = 0
Diameter of a Circle
es
qu
et
y = mx + c of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is x + my = 0.
le
Te
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18
Parabola
Conic Section
A conic is the locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed point is the
focus S and the fixed line is directrix l.
Z
P
er
ap
M
np
tio
es
qu
et
directrix
ne
@
S
am
(focus)
gr
Z′
le
Te
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Parabola 191
(ii) a pair of parallel (or coincident) straight lines, if ∆ = 0
and h 2 = ab.
(iii) a pair of perpendicular straight lines, if ∆ = 0 and a + b = 0
(iv) a point, if ∆ = 0 and h 2 < ab
(v) a circle, if a = b ≠ 0, h = 0 and ∆ ≠ 0
(vi) a parabola, if h 2 = ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(vii) a ellipse, if h 2 < ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(viii) a hyperbola, if h 2 > ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(ix) a rectangular hyperbola, if h 2 > ab, a + b = 0 and ∆ ≠ 0
through it.
ap
np
the parabola.
am
Parabola
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its
distance from a fixed point in the plane is always equal to its distance
from a fixed straight line in the same plane.
If focus of a parabola is S ( x1 , y1 ) and equation of the directrix is
ax + by + c = 0, then the equation of the parabola is
( a 2 + b2 )[( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 ] = ( ax + by + c)2
Y
, y)
P(x
X' X
O S(x1, y1)
ax + by + c = 0
Y'
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S Z
Z A A Z A
S S
A
Z S
of
tio
es
latusrectum
qu
et
Length of 4a 4a 4a 4a
ne
latusrectum
@
am
tangent at
le
Te
vertex
Parametric x = at 2 x = − at 2 x = 2at x = 2at
equation
y = at y = − at
2 2
y = 2at y = 2at
Focal h+ a a−h k+ a a−k
distance of
any point
P (h, k) on
the parabola
Equation of x−a=0 x+ a=0 y−a=0 y+ a=0
latusrectum
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Parabola 193
(iii) ( x − h )2 = 4a ( y − k), if its axis is parallel to OY i.e. parabola
opens upward.
(iv) ( x − h )2 = − 4a ( y − k), if its axis is parallel to OY ′ i.e. parabola
opens downward.
(v) The general equation of a parabola whose axis is parallel to
X-axis, is x = ay 2 + by + c and the general equation of a parabola
whose axis is parallel to Y-axis, is y = ax 2 + bx + c.
Position of a Point
The point ( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y 2 = 4ax
according as y12 − 4ax1 > , =, < 0.
Chord
Joining any two points on a curve is called chord.
er
Q ( at22 , 2at2 ) be any two points on the parabola y 2 = 4ax, then the
tio
es
qu
2at2 − 2at1
ne
( y − 2at1 ) = ( x − at12 )
@
at22 − at12
am
gr
le
or y ( t1 + t2 ) = 2x + 2at1t2
Te
2
(ii) Let P ( at , 2at ) be the one end of a focal chord PQ of the parabola
y 2 = 4ax, then the coordinates of the other end Q are
a −2a
2,
t t
(iii) If l1 and l2 are the length of the focal segments, then length of the
latusrectum = 2 (harmonic mean of focal segment)
4l l
i.e. 4a = 1 2
l1 + l2
(iv) For a chord joining points P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and Q( at22 , 2at2 )
and passing through focus, then t1t2 = − 1.
(v) Length of the focal chord having t1 and t2 as end points is
a ( t2 − t1 )2.
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Equation of Tangent
A line which touch only one point of a Tangent
parabola. Y
)
1
Point Form ,y
( x1
The equation of the tangent to the P
parabola y 2 = 4ax at a point ( x1 , y1 ) is
X' X
given by yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 ). O
Slope Form
(a) The equation of the tangent of
Y'
slope m to the parabola y 2 = 4ax
a
is y = mx +
m
(b) The equation of the tangent of slope m to the parabola
er
a
( y − k)2 = 4a ( x − h ) is given by ( y − k) = m ( x − h ) +
ap
np
m
tio
2a
es
a
The coordinates of the point of contact are h + 2 , k + .
qu
m
et
m
ne
@
am
Parametric Form
gr
le
( at 2 , 2at ) is yt = x + at 2.
Condition of Tangency
a
(i) The line y = mx + c touches a parabola, iff c = and the point of
m
a 2a
contact is 2 , .
m m
(ii) The straight line lx + my + n = 0 touches y 2 = 4ax ,if nl = am 2 and
x cos α + y sin α = p touches y 2 = 4ax , if p cos α + a sin2 α = 0.
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Parabola 195
Angle between Two Tangents
Angle θ between tangents at two points P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and Q( at22 , 2at2 ) on
the parabola y 2 = 4ax is given by
t −t
tan θ = 2 1
1 + t1t2
(iv) The perpendicular drawn from the focus on any tangent to a parabola
ap
np
(vii) The tangent at any point of a parabola is equally inclined to the focal
Te
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Equation of Normal
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact
with parabola.
Y )
at
2,2
a t
P(
Normal at P
X' X
O G
y2 = 4ax
Y'
Point Form
The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at a point ( x1 , y1 )
y
is given by y − y1 = − 1 ( x − x1 ).
er
ap
2a
np
tio
Parametric Form
es
qu
Slope Form
le
Te
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Parabola 197
P(x1 , y1 )
X′ X
O
B
er
ap
C
np
Y′
tio
es
qu
(a) The algebraic sum of the slopes of the normals at conormals point is 0.
@
T ψ S(a, 0)
X' X
(–x1, 0) N G(x1+2a, 0)
(x1, 0)
y2 = 4ax
Y'
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Equation of Diameter
The locus of mid-point of a system of parallel chords of a conic is
known its diameter.
The diameter bisecting chords of slope m to the parabola y 2 = 4ax is
2a
y= .
m
Pair of Tangents
The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a point to a
er
SS1 = T 2
tio
es
qu
T = [ yy1 − 2a ( x + x1 )]
@
and
am
gr
Chord of Contact
le
Te
Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to a
parabola is known as director circle.
The director circle of a parabola is same as its directrix.
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Parabola 199
Y
P(x1, y1)
X' O X
T
R y2 = 4ax
Y'
(i) The polar of a point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the parabola
y 2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a( x + x1 ) or T = 0.
(ii) Any tangent is the polar of its point of contact.
n 2am
(iii) Pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to y 2 = 4ax is , − .
l l
y y y + y2
er
4a 2
np
tio
es
points.
am
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0, then the pole of the second line will lies on the
Te
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19
Ellipse
Ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in such a way
that the ratio of the distance from a fixed point (focus) in the same
plane to its distance from a fixed straight line (directrix) is always
constant, which is always less than unity.
The line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major
np
axis with its end points on the ellipse, is called its minor axis.
tio
es
qu
x2 y2
et
a2 b2
am
gr
If the coefficient of x 2 has the larger denominator, then its major axis
le
Te
B(0, b)
P(x, y)
M
S′(–ac, 0) K
X′ X
K′ A′(–a, 0) C S N A
(ae, 0) (a,0)
B′ (0, –b) a
a x=
x=– e
e
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Ellipse 201
2b2
(vi) Length of latusrectum, LL1 = L ′ L1 ′ =
a
b2
(vii) Eccentricity, e = 1 − <1
a2
(viii) Focal distances of point P ( x , y ) are SP and S1P i.e.|a − ex| and
|a + ex|. Also, SP + S1P = 2a = major axis.
(ix) Distance between foci = 2ae
2a
(x) Distance between directrices =
e
x2 y2
Vertical Ellipse i.e. + = 1, ( 0 < a < b )
a2 b2
If the coefficient of x 2 has the smaller denominator, then its major axis
lies along the Y -axis, then it is said to be vertical ellipse.
er
Y
ap
np
tio
B l
es
qu
et
ne
L1 S L
@
N
am
P' P(x,y)
gr
X' X
le
A1 O A
Te
S1 L'
L'1
B1 l'
Y'
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Parametric Equation
The equation x = a cos φ , y = b sin φ, taken together are called the
x2 y2
parametric equation of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, where φ is any
a b
parameter.
a2 b2
np
tio
es
Auxiliary Circle
x2 y2
The ellipse 2
+ = 1, becomes x 2 + y 2 = a 2, if b = a.
a b2
This is called auxiliary circle of the ellipse. i.e. the circle described on
the major axis of an ellipse as diameter is called auxiliary circle.
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Ellipse 203
The ∠ ACQ = φ is called the eccentric angle of the point P on the
ellipse.
Y
Q
B P(x, y)
X′
A1 φ A
X
C M
B1 x2 y2
x2 + y2 = a2 + = 1, (a>b)
a 2 b2
Y′
Equation of Tangent
(i) Point Form The equation of the tangent to the ellipse
x2 y2 xx yy
2
+ 2 = 1 at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is 21 + 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a b a b
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the tangent to the ellipse
er
ap
x y
at the point ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) is
cos θ + sin θ = 1.
np
tio
a b
es
qu
x2 y2
ne
a b
gr
a 2m b2
le
,m
a m +b
2 2 2
a m +b
2 2 2
(iv) Point of Intersection of Two Tangents The equation of
the tangents to the ellipse at points P ( a cos θ1 , b sin θ1 ) and
x y
Q ( a cos θ 2 , b sin θ 2 ) are cos θ1 + sin θ1 = 1
a b
x y
and cos θ 2 + sin θ 2 = 1 and these two intersect at the point
a b
θ1 + θ 2 θ1 + θ 2
a cos b sin
2 2
,
θ1 − θ 2 θ − θ2
cos cos 1
2 2
(v) Pair of Tangents The combined equation of the pair of
x2 y2
tangents drawn from a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
2
x 2
y 2 x 2
y 2 xx yy
is 2 + 2 − 1 12 + 12 − 1 = 21 + 21 − 1 i.e. SS1 = T 2
a b a b a b
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Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to an
x2 y2
ellipse is a director circle. If equation of an ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1, then
a b
equation of director circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b2.
Equation of Chord
Let P ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) and Q( a cos φ , b sin φ ) be any two points of the
x2 y2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
(i) The equation of the chord joining these points will be
b sin φ − b sin θ
( y − b sin θ ) = ( x − a cos θ )
a cos φ − a cos θ
x θ + φ y θ + φ θ − φ
or cos + sin = cos
2 b 2 2
er
a
ap
np
x2 y2 xx yy
ne
+ = 1 is 21 + 21 = 1 or T = 0.
@
a 2 b2 a b
am
gr
x2 y2
le
2
a b2
the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by
xx1 yy1 x12 y12
+ −1= + −1
a2 b2 a2 b2
or T = S1
Equation of Normal
(i) Point Form The equation of the normal at ( x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse
x2 y2 a 2x b2 y
+ = 1 is − = a 2 − b2
a 2 b2 x1 y1
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the normal to the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 at ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) is
a 2 b2
ax sec θ − by cosec θ = a 2 − b2
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Ellipse 205
(iii) Slope Form The equation of the normal of slope m to the
x2 y2 m ( a 2 − b2 )
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 are given by y = mx ±
a b a 2 + b2m 2
and the coordinates of the point of contact are
a2 b2m
± ,±
a 2 + b2m 2 a 2 + b2m 2
(iv) Point of Intersection of Two Normals Point of
intersection of the normal at points ( a cos θ1 , b sin θ1 ) and
( a cos θ 2 , b sin θ 2 ) are given by
θ + θ2
2 cos 1
a − b cos θ cos θ
2
2
,
a 1 2
θ1 − θ 2
cos
2
θ + θ2
er
ap
sin 1
− (a − b ) 2
np
2 2
sin θ1 sin θ 2
tio
θ − θ2
es
b
cos 1
qu
2
et
ne
@
x2 y2
(v) If the line y = mx + c is a normal to the ellipse + = 1, then
am
2
b2
gr
a
le
m (a − b )
2 2 2 2
Te
c2 =
a 2 + b2m 2
Conormal Points
The points on the ellipse, the normals at which the ellipse passes
through a given point are called conormal points.
Y
Q
P B R
X' X
A' O M(h,k) A
S
B'
Y'
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x2 y2
ap
a b
tio
es
1 1
qu
1 1
( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 ) + + + =4
et
ne
x1 x2 x3 x4
@
am
gr
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Ellipse 207
(ii) The sum of the squares of any two conjugate semi-diameters of
an ellipse is constant and equal to the sum of the squares of the
semi-axis of the ellipse i.e. CP 2 + CD 2 = a 2 + b2.
(iii) If PCP ′ , QCQ ′ are two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 and S , S1 be two foci of an ellipse, then
a 2 b2
SP × S1P = CQ 2
Y
(a cos θ, b sin θ)
(–a sin θ, b cos θ)
P
Q
X′ X
C
Q′
P′
er
ap
np
Y′
tio
Contd. …
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corresponding directrix.
es
x2 y2
qu
a b
@
x 2 y 2 ex
+ = .
am
a 2 b2 a
gr
le
Te
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20
Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in the plane
in such a way that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point in the
same plane to its distance from a fixed line is always constant, which is
always greater than unity.
The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is directrix and
the ratio is the eccentricity.
(i) The line through the foci of the hyperbola is called its transverse
np
axis.
tio
es
qu
(ii) The line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse
et
x2 y2
gr
− =1
le
a2 b2
Y
L′ L
P
S1 A1
X' A S
X
O
L′1 l' l L1
Y'
(i) Centre : O( 0, 0)
(ii) Foci : S ( ae, 0), S1( − ae, 0)
(iii) Vertices : A( a , 0), A1 ( − a , 0)
a ′ a
(iv) Equation of directrices l : x = ,l : x = −
e e
2 b2
(v) Length of latusrectum : LL 1 = L ′ L ′1 =
a
(vi) Length of transverse axis : 2a
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x2 y2
Conjugate Hyperbola – + =1
a2 b2
er
ap
(i) Centre : O( 0, 0) Y
np
tio
S
(ii) Foci : S ( 0, be), S1 ( 0, − be) L1
es
L
qu
P
(iii) Vertices : A ( 0, b), A1( 0, − b)
et
A
ne
l
@
b b X' X
gr
l : y = ,l ′ : y = − O
le
Te
e e l'
A1
(v) Length of latusrectum :
L'1 L'
2a 2 S1
LL1 = L ′ L1 ′ =
b Y'
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Hyperbola 211
Focal Distance of a Point
The distance of a point on the hyperbola from the focus is called its
focal distance.
The difference of the focal distances of any point on a hyperbola is
constant and is equal to the length of transverse axis of the hyperbola
i.e.
|S1P − SP| = 2a
where, S and S1 are the foci and P is any point on the hyperbola
x2 y2
− = 1.
a 2 b2
( x − h )2 ( y − k)2
np
− = 1.
tio
es
a2 b2
qu
et
way that
gr
le
2 2
Te
a x + b y + c b x − a y + c
1 1 1 1 1 2
a1 + b1
2 2 a1 + b1
2 2
− =1
a2 b2
Then, the locus of P is hyperbola whose transverse axis lies
along b1x − a1 y + c2 = 0 and conjugate axis along the line
a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0. The length of transverse and conjugate axes
are 2a and 2b, respectively.
Parametric Equations
x2 y2
(i) Parametric equations of the hyperbola − = 1 are
a2 b2
x = a sec θ , y = b tan θ
or x = a cosh θ , y = b sinh θ
eθ + e− θ eθ − e− θ
(ii) The equations x = a , y= b are also the
2 2
parametric equations of the hyperbola.
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and
ap
np
θ1 − θ 2 θ1 − θ 2
qu
a cos b sin
et
2 2
ne
,
@
θ1 + θ 2 θ + θ2
cos 1
am
cos
2
2
gr
le
Te
(v) Two tangents drawn from P are real and distinct, coincident or
imaginary according as the roots of the equation
m 2 ( h 2 − a 2 ) − 2khm + k2 + b2 = 0 are real and distinct,
coincident or imaginary.
(vi) The line y = mx + c touches the hyperbola, if c2 = a 2m 2 − b2 and
a 2m b2
the point of contacts ± , ± , where c = a 2m 2 − b2 .
c c
(vii) Maximum two tangents can be drawn from a point to a
hyperbola.
(viii) The combined equation of the pairs of tangent drawn from a
x2 y2
point P ( x1 , y1 ) lying outside the hyperbola S ≡ 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
SS1 = T 2.
2
x2 y2 x2 y2 xx yy
i.e. 2 − 2 − 1 12 − 12 − 1 = 12 − 21 − 1
a b a b a b
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Hyperbola 213
Equation of Chord
(i) Equations of chord joining two points P ( a sec θ1 , b tan θ1 )
x2 y2
and Q( a sec θ 2 , b tan θ 2 ) on the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
b tan θ 2 − b tan θ1
y − b tan θ1 = ⋅ ( x − a sec θ1 )
a sec θ 2 − a sec θ1
x θ − θ2 y θ1 + θ 2 θ1 + θ 2
or cos 1 − sin = cos
a 2 b 2 2
(ii) Equations of chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point
x2 y2 xx yy
( x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is 21 − 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a b a b
x2 y2
(iii) The equation of the chord of the hyperbola − = 1 bisected
a2 b2
at point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by
er
ap
− − 1 = − −1
tio
a2 b2 a 2 b2
es
qu
or T = S1
et
ne
@
am
Director Circle
gr
le
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, is called a director circle. The equation of
a b
director circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − b2.
Y
P (h, k)
90°
X' X
C
Y'
2
x y2
Note Director circle of hyperbola − = 1 is exist only when a2 > b2 .
a2 b2
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a2 b2m
tio
± ,m .
es
a 2 − b2m 2 a 2 − b2m 2
qu
et
ne
x2 y2
@
a2 b2
gr
le
m 2 ( a 2 + b2 )2
Te
c2 =
a 2 − b2m 2
(v) Maximum four normals can be drawn from a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1.
a b
Conormal Points
Points on the hyperbola, the normals at which passes through a given
point are called conormal points.
(i) The sum of the eccentric angles of conormal points is an odd
multiple of π.
(ii) If θ1 , θ 2 , θ3 and θ 4 are eccentric angles of four points on the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, then the normal at which they are
a b
concurrent, then
(a) ∑ cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = 0 (b) ∑ sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = 0
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Hyperbola 215
(iii) If θ1 , θ 2 and θ3 are the eccentric angles of three points on the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, such that
a b
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) + sin(θ 2 + θ3 ) + sin(θ3 + θ1 ) = 0.
Then, the normals at these points are concurrent.
(iv) If the normals at four points P ( x1 , y1 ), Q( x2 , y2 ), R( x3 , y3 ) and
x2 y2
S ( x4 , y4 ) on the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 are concurrent, then
a b
1 1 1 1
( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 ) + + + =4
x1 x2 x3 x4
1 1 1 1
and ( y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + + + = 4.
1
y y 2 y3 y 4
er
x2 y2
am
a b
Te
other.
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Asymptote
An asymptote to a curve is a straight line, at a finite distance from the
origin, to which the tangent to a curve tends as the point of contact
goes to infinity.
Y Asymptotes
B x2 y2
— =1
a2 b2
X' X
A' C A
B'
R
x2 y2
Y' – + =1
a2 b2
er
x2 y2
ap
a2 b2
tio
es
b x y
qu
y=± x or ± = 0
et
ne
a a b
@
x2 y2 x2 y2
le
− = 1 is − = 0.
Te
2 2 2
a b a b2
(iii) When b = a, i.e. the asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola
x 2 − y 2 = a 2 are y = ± x which are at right angle.
(iv) A hyperbola and its conjugate hyperbola have the same
asymptotes.
(v) The equation of the pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola and
the conjugate hyperbola by the same constant only i.e.
Hyperbola – Asymptotes = Asymptotes – Conjugate hyperbola
(vi) The asymptotes pass through the centre of the hyperbola.
(vii) The bisectors of angle between the asymptotes of hyperbola
x2 y2
− = 1 are the coordinate axes.
a 2 b2
x2 y2 b
(viii) The angle between the asymptotes of − = 1 is 2 tan−1
a 2
b 2 a
or 2 sec−1( e).
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Hyperbola 217
Rectangular Hyperbola
A hyperbola whose asymptotes include a right angle is said to be
rectangular hyperbola or we can say that, if the lengths of transverse
and conjugate axes of any hyperbola be equal, then it is said to be a
rectangular hyperbola.
x2 y2
i.e. In a hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, if b = a, then it said to be rectangular
a b
hyperbola. The eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is always 2.
Y
es
L' L
qu
et
ne
@
A1 A
am
X' X
S1 S
gr
O
le
Te
L'1 l' l L1
Y'
a
(vi) Equation of directrices x = ±
2
(vii) Length of latusrectum = 2a
(viii) Parametric form x = a sec θ , y = a tan θ
(ix) Equation of tangent, x sec θ − y tan θ = a
x y
(x) Equation of normal, + = 2a
sec θ tan θ
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S
A
X' X
A1
S1
Y'
(vi) Equations of directrices x + y = ± 2 c
(vii) Length of latusrectum = 2 2 c
c
(viii) Parametric form x = ct , y =
t
x y
rectangular hyperbola is xy1 + yx1 = 2c2 or + = 2.
qu
et
x1 y1
ne
@
c
am
t
le
Te
x
hyperbola is + yt = 2c.
t
c c
(iii) Tangent at P ct1 , and Q ct2 , to the rectangular
t1 t2
2ct1t2 2c
hyperbola intersect at , .
t1 + t2 t1 + t2
(iv) The equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a
point ( x1 , y1 ) to the rectangular hyperbola is xy1 + yx1 = 2c2.
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Hyperbola 219
c
(iii) The equation of the normal at ct , is a fourth degree equation
t
in t. So, in general maximum four normals can be drawn from a
point to the hyperbola xy = c2.
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21
Limits, Continuity
& Differentiability
Limit
Let y = f ( x ) be a function of x. If at x = a,f ( x ) takes indeterminate form
0 ∞ ∞ 0
, , ∞ − ∞ , 0 × ∞ , 1 , 0 and ∞ , then we consider the values of the
0
0 ∞
function at the points which are very near to a. If these values tend to
a definite unique number as x tends to a, then the unique number, so
er
ap
x→a
tio
es
If values of the function, at the points which are very near to the left of
@
f ( a − 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( a − h )
x → a− h → 0+
Existence of Limit
lim f ( x ) exists, if
x→a
(i) lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) both exist
x → a− x → a+
Uniqueness of Limit
If lim f ( x ) exists, then it is unique, i.e. there cannot be two distinct
x→a
numbers l1 and l2 such that when x tends to a, the function f ( x ) tends
to both l1 and l2.
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lim f ( x )
f(x) x → a
(iv) lim = , provided lim g( x ) ≠ 0
x→a g( x ) lim g( x ) x→a
x→a
lim g ( x )
(v) lim [ f ( x )] g ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x→ a
x→a x → a
er
ap
x → a
tio
x→a x→a
es
qu
x → a
ne
x→a x→a
@
am
lim f ( x )
(viii) lim e f ( x ) = ex → a
gr
le
x→a
Te
1
(xi) If lim f ( x ) = + ∞ or − ∞ , then lim =0
x→a x→a f(x)
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2. Trigonometric Limits
sin x x
(i) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 sin x
tan x x
(ii) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 tan x
sin−1 x x
(iii) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 sin−1 x
tan−1 x x
(iv) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 tan−1 x
sin x ° π
(v) lim =
x→ 0 x 180
(vi) lim cos x = 1
x→ 0
sin( x − a )
(vii) lim =1
x→ a x−a
er
ap
tan( x − a )
np
(viii) lim =1
tio
x→ a x−a
es
qu
x→ a
@
x→ a
le
Te
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4. Logarithmic Limits
loge (1 + x )
(i) lim =1
x→ 0 x
(ii) lim loge x = 1
x→ e
loge (1 − x )
(iii) lim = −1
er
x→ 0 x
ap
np
loga (1 + x )
= loga e, a > 0, ≠ 1
tio
(iv) lim
es
x→ 0 x
qu
et
ne
x →a
am
lim φ ( x ) log f ( x )
gr
x→a x→a
Particular Cases
1 x
1
(i) lim (1 + x ) x = e (ii) lim 1 + = e
x→ 0 x→ ∞ x
1 x
λ
(iii) lim (1 + λx ) x = eλ (iv) lim 1 + = eλ
x→ 0 x→ ∞ x
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2. Indeterminate Forms
While evaluating lim f ( x ), if direct substitution of x = a leads to one of
x→a
0 ∞
the following form ; ; ∞ − ∞ ; 0 × ∞ ; 1∞ , 00 and ∞ 0, then these limits
0 ∞
can be determined by using L’ Hospital’s rule or by some other method
given below.
(i) Limits by Factorisation
er
ap
f(x) 0
np
x→a g( x ) 0
es
qu
f(x) 0 ∞
gr
le
x→a g( x ) 0 ∞
involve expression consisting of square root, then this can be evaluated
by rationalising.
(iii) Limits by Substitution
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lim = lim .
ap
x → a g( x ) x → a g′ ( x )
np
tio
es
x→ a x→ a
et
ne
f′ ( x) 0 ∞
@
0
gr
satisfy all the condition embeded in L’Hospital’s rule, then we can repeat
le
Te
f′ ( x) f′ ( x) f′ ′ ( x)
the application of this rule on to get lim i.e. lim .
g′ ( x ) x→ a g′ ( x ) x→ a g′ ′ ( x )
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x3 x5
(vii) sin x = x − + − ... ∞ , x ∈ R
3! 5!
x2 x4
(viii) cos x = 1 − + − ... ∞ , x ∈ R
2! 4!
x3 2 5
(ix) tan x = x + + x +...
3 15
x3 9x5
(x) sin−1 x = x + + +...
3! 5!
x3 x5 x7
(xi) tan−1 x = x − + − +...
3 5 7
(ii) lim =
ap
x→ 0 cos cx − cos dx c2 – d 2
np
tio
cos mx − cos nx n 2 − m2
es
=
qu
(iii) lim
et
x→ 0 x2 2
ne
@
p p
sin mx m
am
(iv) lim =
n
gr
x→ 0 ( nx ) p
le
Te
p
tan p mx
m
(v) lim =
x→ 0 tan nx n
p
xa − ax 1 − log a
(vi) lim =
x→ a x −a
x a
1 + log a
(1 + x )m − 1 m
(vii) lim =
x→ 0 (1 + x )n − 1 n
(1 + bx )m − 1 mb
(viii) lim =
x→ 0 (1 + ax ) − 1 n
na
bx
a
(ix) lim (1 + ax ) b / x = lim 1 + = eab
x→ 0 x→ ∞ x
(x) lim ( x n + y n )1/ n = y, ( 0 < x < y )
n→ ∞
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Sandwich Theorem
Let f ( x ), g ( x ) and h ( x ) be real functions such that
f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x ) , ∀ x ∈ (α , β ) − { a }
If lim f ( x ) = l = lim h( x ),
x→a x→a
then lim g ( x ) = l
x→a
y = h (x )
y = g (x )
y = f(x)
er
ap
np
tio
es
Y
@
am
gr
le
y = h (x)
Te
y = g (x)
y = f (x)
X
O a
Continuity
If the graph of a function has no break or gap, then it is continuous. A
function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous function.
e.g. f ( x ) = sin x is continuous, as its graph has no break or gap.
Y
3π 2π
–π/2 π2
X' X
–π O π/2
–2π –3π
2
Y'
1
While f ( x ) = is discontinuous at x = 0.
x
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X' X
O
1
f (x) = x
Y'
at x = a.
np
tio
Discontinuity of a Function
A function f ( x ) can be discontinuous at a point x = a in any one of the
following ways.
(i) f ( a ) is not defined.
(ii) LHL and RHL both exist but unequal i.e.
lim f ( x ) ≠ lim f ( x )
x → a− x → a+
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Note In this case, we also say that f ( x ) has jump discontinuity at x = a and
np
tio
x → a− x→ a+
qu
et
ne
@
x → a− x → a+
le
Te
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f
(c) is continuous at those points, where g( x ) ≠ 0.
g
(ii) If g is continuous at a point a and f is continuous at g( a ), then fog
is continuous at a.
(iii) If f is continuous in [a , b] , then it is bounded in [a , b] i.e. there
exist m and M such that
m ≤ f ( x ) ≤ M , ∀ x ∈ [a , b],
where m and M are called minimum and maximum values of
f ( x ) respectively in the interval [a , b].
(iv) If f is continuous in its domain, then| f| is also continuous in its
domain.
(v) If f is continuous at a and f ( a ) ≠ 0, then there exists an open
interval ( a − δ , a + δ ) such that for all x ∈( a − δ , a + δ ), f ( x ) has the
same sign as f ( a ).
(vi) If f is a continuous function defined on [a , b] such that f ( a ) and
er
ap
1
am
f
le
Te
D − { x : f ( x ) = 0}.
Differentiability
If the curve has no break point and no sharp edge, then it is
differentiable.
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Domain = R,
Identity f (x) = x
Range = ] − ∞ , ∞ [ = R
Domain = R,
Constant f (x) = c Range = {c}, where
c → constant Continuous and
Differentiable
f (x) = everywhere
a0 + a1x + a2 x2
f (x) =
tio
(0, ∞)
qu
et
ne
Domain = R,
f (x) = [x]
@
Greatest integer
Range = I
am
gr
Other than
le
Domain = R,
Te
Domain = R,
Exponential f (x) = ax , a > 0, a ≠ 1
Range = ] 0, ∞ [ Continuous and
differentiable in
f (x) = log a x; x, a > 0 Domain = (0, ∞), their domain
Logarithmic and a ≠ 1 Range = R
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Range = (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
np
tio
cotangent y = cot x
qu
Range = R
et
ne
Domain = [− 1, 1],
@
am
y = sin−1 x π π
Arc sine Range = − ,
gr
2 2
le
Te
Domain = [− 1, 1],
Arc cosine y = cos −1 x
Range = [0, π]
Domain = R,
y = tan−1x π π
Arc tangent Range = − ,
2 2 Continuous and
differentiable in
Domain = (− ∞, 1] ∪ [1, ∞), their domain
y = cosec −1x π π
Arc cosecant Range = , − {0}
2 2
Domain = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞),
y = sec −1 x π
Arc secant Range = [0, π] −
2
Domain = R,
Arc cotangent y = cot −1 x
Range = (0, π)
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22
Derivatives
Derivative or Differential Coefficient
The rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x is
called the derivative or differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
Differentiation
The process of finding derivative of a function is called differentiation.
er
ap
d f ( x + δx ) − f ( x )
f ′ (x) = f ( x ) = lim
@
δx
am
dx δx → 0
gr
le
Te
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Derivatives 235
d
(viii) (cos x ) = − sin x
dx
d π
(ix) (tan x ) = sec2 x , x ≠ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
dx 2
d
(x) (cot x ) = − cos ec2 x , x ≠ nπ, n ∈ I
dx
d π
(xi) (sec x ) = sec x tan x , x ≠ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
dx 2
d
(xii) (cos ec x ) = − cos ec x cot x , x ≠ n π , n ∈ I
dx
d 1
(xiii) (sin−1 x ) = ,− 1< x < 1
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(xiv) (cos−1 x ) = − , − 1< x < 1
dx 1 − x2
er
ap
d 1
(tan−1 x ) =
np
(xv)
tio
dx 1 + x2
es
qu
d 1
(cot−1 x ) = −
et
(xvi)
ne
dx 1 + x2
@
am
d 1
(sec−1 x ) =
gr
(xvii) ,|x|> 1
le
Te
dx |x| x 2 − 1
d 1
(xviii) (cos ec−1x ) = − ,|x|> 1
dx |x| x 2 − 1
d
(xix) (sinh x ) = cos h x
dx
d
(xx) (cosh x ) = sin h x
dx
d
(xxi) (tanh x ) = sec h 2x
dx
d
(xxii) (coth x ) = − cos ech 2x
dx
d
(xxiii) (sec h x ) = − sec h x tan h x
dx
d
(xxiv) (cos ech x ) = − cos ech x cot h x
dx
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d
(xxv) (sinh−1 x ) = 1 / ( x 2 + 1)
dx
d
(xxvi) (cosh−1 x ) = 1 / ( x 2 − 1), x > 1
dx
d
(xxvii) (tanh−1 x ) = 1 / (1 − x 2 ),|x|< 1
dx
d
(xxviii) (cot h−1 x ) = 1 / (1 − x 2 ),|x| > 1
dx
d
(xxix) (sec h−1x ) = − 1 / x (1 − x 2 ), x ∈( 0, 1)
dx
d
(xxx) (cos ech−1x ) = − 1/|x| (1 + x 2 ), x ≠ 0
dx
dx dx
tio
es
d d d
(ii) { f ( x ) ± g( x )} = f(x) ± g( x ) [sum and difference rule]
qu
dx dx dx
et
ne
@
d d d
(iii) { f ( x ) g( x )} = f ( x ) g( x ) + g( x ) f(x)
am
dx dx dx
gr
le
Te
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Derivatives 237
a −x
2 2
x = a sinθ or a cos θ
gr
(i)
le
Te
(ii) a + x
2 2
x = a tanθ or a cot θ
(iii) x2 − a2 x = a sec θ or a cosec θ
(iv) a−x a+ x x = a cos 2θ
or
a+ x a−x
(v) a2 − x2 a2 + x2 x2 = a2 cos 2θ
or
a + x
2 2
a −x 2 2
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Logarithmic Differentiation
es
qu
et
f ( x ) f2( x ) f3 ( x )...
y = f1( x ) f2( x )... fn ( x ) or 1
am
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Derivatives 239
Note
... ∞ dy y 2f ′ ( x )
(i) If y = f ( x ){ f( x )} , then =
dx f ( x ){1 − y log f ( x )}
dy f′ ( x)
(ii) If y = f ( x ) + f( x) + f ( x ) + K ∞ , then =
dx 2 y − 1
Differentiation of a Determinant
p q r
If y = u v w , where all elements of determinant are differentiable
l m n
functions of x, then
dp dq dr p q r p q r
dy dx dx dx du dv dw
= u v w + + u v w
dx dx dx dx dl dm dn
l m n l m n
dx dx dx
er
ap
np
Successive Differentiations
tio
es
dy
ne
dx
am
gr
dy
le
dx
dy
The differential coefficient of with respect to x is written as
dx
2
d dy d y d2y
= or f ′ ′ ( x ). Again, the differential coefficient of with
dx dx dx 2 dx 2
respect to x is written as
d d 2 y d3 y
= or f ′ ′ ′ ( x ) …
dx dx 2 dx3
dy d 2 y d3 y
Here, , , , K are respectively known as first, second,
dx dx 2 dx3
third, … order differential coefficients of y with respect to x. These
are alternatively denoted by f ′ ( x ), f ′ ′ ( x ), f ′ ′ ′ ( x ),K or y1 , y2 , y3 ,K ,
respectively.
dy d 2y
2
dy dθ
but 2 ≠ dθ2
d y 2
Note =
dx dx dx d x
dθ dθ 2
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dn nπ
(ii) [cos( ax + b)] = a n cos + ax + b
dx n 2
dn m!
(iii) ( ax + b)m = a n ( ax + b)m − n
dx n
( m − n )!
dn ( −1)n −1( n − 1)! a n
(iv) [log( ax + b)] =
dx n ( ax + b)n
dn
(v) ( eax ) = a n eax
dx n
dn
(vi) ( a x ) = a x (log a )n
er
dx n
ap
np
dn
tio
(vii) (a)
dx n
qu
et
ne
dn
@
dx n
gr
le
b
Te
Partial Differentiation
The partial differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to x is the
ordinary differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) when y is regarded as a
∂f
constant. It is written as or fx .
∂x
∂f f(x + h , y) − f(x, y)
Thus, = lim
∂x h → 0 h
∂f
Similarly, the differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to y is
∂y
∂f f ( x , y + k) − f ( x , y )
or fy , where = lim
∂y k → 0 k
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Derivatives 241
e.g. If z = f ( x , y ) = x 4 + y 4 + 3xy 2 + x 2 y + x + 2 y,
∂z ∂f
then or or fx = 4x3 + 3 y 2 + 2xy + 1
∂x ∂x
[here, y is consider as constant]
∂z ∂f
and or or fy = 4 y3 + 6xy + x 2 + 2 [here, x is consider as constant]
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂2 f
qu
∂y ∂x ∂y
ne
@
am
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23
Application of
Derivatives
Derivatives as the Rate of Change
If a variable quantity y is some function of time t i.e. y = f ( t ), then
small change in time ∆t have a corresponding change ∆y in y.
∆y
Thus, the average rate of change = .
∆t
er
ap
∆y dy
qu
∆t→ 0 ∆t dt
ne
@
dy
am
Marginal Cost
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change of the total
cost with respect to the number of items produced at an instant. If C ( x )
represents the cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost,
denoted by MC, is given by
d
MC = { C( x )}.
dx
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π dy
np
2 dx P
es
qu
et
dy
X-axis, then θ = 0 ⇒ tanθ = 0 ⇒ = 0.
am
dx P
gr
le
Te
−1
(iii) Slope of the normal at P =
Slope of the tangent at P
−1 dx
= =−
dy dy P
dx P
dy
(iv) If = 0, then normal at ( x , y ) is parallel to Y-axis and
dx P
perpendicular to X-axis.
dy
(v) If = ∞, then normal at ( x , y ) is parallel to X-axis and
dx P
perpendicular to Y-axis.
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y = f(x)
Y
Tangent
Normal
P (x, y)
θ
X
O A S B
dx ( x , y )
np
tio
2
am
dy
y 1+
gr
dx
le
Te
P (x, y)
θ
X
O A S B
2
dy
(ii) Length of normal, PB = y sec θ = y 1 +
dx
y
(iii) Length of subtangent, AS = y cot θ =
( dy / dx )
dy
(iv) Length of subnormal, BS = y tan θ = y
dx
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X
O
m1 − m2
es
tanθ =
qu
1 + m1m2
et
ne
@
df df
am
where, m1 = 1 and m2 = 2
dx ( x dx ( x
gr
le
1 , y1 ) 1 , y1 )
Te
π df df2
(i) If θ = , m1m2 = −1 ⇒ 1 = −1
2 dx ( x , y ) dx ( x , y )
1 1 1 1
Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real function defined in the closed interval [a , b], such that
(i) f is continuous in the closed interval [a , b].
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in the open interval ( a , b).
(iii) f ( a ) = f ( b)
Then, there is some point c in the open interval ( a , b), such that
f ′ ( c) = 0.
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Geometrically
Under the assumptions of Rolle’s theorem, the graph of f ( x ) starts at
point ( a , f ( a )) and ends at point ( b, f ( b)) as shown in figures.
Y
Y
)) f(a) = f(b)
, f(a (b, f (b)) (a, f(a))
(b, f (b))
(a
c2
f(a)=f(b) X
O a c1 b
a b X
O c
derivative f ′ ( x ).
ap
np
tio
es
f ( b) − f ( a )
f ′ ( c) =
b− a
Geometrically For any chord of the curve y = f ( x ), there is a point on
the graph, where the tangent is parallel to this chord.
Y
X
O a c b
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dependent variable y.
ap
np
dy
∆y = ∆x
tio
Then,
es
dx
qu
et
∆y
@
y
gr
le
∆y
Te
Increasing Function Y
(Non-decreasing Function)
A function f is called an increasing function in X′ X
domain D, if x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈D.
Y′
Strictly Increasing Function
f ( x ) is said to be strictly increasing in D, if for every x1 , x2 ∈ D ; x1 < x2
⇒ f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ).
Y
X′ X
Y′
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X′ X
Y′
X'
ne
X
O
@
am
Y'
gr
le
Te
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Monotonic Function
If a function is either increasing or decreasing on an interval ( a , b),
then it is said to be a monotonic function.
Note If a function is increasing in some interval I1 and decreasing in some
interval I2 , then that function is not monotonic function.
[a , b].
@
am
a X
O a–h a+h
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least value.
gr
le
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Local Minimum
et
ne
@
Then,
(i) Point a is a local maximum of f ( x ), if
(a) f ′ ( a ) = 0
(b) f ′ ( x ) > 0, if x ∈ ( a − h , a ) and f ′ ( x ) < 0, if x ∈ ( a , a + h ),where h
is a small positive quantity.
(ii) Point a is a local minimum of f ( x ), if
(a) f ′ ( a ) = 0
(b) f ′ ( a ) < 0, if x ∈ ( a − h , a )and f ′ ( x ) > 0, if x ∈ ( a , a + h ),where
h is a small positive quantity.
(iii) If f ′ ( a ) = 0 but f ′ ( x ) does not changes sign in ( a − h , a + h ), for
any positive quantity h, then x = a is neither a point of local
minimum nor a point of local maximum.
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non-zero.
io
st
Global Maximum/Minimum in [ a, b]
In order to find the global maximum and minimum of f ( x ) in [a , b], find
out all critical points c1 , c2 ,... , cn of f ( x ) in [a , b] (i.e., all points at which
f ′ ( x ) = 0) or f ′ ( x ) not exists and let f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ) be the values of
the function at these points.
Then, M1 → Global maxima or greatest value.
and M 2 → Global minima or least value.
where M1 = max { f ( a ), f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ), f ( b)}
and M 2 = min { f ( a ), f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ), f ( b)}
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point ‘a’,f ( x ) − f ( a) keeps the same sign for all values of x in a deleted nbd
io
st
of a.
e
qu
et
which the derivatives vanish at a point but do not have an extreme value.
le
Te
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24
Indefinite Integrals
Let f ( x ) be a function. Then, the collection of all its primitives is called
the indefinite integral (or anti-derivative) of f ( x ) and is denoted by
∫ f ( x )dx. Integration as an inverse process of differentiation.
d
If
dx
{ φ ( x )} = f ( x ), then ∫ f ( x ) dx = φ ( x ) + C , where C is called the
Symbols f ( x ) → Integrand
ap
np
∫ → Sign of integral
qu
et
ne
anti-differentiation or integration.
Te
Note The derivative of function is unique but integral of a function is not unique.
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d
(viii)
dx
(− cot x) = cosec2 x ∫ cosec2 x dx = − cot x + C
d
(ix)
dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
d
(x)
dx
(− cosec x) = cosec x cot x ∫ cosec x cot x dx = − cosec x + C
(xi)
d
(log sin x) = cot x ∫ cot x dx = log|sin x| + C
dx = − log|cosec x| + C
(xii)
d
(− log cos x) = tan x ∫ tan x dx = − log|cos x| + C
er
dx
ap
= log|sec x|+ C
np
tio
es
(xiii)
d
[log (sec x + tan x)] = sec x ∫ sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x| + C
qu
dx
et
π x
= log tan + + C
ne
@
4 2
am
gr
d
[log (cosec x − cot x)] ∫ cosec x dx = log = cosec x
le
(xiv)
Te
dx x
|cosec x − cot x| + C = log tan +C
2
sin− 1 = dx = sin−1 + C
d x 1 1 x
(xv) dx a a −x
2 2 ∫ a −x
2 2 a
−1 −1
cos −1 = ∫ dx = cos −1 + C
d x x
(xvi) dx a a −x
2 2 ∫ a −x
2 2 a
d 1 tan−1 x 1 1 1
tan−1 + C
x
(xvii) = ∫ a2 dx =
dx a a a2 + x2 + x2 a a
1 cot −1 x −1 −1
cot −1 + C
d 1 x
(xviii) = ∫ a2 dx =
dx a a a2 + x2 + x2 a a
d 1 −1 x 1
sec −1 + C
1 1 x
sec = ∫x dx =
(xix) dx a a x x2 − a2 x −a
2 2 a a
d 1 cosec −1 x −1 −1
cosec −1 + C
1 x
= ∫x dx =
(xx) dx a a x x2 − a2 a
x −a
2 2 a
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y = x + C for different C ∈ R.
qu
et
ne
@
Properties of Integration
am
gr
d
dx ∫
{ f ( x )dx } = f ( x )
le
(i)
Te
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Method of Integration
Some integrals are not in standard form, to reduce them into standard
forms, we use the following methods
1. Integration by Substitution
For integral ∫ f ′ { g( x )} g′ ( x ) dx, we create a new variable t = g( x ), so
er
ap
dt
np
dx
es
qu
Note
am
{ f ( x )} n + 1
∫ {f ( x )} ⋅ f ′ ( x )dx = + C, n ≠ − 1
gr
n
(i)
le
n+1
Te
f′ ( x)
(ii) ∫ f( x)
dx = log| f ( x )| + C, f ( x ) ≠ 0
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1
(vi) ∫ cos ( ax + b)dx = a sin ( ax + b) + C
1
∫ sec ( ax + b)dx = tan ( ax + b) + C
2
(vii)
a
1
∫ cosec ( ax + b)dx = − a cot( ax + b) + C
2
(viii)
1
(ix) ∫ sec ( ax + b) tan( ax + b) dx = a sec ( ax + b) + C
1
(x) ∫ cosec ( ax + b) cot( ax + b)dx = − a cosec ( ax + b) + C
1
(xi) ∫ tan ( ax + b) dx = − a log|cos ( ax + b)| + C
1
(xii) ∫ cot ( ax + b) dx = a log|sin( ax + b)| + C
1
(xiii) ∫ sec ( ax + b) dx = a log|sec ( ax + b) + tan ( ax + b)| + C
er
ap
np
1
∫ cosec ( ax + b) dx = a log| cosec ( ax + b) − cot ( ax + b)| + C
tio
(xiv)
es
qu
et
ne
1 − cos 2nx
gr
(i) sin2 nx =
le
Te
2
1 + cos 2nx
(ii) cos nx =
2
2
nx nx
(iii) sin nx = 2 sin cos
2 2
3 1
(iv) sin3 nx = sin nx − sin 3 nx
4 4
3 1
(v) cos nx = cos nx + cos 3nx
3
4 4
(vi) tan2 nx = sec2 nx − 1
(vii) cot2 nx = cosec2 nx − 1
(viii) 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
2 cos A sin B = sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
2 sin A sin B = cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
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(iv) 2x 2x a2 − x2 x = a tanθ
, ,
a −x
2 2
a +x2 2
a +x
2 2
(v) 1 x+a
(n ∈ N, n >1) =t
1−
1
1+
1
x+b
(x + a) n (x + b) n
x −a
2 2
or a cosh θ
np
tio
es
or
et
a+ x a−x
ne
@
or (x − α)(β − x)
β−x
gr
le
Te
Special Integrals
1 1 x
∫ x 2 + a 2 dx = a tan
−1
(i) +C
a
1 1 a+x 1 x
(ii) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = 2a log a − x +C=
a
tanh−1 + C
a
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dx 1 x−a 1 x
(iii) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = 2a log x + a +C= −
a
coth−1 + C
a
dx x x
(iv) ∫ a −x
2 2
= sin−1
a
+ C = − cos−1 + c
a
dx x
(v) ∫ x −a
2
= log|x + x 2 − a 2| + C = cosh−1 + C
2 a
dx x
(vi) ∫ x +a
2
= log|x + x 2 + a 2| + C = sinh−1 + C
2 a
b 4ac − b2
2
es
ax 2 + bx + c = a x + +
qu
2a 4a 2
et
ne
@
px + q px + q
(ii) Form II ∫ 2 dx or ∫
am
dx
ax + bx + c
gr
ax 2 + bx + c
le
Te
d
Put px + q = λ ⋅ ( ax 2 + bx + c) + µ .
dx
Now, find values of λ and µ and then integrate it.
P( x)
(iii) Form III ∫ ax + bx + c
2
dx, when P ( x ) is a polynomial of
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dx
∫ a sin x + b cos x + c
To evaluate the above type of integrals, we proceed as follows
x x
2 tan 1 − tan2
er
ap
2 x 2 x
tio
1 + tan 1 + tan
es
2 2
qu
et
2 x 2 x
(b) Replace 1 + tan
ne
by sec .
@
2 2
am
x 1 2 x
(c) Put tan = t ⇒ sec dx = dt
gr
le
2 2 2
Te
a sin x + b cos x
(vi) Form VI ∫ dx,
c sin x + d cos x
Write numerator
= λ (differentiation of denominator) + µ (denominator)
i.e. a sin x + b cos x = λ ( c cos x − d sin x ) + µ( c sin x + d cos x )
a sin x + b cos x c cos x − d sin x
∫ c sin x + d cos x dx = λ ∫ c sin x + d cos x dx
c sin x + d cos x
+µ ∫ dx
c sin x + d cos x
= λ log| c sin x + d cos x| + µx + C
a sin x + b cos x + c
(vii) Form VII ∫ dx
p sin x + q cos x + r
Write numerator = λ (differentiation of denominator)
+ µ(denominator) + γ
i.e. a sin x + b cos x + c = λ ( p cos x − q sin x )
+ µ ( p sin x + q cos x + r ) + γ
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p sin x + q cos x + r 1
+ µ∫ dx + γ ∫ dx
p sin x + q cos x + r p sin x + q cos x + r
= λ log| p sin x + q cos x + r|
1
+ µx + γ ∫ p sin x + q cos x + r
dx
x2 + 1 x2 − 1
(viii) Form VIII ∫ dx , ∫ x 4 + λx 2 + 1dx ,
x + λx + 1
4 2
1 x2
∫ x + λx + 1
4 2
dx, ∫ 4
x + λx 2 + 1
dx
2
1
tio
x + ± k .
2
es
x
qu
et
ne
1 1
(c) Introduce d x + or d x − or both in numerator.
@
x x
am
gr
le
1 1
Te
2. Integration by Parts
This method is used to integrate the product of two functions.
If f ( x ) and g( x ) be two integrable functions, then
d
∫ f (Ix ) ⋅ g(IIx ) dx = f ( x ) ∫ g( x ) dx − ∫ dx f ( x ) ∫ g( x ) dx dx
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e.g. ∫ x sin x dx
tio
es
qu
function.
@
am
= f ( x )∫ ex dx − ∫ { f ′ ( x )∫ ex dx } dx + ∫ ex f ′ ( x )dx
= ex ⋅ f ( x ) + C
Note ∫ { xf ′ ( x ) + f ( x )} dx = xf ( x ) + C.
Integral of the Form ∫ e ax sin(bx + c) dx or ∫ e ax cos(bx + c) dx
eax
∫ e sin ( bx + c) dx = { a sin ( bx + c) − b cos ( bx + c)} + k
ax
(i)
a 2 + b2
eax
(ii) ∫ eax cos( bx + c)dx = { a cos ( bx + c) + b sin ( bx + c)} + k
a 2 + b2
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4ac − b2
ap
where k2 =
np
4a 2
tio
es
Form II ∫ ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
qu
et
ne
d
@
dx
gr
le
Te
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(i) px + q A B
,a≠ b +
(x − a)(x − b) x−a x−b
er
ap
np
(ii) px2 + qx + r A
+
B
+
C
,a≠ b≠ c
tio
px + q A B C
et
(iii) + +
ne
(x − a) 3
x − a (x − a)2 (x − a)3
@
am
(iv) px2 + qx + r A
+
B
+
C
gr
x − a (x − a)2 (x − b)
le
(x − a) (x − b)
2
Te
(v) px2 + qx + r A Bx + C
, where +
(x − a)(x + bx + c)
2 x − a x2 + bx + c
x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised.
(vi) px 3 + qx2 + rx + s Ax + B Cx + D
, where +
(x + ax + b)(x + cx + d)
2 2 x2 + ax + b x2 + cx + d
(x2 + ax + b) and (x2 + cx + d)
can not be factorised.
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f ( a1 )
Now, A1 =
( a1 − a2 )( a1 − a3 )( a1 − a4 )...( a1 − an )
f ( a2 )
A2 = …
( a2 − a1 )( a2 − a3 )( a2 − a4 )...( a2 − an )
f ( an )
An =
( an − a1 )( an − a2 )( an − a3 )...( an − an −1 )
Trick To find Ap, put x = a p in numerator and denominator after
deleting the factor ( x − a p ).
Case II When g( x ) is expressible as product of repeated linear factors.
Let g( x ) = ( x − a )k( x − a1 )( x − a2 )K ( x − an ),
f(x) A1 A2 Ak B1 B2
then = + + ... + + +
g( x ) x − a ( x − a )2
(x − a)k
( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 )
Bn
+K +
( x − a )n
er
ap
np
linear factors.
@
am
dx
(i) ∫ , substitute Cx + D = t 2, then the given
( Ax + B) Cx + D
2 dt
integral reduces into ∫ .
At 2 − AD + BC
dx
(ii) ∫ ( Ax 2 + B) Cx + D
, substitute Cx + D = t 2, then the given
2C dt
integral reduces into ∫ .
At − 2DAt 2 + ( AD 2 + BC 2 )
4
dx 1
(iii) ∫ ( x − k)rAx + Bx + C
2
, substitute x − k = , then the given
t
r −1
t
integral reduces into ∫ dt.
At + Bt + C
2
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−t
integral reduces into ∫ dt.
( A + Bt ) C + Dt 2
2
Here, we write
d
ax 2 + bx + c = A1 ( dx + e)
( fx 2 + gx + h ) + B1 ( dx + e) + C1
dx
where, A 1, B1 and C1 are constants.
er
m+1
Te
m+ p
Case IV If is an integer and p is a rational number, we put
n
a + bx n
, where k is the denominator of the fraction p.
xn
∫ cosech x dx = − coth x + C
2
(iv)
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sinn x 1 sinn − 2 x
ap
(v) ∫ dx = ⋅ − ∫ dx
np
m −1
m
cos x m − 1 cos x m − 1 cosm −2 x
tio
es
qu
ax
(vi) (a) ∫ a x cos (bx + c) dx =
et
(log a)2 + b2
@
am
ax
(b) ∫ a x sin (bx + c) dx = [(log a)sin (bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] + k
gr
le
(log a)2 + b2
Te
xe ax
(vii) (a) ∫ xe ax cos(bx + c) dx = [ a cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)]
a2 + b2
e ax
− [( a2 − b2 ) cos (bx + c) + 2ab sin (bx + c)] + k
( a2 + b2 )2
xe ax
(b) ∫ xe ax sin (bx + c) dx = [ a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)]
a2 + b2
e ax
− [( a2 − b2 )sin(bx + c) − 2ab cos(bx + c)] + k
( a + b2 )2
2
− cos x ⋅ sinn − 1 x n −1
sinn −2 x dx
n ∫
(viii) (a) sinn x dx = +
n
sin x ⋅ cosn − 1 x n −1
(b) ∫ cosn x dx = cosn −2 x dx
n ∫
+
n
n −1
tan x
(c) ∫ tan
n
x dx = − ∫ tann − 2 x dx
n −1
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25
Definite Integrals
Let f ( x ) be a function defined on the interval [a , b] and F ( x ) be its
b
anti-derivative. Then, ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( b) − F ( a ) is defined as the
a
definite integral of f ( x ) from x = a to x = b.
The numbers a and b are called upper and lower limits of integration,
respectively.
x
let A( x ) be the area of function i.e. A( x ) = ∫ f ( x )dx. Then, A′ ( x ) = f ( x )
ma
gr
a
le
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cn b
+K + ∫c n −1
f ( x ) dx + ∫c
n
f ( x ) dx
er
ap
a a
5. ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( a − x ) dx
np
tio
es
a f(x) a
qu
Deduction ∫ dx =
et
0 f(x) + f(a − x) 2
ne
@
b b
∫ a f ( x ) dx = ∫ a f ( a + b − x ) dx
am
6.
gr
le
Te
b f(x) b− a
Deduction ∫ a f ( x ) + f ( a + b − x ) dx = 2
2a a a
7. ∫0 f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx + ∫ 0 f ( 2a − x ) dx
a a a
8. ∫ − a f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx + ∫ 0 f ( − x ) dx
2 a f ( x ) dx if, f ( 2a − x ) = f ( x )
2a ∫
9. ∫0 f ( x ) dx = 0
0, if f ( 2a − x ) = − f ( x )
0, if f ( a + x ) = − f ( b − x )
b
10. ∫a f ( x ) dx = a + b
2 2 f ( x ) dx , if f ( a + x ) = f ( b − x )
∫a
2 a f ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) is even i. e. f ( − x ) = f ( x )
a ∫
11. ∫− a f ( x ) dx = 0
0, if f ( x ) is odd i. e. f ( − x ) = − f ( x )
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d ψ (x )
f ( t ) dt = f [ψ( x )] ⋅
d d
∫
qu
ψ( x ) − f [φ ( x )] ⋅ φ ( x ).
et
dx φ ( x ) dx dx
ne
@
b
15. If f ( x ) ≥ 0 on the interval [a , b], then ∫ f ( x ) ≥ 0.
am
gr
a
le
Te
b b
16. If f ( x ) ≤ φ ( x ) for x ∈ [a , b], then ∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫a φ ( x ) dx.
a
is called the mean value of the function f ( x )on the interval [a , b].
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∞ b
improper integral and is defined as ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ a f ( x ) dx.
ap
np
a b→ ∞
io
st
b b
e
∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx = alim
→−∞ ∫a
qu
26. f ( x ) dx and
et
ne
@
∞ b ∞
∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx = ∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx + ∫b f ( x ) dx
a m
gr
le
∞
27. Geometrically, for f ( x ) > 0, the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx
Te
Integral Function
Let f ( x ) be a continuous function defined on [a , b], then a function φ ( x )
x
defined by φ ( x ) = ∫ f ( t ) dt , x ∈ [a , b] is called the integral function of the
a
function f.
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[( m − 1) ( m − 3) K 2 or 1] [( n − 1) ( n − 3) K 2 or 1]
=
[( m + n ) ( m + n − 2) K 2 or 1]
π
On multiplying the above by , when both m and n are even.
2
er
π /2 ⋅ ⋅ 1) ( 2)
ap
( 5 3 2
(a) ∫ sin6x cos3 x dx = =
np
0 9 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 63
tio
es
π /2 ( 7 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1) π 7π
(b) ∫ sin x cos x dx =
8 2
⋅ =
qu
et
0 10 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 2 512
ne
@
π/ 2
sinm + 1 x
gr
π/ 2 1
(a) ∫
le
sinm x cos x dx = =
Te
m + 1 0 m+1
0
π/ 2
π/ 2 − cosm + 1 x 1
(b) ∫ cos x sin x dx =
m
=
m + 1 0 m+1
0
where, nh = b − a
Now, put a = 0, b = 1
1
∴ nh = 1 − 0 = 1 or h =
n
n −1
1 r
∑
1
∴ ∫0 f ( x ) dx = lim
n→∞ n r=0
f
n
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π /2 sin x n
π π /2 cosn x
(i) (a) ∫ dx = = ∫
np
dx
tio
0 sin x + cos x
n n
4 0 sin x + cosn x
n
es
qu
π /2 tann x π π /2 dx
(b) ∫ dx = = ∫
et
ne
0 1 + tan n x 4 0 1 + tan n x
@
π
am
π /2 dx π /2 cotn x
(c) ∫
4 ∫ 0 1 + cotn x
= = dx
gr
0 1 + cotn x
le
Te
π /2 tann x π π /2 cotn x
(d) ∫ dx = = ∫ dx
0 tan x + cot x
n n
4 0 tan x + cotn x
n
π /2 secn x π π /2 cosecn x
(e) ∫ dx = = ∫ dx where, n ∈ R
0 sec x + cosec x
n n
4 0 sec x + cosecn x
n
n n
π /2 a sin x
ππ /2 a cos x
(ii) ∫0 a sin n x
+a cos n x
dx = ∫
n
+ a cos x
dx =
40
a sin n x
π /2 π /2 π
(iii) (a) ∫ log sin x dx = ∫ log cos x dx = − log 2
0 0 2
π /2 π /2
(b) ∫ log tan x dx = ∫ log cot x dx = 0
0 0
π /2 π /2 π
(c) ∫ log sec x dx = ∫ log cosec x dx = log 2
0 0 2
∞ − ax b ∞ − ax a
(iv) (a) ∫ e sin bx dx = (b) ∫ e cos bx dx =
0 a2 + b2 0 a2 + b2
∞ − ax n!
(c) ∫ e x n dx = n
0 a +1
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26
Applications of
Integrals
The space occupied by the curve along with the axis, under the given
condition is called area of bounded region.
(i) The area bounded by the curve y = F ( x ) above the X-axis and
between the lines x = a , x = b is given by
Y
y = F(x)
er
ap
np
y
tio
es
x=a x=b
qu
et
X′ dx X
O
ne
@
Y′
am
gr
b b
∫ a y dx = ∫ a F( x ) dx
le
Te
(ii) If the curve between the lines x = a , x = b lies below the X-axis,
then the required area is given by
Y
dx
X′ X
O
x = a −y x=b
Y′ y = F(x)
b b b
|∫ ( − y ) dx| =|− ∫ a y dx| =|− ∫ a F( x ) dx|
a
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(iii) The area bounded by the curve x = F ( y ) right to the Y -axis and
between the lines y = c, y = d is given by
d d
∫c x dy = ∫c F ( y ) dy
y=d
x
dy
x = F(y)
y=c
X' X
O
Y'
y=d
np
tio
es
x = F(y) –x
dy
qu
et
ne
@
y=c
am
X' X
gr
le
Te
Y'
d d d
|∫ ( − x ) dy| =|− ∫c x dy| =|− ∫c F ( y ) dy|
c
y = G(x)
X′ O x=a x=b X
Y′
b
∫a { F ( x ) − G( x )} dx
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y=d
x = F(y)
x = G(y)
y=c
X' O
X
Y'
d
∫c [F ( y ) − G( y )] dy
y = F (x) y = G (x)
np
Y
tio
es
qu
et
ne
@
am
X′
gr
O a c b X
le
Y′
Te
c b
Area = ∫ { F ( x ) − G( x )} dx + ∫ { G ( x ) − F ( x )} dx
a c
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Curve Sketching
1. Symmetry
(i) If powers of y in an equation of curve are all even, then curve
is symmetrical about X-axis.
(ii) If powers of x in an equation of curve are all even, then curve
is symmetrical about Y -axis.
(iii) When x is replaced by –x and y is replaced by –y, then curve is
symmetrical in opposite quadrant.
(iv) If x and y are interchanged and equation of curve remains
unchanged, then curve is symmetrical about line y = x.
2. Nature of Origin
(i) If point (0, 0) satisfies the equation, then curve passes
through origin.
(ii) If curve passes through origin, then equate lowest degree
er
ap
(i) Put y = 0 and get intersection with X-axis, put x = 0 and get
@
am
(ii) Now, find equation of tangent at this point i.e. shift origin to
the point of intersection and equate the lowest degree term to
zero.
(iii) Find regions where curve does not exists i.e. curve will not
exit for those values of variable when makes the other
imaginary or not defined.
4. Asymptotes
(i) Equate coefficient of highest power of x to get asymptote
parallel to X-axis.
(ii) Similarly equate coefficient of highest power of y to get
asymptote parallel to Y -axis.
dy
5. The Sign of
dx
dy
Find points at which vanishes or becomes infinite. It gives us the
dx
points where tangent is parallel or perpendicular to the X-axis.
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O
(i) ay 2 = x 3 (Semi-cubical parabola) X′ X
er
ap
np
Y′
tio
es
qu
Y
et
ne
@
am
gr
O
Te
Y′
(2a, 0)
(iii) (x2 + 4 a2 ) y = 8 a 3
X′ X
O
Y′
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Y
x
=
y
y
=
–x
(iv) ay 2 = x2 (a − x) X′ O
X
(a, 0)
Y′
Y
x
=
y
(v) a 2 y 2 = x2 (a2 − x2 ) X′ X
O
y
=
–x
Y′
er
ap
np
tio
(i) α Y
p2 log sq units
@
then area
β
am
bounded by the
gr
curve xy = p2 ,
le
—
X'
Te
X
X-axis and
ordinate x=β x=α
x = α, x = β
Y'
Area between the O (0,0), 2(b 3 /2
−a 3 /2
) Y y = c2x2
(ii)
curvey = c2 x2 , a y=b b
A , a , 3c B c ,b
Y-axis and line c
sq units a
y = a, y = b b y=a A c ,a
B , b
c X' X
(0, 0) O
Y'
(iii) y = k cos 3x , when k Y
π sq units
π 0≤ x ≤ , 3
∀ 0≤ x ≤ ,
6 6
then
π X' X
0 ≤ 3x ≤ (0, 0) O π,
2 30
Y'
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y2=4bx
Y'
(v) f (x, y) ; O(0,0), A(a, a), (i) For x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 Y
B (a, − a) π 2
x2 + y 2 ≤ 2ax Area = a2 − A(a, a)
4 3
and y 2 ≥ ax sq units
X' X
(ii) For x ≥ 0, (0, 0)O
π 2
Area = 2 a2 −
4 3
er
B(a, –a)
ap
Y'
np
sq units
tio
es
the parabola 3
B (a, − 2a)
ne
A(a, 2a)
y 2 = 4ax and its
@
(a, 0)
am
x=a
le
Te
B(a, –2a)
x=a
Y'
8
(vii) Area bounded by A( b− a,2 ab ), ab (a + b) Y
3
the curves B( b − a, −2 ab) A(b – a, 2 ab)
y 2 = 4a (x + a) sq units
and A'(b, 0)
y 2 = 4b (b − x) X' X
B' (0, 0)
(–a, 0)
B (b – a, – 2 ab)
Y'
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2
x y2
or 2 + 2 ≤ 1
ap
np
a b
tio
x y Y'
es
≤ +
qu
a b
et
ne
@
ax2 ≤ y ≤ mx m m2 6 a2 Y 2
gr
A , A m, m
le
∴y = ax , y = mx
2
a a sq units a a
Te
X' X
B (0, 0 )
Y'
m m A 4a , 4a
m2 m
X' X
O
(0, 0)
Y'
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(i) The surface area of the solid generated by revolution of the area
ne
dy
2
gr
b
∫a
le
dx
is a continuous function in the interval ( a , b).
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27
Differential
Equations
Differential Equation
An equation that involves an independent variable, dependent variable
and differential coefficients of dependent variable with respect to the
er
d 2 y dy
3
tio
e.g. (i) x 2 2 + x3 = 7x 2 y 2
es
dx dx
qu
et
ne
(ii) ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx = ( x 2 − y 2 ) dy
@
am
gr
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dx dx 2
np
tio
es
qu
satisfy the given differential equation (i.e., from which the given
differential equation can be derived).
d2y
e.g. y = A cos x + B sin x is a solution of + y = 0, because it satisfy
dx 2
this equation.
1. General Solution
If the solution of the differential equation contains as many
independent arbitrary constants as the order of the differential
equation, then it is called the general solution or the complete integral
of the differential equation.
d2y
e.g. The general solution of + y = 0 is y = A cos x + B sin x because
dx 2
it contains two arbitrary constants A and B, which is equal to the order
of the equation.
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2. Particular Solution
Solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants
in the general solution is called a particular solution. e.g. In the
previous example, if A = B = 1, then y = cos x + sin x is a particular
d2y
solution of the differential equation + y = 0.
dx 2
Solution of a differential equation is also called its primitive.
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ye dx − e dy
x x e x
xe dy − e y dx
y ey
(xvii) = d (xviii) = d
y2 y x2 x
xdx + ydy
(xix) = d( x 2 + y 2 )
x2 + y2
(xx) x m − 1 ⋅ y n − 1 ( mydx + nx dy ) = d( x m y n )
xdy − ydx 1 x + y
(xxi) = d log
x −y
2 2
2 x − y
f ′ (x , y) d [ f ( x , y )]1 − n
(xxii) =
er
[ f ( x , y )]n 1− n
ap
np
1 1
tio
dx dy
(xxiii) − = d −
es
x2 y2 y x
qu
et
ne
@
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dx
ap
dv
np
⇒ x = F( v) − v
tio
dx
es
qu
manner.
@
am
dx x
Similarly, to solve = G , we put x = vy.
gr
y
le
dy
Te
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dx
+ Rx = S , the
am
dy
le
integrating factor, IF = e ∫
Te
R dy
and the general solution is
x ⋅ e∫ = ∫ S ⋅ e∫
Rdy Rdy
dy + C
i.e. x (IF) = ∫ S ( IF ) dy + C
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8. Bernoulli’s Equation
dy
An equation of the form + Py = Qy n ( n ≠ 0, 1), where P and Q are
dx
functions of x only or constants, is called Bernoulli’s equation.
It is easy to reduce the above equation into linear form as below
Dividing both the sides by y n , we get
dy
y− n + Py − n + 1 = Q
dx
Put y− n + 1 = z
dy dz
⇒ ( − n + 1) y − n =
dx dx
Then, the equation reduces to
1 dz dz
+ Pz = Q ⇒ + (1 − n ) Pz = Q (1 − n )
1 − n dx dx
er
ap
manner.
es
qu
et
Orthogonal Trajectory
ne
@
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28
Vectors
A vector has direction and magnitude both but scalar has only
magnitude. e.g. Vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc. and scalar quantities are length, mass, time, etc.
Characteristics of a Vector
(i) Magnitude The length of the vector AB or a is called the
magnitude of AB or a and it is represented as AB or a .
er
(ii) Sense The direction of a line segment from its initial point to
ap
A B
@
(iii) Support The line of infinite length of which the line segment
am
gr
A B
Support
Types of Vectors
(i) Zero or Null Vector A vector whose initial and terminal
points are coincident is called zero or null vector. It is denoted
by 0.
(ii) Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 unit is
called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of n is given
n
by and it is denoted by n.
$
|n|
(iii) Free Vector If the initial point of a vector is not specified, then
it is said to be a free vector.
(iv) Like and Unlike Vectors Vectors are said to be like when
they have the same direction and unlike when they have
opposite direction.
(v) Collinear or Parallel Vectors Vectors having the same or
parallel supports are called collinear vectors.
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(vi) Equal Vectors Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written
as a = b, if they have same length and same direction.
(vii) Negative Vector A vector having the same magnitude as that
of a given vector a and the direction opposite to that of a is called
the negative vector a and it is denoted by − a.
(viii) Coinitial Vectors Vectors having same initial point are
called coinitial vectors.
(ix) Coterminus Vectors Vectors having the same terminal point
are called coterminus vectors.
(x) Localised Vectors A vector which is drawn parallel to a given
vector through a specified point in space is called localised
vector.
(xi) Coplanar Vectors A system of vectors is said to be coplanar,
if their supports are parallel to the same plane. Otherwise they
are called non-coplanar vectors.
er
1
by a −1, i.e. if|a| = a , then|a−1| = .
et
ne
a
@
am
gr
Addition of Vectors
le
Te
a+b
O A
a
Note When the sides of a triangle are taken in order, then the resultant will be
AB + BC + CA = 0
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Vectors 293
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the initial point of a, vector b is
drawn and parallelogram OACB is completed with OA and OB as
adjacent sides. The diagonal of the parallelogram through the common
vertex represents the vector OC and it is defined as the sum of a and b.
This is called the parallelogram law of vector addition.
B C
a+b
b
b
O a A
The sum of two vectors is also called their resultant and the process of
addition as composition.
(i) a + b = b + a (commutative)
es
qu
(ii) a + ( b + c) = (a + b ) + c
et
(associative)
ne
(iii) a + 0 = a
@
(additive identity)
am
Note The bisector of the angle between two non-collinear vectors a and b is
given by
$ ) or λ a ± b .
λ (a$ + b
a b
O A
a
–b
a–b
B′
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Important Properties
(i) |λ a| =|λ||a|, where λ be a scalar.
(ii) λ 0 = 0
(iii) m ( −a) = − m a = − ( m a)
(iv) ( − m ) ( −a) = m a
(v) m ( n a) = mn a = n( m a)
(vi) ( m + n ) a = m a + n a
(vii) m (a + b ) = m a + m b
PQ = PO + OQ = − OP + OQ = OQ − OP
am
P Q
O (origin)
i.e. PQ = PV of Q − PV of P
Collinear Points
Let A, B and C be any three points.
Points A, B, C are collinear ⇔ AB, BC are collinear vectors
⇔ AB = λBC for some non-zero scalar λ.
Components of a Vector
1. In Two-dimension Let P ( x , y ) be any point in a plane and O be
the origin. Let $i and $j be the unit vectors along X and Y -axes,
then the component of vector P is OP = x$i + y$j.
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Vectors 295
2. In Three-dimension Let P ( x , y , z ) be any point is a space
$ be the unit vectors along X , Y
and O be the origin. Let $i, $j and k
and Z-axes, then the component of vector P is OP = x$i + y$j + zk $.
^
j
P1 (x1, y1, z1)
X
^ O ^i
k
Z
er
ap
$ and OP = x i$ + y $j + z k
OP = x i$ + y $j + z k $
es
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
qu
et
$ ) − ( x $i + y $j + z k
P1P2 = ( x2$i + y2$j + z 2k $
1 )
am
1 1
gr
= ( x − x ) i$ + ( y − y ) $j + ( z − z ) k $
le
2 1 2 1 2 1
Te
$
Here, vector component of P1P2 are ( x2 − x1 ) $i, ( y2 − y1 )$j and ( z 2 − z1 )k
along X-axis, Y -axis and Z-axis respectively.
Its magnitude is|P1P2| = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2
Section Formulae
Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b, respectively
and OP = r.
A
(i) Internal division Let P be a point
dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. m
Then, position vector of P is a P
m OB + n OA
OP = r n
(m + n )
O B
mb + na b
i.e. r=
m+n
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( BC ) a + (CA)b + ( AB)c
np
BC + CA + AB
es
qu
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Vectors 297
If a and b are two non-zero vectors, then the scalar or dot product of a
ap
b
@
am
gr
θ
le
Te
a
(i) Angle between two like vectors is 0 and angle between two
unlike vectors is π.
(ii) If either a or b is the null vector, then scalar product of the vector
is zero.
(iii) If a and b are two unit vectors, then a ⋅ b = cosθ.
(iv) The scalar product is commutative
i.e. a⋅ b = b ⋅a
$ $
(v) If i , j and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors i$ , $j and k,
$ $
then
$ ⋅k
$i ⋅ i$ = $j ⋅ $j = k $ =1
and $ =k
$i ⋅ $j = $j ⋅ k $ ⋅ $i = 0
(vi) The scalar product of vectors is distributive over vector addition.
(a) a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (left distributive)
(b) ( b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a (right distributive)
(vii) ( ma) ⋅ ( b ) = m (a ⋅ b ) = a ⋅ ( mb ), where m is any scalar.
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$ , then|a|2 = a ⋅ a = a 2 + a 2 + a 2
(viii) If a = a1i$ + a2$j + a3 k 1 2 3
a⋅b
tio
The projection of a on b = a ⋅ b$ =
es
qu
| b|
et
ne
a⋅b
The projection of b on a = b ⋅ a$ =
@
,
am
|a|
gr
le
B
Te
a
(0 < θ < 90°)
θ
l
A C
b
Components of a along and perpendicular to b are
a⋅b a⋅b
⋅ b and a − ⋅b
|b| |b|2
(xi) Work done by a Force The work done by a force is a scalar
quantity equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and
the resolved part of the displacement.
∴ F ⋅ S = dot products of force and displacement.
Suppose F1 , F2 , ... , Fn are n forces acted on a particle, then
during the displacement S of the particle, the separate forces to
quantities of work F1 ⋅ S , F2 ⋅ S , ... , Fn ⋅ S.
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Vectors 299
n n
The total work done is ∑ Fi ⋅ S = ∑ S ⋅ Fi = S ⋅ R
i =1 i =1
(vii) (a ⋅ b )2 ≤|a|2|b|2
tio
es
qu
et
ne
defined as
Te
a × b = (|a|| b|sin θ ) n
$ = ab sin θ n
$ …(i)
b
a×b
θ
a
where, a =|a|, b =|b|, θ is the angle between the vectors a and b and n
$
is a unit vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.
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[Q a = a and b = b]
ne
@
(viii) Vector Product of Two Unit Vectors If a and b are unit vectors, then
am
a = | a | = 1, b = |b | = 1
gr
le
Te
∴ a × b = ab sinθ ⋅ n$ = (sinθ) ⋅ n$
(ix) Vector Product is not Commutative The two vector products a × b and
b × a are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
i.e. b × a = − a ×b …(i)
(x) Distributive Law For any three vectors a , b , c
a × (b + c) = ( a × b) + ( a × c)
(xi) Area of a Triangle and Parallelogram
1 1
(a) The area of a ∆ABC is equal to | AB × AC | or | BC × BA|
2 2
1
or | CB × CA|.
2
(b) The area of a ∆ABC with vertices having PV’s a , b , c respectively, is
1 / 2 | a × b + b × c + c × a |.
(c) The points whose PV’s a , b and c are collinear, if and only if
a × b + b × c + c × a = 0.
(d) The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is | a × b|.
Contd. ...
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Vectors 301
1
(e) The area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b is | a × b |.
2
1
(f) The area of a quadrilateral ABCD is equal to | AC × BD |.
2
(xii) Vector Moment of a Force about a Point The vector moment of
torque M of a force F about the point O is the vector whose magnitude is
equal to the product of F and the perpendicular distance of the point O
from the line of action of F.
r ×F
O
θ 90°
A F
er
N
ap
∴ M =r ×F
np
tio
(b) If several forces are acting through the same point A, then the vector
am
gr
P N
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and c = a i$ + b $j + c k$ is
3 3 3
a1 b1 c1
[a b c] = a2 b2 c2
er
ap
a3 b3 b3
np
tio
es
qu
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Vectors 303
$ is 1,
(viii) The scalar triple product of cyclic components $i , $j and k
i.e.[i j k] = 1.
a⋅c b⋅c
(ix) (a × b ) ⋅ ( c × d ) =
a⋅d b⋅d
a⋅u b⋅u c⋅ u
(x) [a b c] [u v w ] = a ⋅ v b ⋅ v c ⋅ v
a⋅ w b ⋅ w c⋅ w
1
es
2
et
ne
1
am
c is |[a b c]|.
gr
6
le
Te
Important Properties
(i) The vector r = a × ( b × c) is perpendicular to a and lies in the plane
b and c.
(ii) a × ( b × c) ≠ (a × b ) × c, the cross product of vectors is not
associative.
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1
ap
[a b c]
tio
es
b′ × c ′ c ′ × a′ a′ × b ′
qu
(iv) a = , b= , c=
et
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29
Three Dimensional
Geometry
Coordinate System
The three mutually perpendicular lines in a space which divides the
space into eight parts and if these perpendicular lines are the
coordinate axes, then it is said to be a coordinate system.
y=0 Z
er
ap
X'
np
Y'
tio
x=0
es
qu
et
ne
z=0
@
am
Y
gr
X
le
Te
Z' O (0, 0, 0)
Note The coordinates of any point on the X , Y and Z-axes will be the form
(x, 0, 0), (0, y, 0) and (0, 0, z ) respectively.
Sign Convention
Octant Coordinate x y z
OXYZ + + +
OX ′ YZ − + +
OXY ′ Z + − +
OXYZ′ + + −
OX ′ Y ′ Z − – +
OX ′ YZ ′ − + −
OXY ′ Z ′ + – −
OX ′ Y ′ Z ′ − − –
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Section Formulae
(i) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio m : n internally are
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz 2 + nz1
, ,
m+n m+n m+n
(ii) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio m : n externally are
er
ap
, ,
tio
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z 2
am
, ,
2 2
gr
2
le
Te
Area of Triangle
If the vertices of a triangle be A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C( x3 , y3 , z3 ),
then
Area of ∆ABC = ∆ xy
2
+ ∆ yz
2
+ ∆ zx
2
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Direction Cosines
If a directed line segment OP makes angle α , β and γ with OX , OY and
OZ respectively, then cos α , cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines
of OP and it is represented by l , m , n.
i.e. l = cosα
m = cosβ
and n = cos γ
Z
C
P(x, y, z)
→
er
γ r
ap
O β
np
α Y
tio
B
es
qu
A
et
ne
X
@
am
(b) l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
(c) Projections of r on the coordinate axes are
l|r|, m|r|, n|r|
sum of the squares of projections
(d) |r| =
of r on the coordinate axes
(ii) If P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are two points, such that the
direction cosines of PQ are l , m , n. Then,
x2 − x1 = l|PQ|, y2 − y1 = m|PQ|, z 2 − z1 = n|PQ|
These are projections of PQ on X , Y and Z-axes, respectively.
(iii) If l , m , n are direction cosines of a vector r and a , b, c are three
l m n
numbers, such that = = . Then, we say that a, b and c are
a b c
the direction ratios of r which are proportional to l , m , n.
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a b
Also, we have l = ± ,m = ± ,
a +b +c
2 2 2
a + b2 + c2
2
c
n=±
a 2 + b2 + c2
(iv) If θ is the angle between two lines having direction cosines
l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n 2, then cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n 2
l m n
(a) Lines are parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 .
l2 m2 n 2
(b) Lines are perpendicular, if l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n 2 = 0.
(v) If θ is the angle between two lines whose direction ratios are
proportional to a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively, then the angle
θ between them is given by
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cosθ = .
a1 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
2
er
ap
np
a1 b1 c1
= = .
tio
a2 b2 c2
qu
et
|( x2 − x1 ) l + ( y2 − y1 ) m + ( z 2 − z1 )n|.
(vii) The direction ratio of the line passing through points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are proportional to x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1.
Then, direction cosines of PQ are
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
, ,
|PQ| |PQ| |PQ|
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Line in Space
A line (or straight line) is a curve such that all the points on the
line segment joining any two points of it lies on it.
A line can be determined uniquely, if
(i) its direction and the coordinates of a point on it are known.
(ii) it passes through two given points.
1. Equation of a Line Passing through a given Point and
Parallel to a given Vector
Vector Equation Equation of a line passing through a point
with position vector a and parallel to vector b is r = a + λ b,
where λ is a parameter.
Cartesian Equation Equation of a line passing through a
fixed point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction ratios a , b, c is given
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
by = = , it is also called the symmetrically
er
a b c
ap
np
form of a line.
tio
es
parameter.
gr
le
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{( a − x1 )2 + ( b − y1 )2 + ( c − z1 )2 } − {( a − x1 ) l
+ ( b − y1 ) m + ( c − z1 ) n } 2
where, l , m , n are direction cosines of the line.
Skew Lines
Two straight lines in space are said to be skew lines, if they are neither
parallel nor intersecting. Thus, skew-lines are such pair of lines which
are non-coplanar.
Shortest Distance
If l1 and l2 are two skew lines, then a line perpendicular to each of
lines l1 and l2 is known as the line of shortest distance.
P
If the line of shortest distance intersects the lines l1 and l1
l2 at P and Q respectively, then the distance PQ between
points P and Q is known as the shortest distance
er
l2
ap
Vector Form
qu
et
r = a2 + µb 2 is given by
@
am
( b1 × b 2 ) ⋅ (a2 − a1 )
gr
d=
le
|b1 × b 2|
Te
Cartesian Form
(i) The shortest distance between the lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a1 b1 c1
x − x 2 y − y2 z − z 2
and = = is given by
a2 b2 c2
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x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y1 z − z1
(ii) Two lines = = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
are intersecting, when
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
Since, X , Y and Z-axes pass through the origin and have direction cosines
ap
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), respectively. Therefore, their equations are
np
tio
x −0 y −0 z−0
es
X-axis : = = or y = 0 , z = 0
qu
1 0 0
et
ne
x −0 y −0 z−0
= = or x = 0 , z = 0
@
Y-axis :
am
0 1 0
gr
x −0 y −0 z−0
le
Z-axis : = = or x = 0, y = 0
Te
0 0 1
Plane
A plane is a surface such that, if two points are taken on it, a straight
line joining them lies wholly on the surface. A straight line, which is
perpendicular to every line lying on a plane is called a normal to the
plane.
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Cartesian Form
The equation of a plane, which is at a distance p from origin and the
direction cosines of the normal from the origin to the plane are l , m , n
is given by lx + my + nz = p.
Note The coordinates of foot of perpendicular N from the origin on the plane
are (lp , mp , np ).
er
ap
np
Fixed Point
qu
et
ne
Vector Form
@
am
Cartesian Form
The equation of a plane passing through a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
given by a( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0
where, a , b, c are direction ratios of normal to the plane.
Intercept Form
The intercept form of equation of plane represented in the form of
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
where, a , b and c are intercepts on X , Y and Z-axes, respectively.
Note There is no vector form of plane in intercept form.
For x intercept Put y = 0, z = 0 in the equation of the plane and
obtain the value of x. Similarly, we can determine for other intercepts.
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Cartesian Form
The cartesian equation of a plane passing through three non-collinear
points A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x − x y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0.
2 1
er
ap
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
np
io
st
e
Vector Form
The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes
r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d2 is r ⋅ ( n1 + λ n2 ) = d1 + λ d2 , where λ is a
scalar.
Cartesian Form
The carteian equation of plane passing through the intersection of two
planes a1x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 and a2 x + b2 y + c2z − d2 = 0
is ( a1 x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 ) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 z − d2 ) = 0
or x ( a1 + λ a2 ) + y ( b1 + λ b2 ) + z ( c1 + λ c2 ) = d1 + λ d2, where λ ∈ R.
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Cartesian Form
The cartesian equation of a plane parallel to the given plane
ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 is ax + by + cz + d2 = 0.
Important Results
(i) Equation of a plane passing through the point A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
parallel to two given lines with direction ratios
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 is a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
(ii) Equation of a plane passing through two points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and parallel to a line with direction ratios a , b, c is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0.
er
ap
a b c
np
tio
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
@
am
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 = 0.
gr
le
x4 − x1 y4 − y1 z 4 − z1
Te
Cartesian Form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
The lines = = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
are coplanar if a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
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Vector Form
If n1 and n2 are normals to the planes, and θ be the angle between the
planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r. n2 = d2.
n1 ⋅ n2
Then, cos θ =
n1 n2
C
θ θ
A
B
er
ap
np
tio
Cartesian Form
es
qu
et
cosθ =
Te
Vector Form
Two planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d2 are parallel, if n1 = λ n2 for some
scalar and perpendicular, if n1 ⋅ n2 = 0 .
Cartesian Form
The planes a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 are
a b c
parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 and perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
Note The equation of plane parallel to a given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
given by ax + by + cz + k = 0, where k may be determined from given
conditions.
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Cartesian Form
The perpendicular distance of a point P(x1, y1, z1)
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane
ax + by + cz + d
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is 1 1 1
. ax + by + cz + d =0
a + b + c2
2 2
distance of the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane is|lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p|.
np
tio
es
|d|
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
et
.
ne
a + b2 + c2
2
@
am
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Σ a12
Σ a22
np
tio
es
One of these planes will bisect the acute angle and the other obtuse
qu
et
(i) If a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 < 0, then origin lies is in acute angle and the
am
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Sphere
A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in a space, such a way
that its distance from a fixed point always remains constant.
Cartesian Form
The equation of the sphere with centre ( a , b, c) and radius r is
( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 + ( z − c)2 = r 2 ...(i)
the equation of a sphere with centre at origin and radius r is
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2.
er
ap
represents a sphere, if
(a) a = b = c ( ≠ 0) (b) h = k = l = 0
Then, the equation becomes
ax 2 + ay 2 + az2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(i)
To find its centre and radius first we make the coefficients of x 2 , y 2 and z 2
each unity by dividing throughout by a.
2u 2v 2w d
Thus, we have x 2 + y 2 + z2 + x+ y+ z+ =0 …(ii)
a a a a
−u −v −w
∴ Centre is , ,
a a a
u2 v 2 w 2 d u 2 + v 2 + w 2 − ad
and radius = 2
+ 2+ 2 − = .
a a a a | a|
(ii) Any sphere concentric with the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
is x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + k = 0
Contd. …
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Vector Form
et
ne
c n − d
@
n
gr
le
Te
Cartesian Form
The plane lx + my + nz = p will touch the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux
+ 2vy + 2 wz + d = 0, if
|lu + mv + nw + p|
= u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d
l +m +n
2 2 2
or ( lu + mv + nw + p)2 = ( u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d ) ( l 2 + m 2 + n 2 )
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30
Statistics
Statistics is the Science of collection, organisation, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of the numerical data.
Useful Terms
1. Primary and Secondary Data The data collected by the
investigator himself is known as the primary data, while the
data which are not originally collected but rather obtained from
some sources is known as secondary data.
er
ap
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Statistics 321
11. Continuous Frequency Distribution A frequency
distribution in which data are arranged in classes (or groups)
which are not exactly measurable.
12. Cumulative Frequency Distribution In this type of
distribution, the frequencies of each class intervals are added
successively from top to bottom or from bottom to top.
A cumulative frequency distribution is of two types
(i) Less than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from top to bottom
and we represent the cumulative number of observation less
than or equal to the class frequency to which it relates.
(ii) More than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from bottom to top
and we represent the cummulative number of observation
greater than or equal to the class frequency to which it
relates.
er
ap
np
Graphical Representation of
tio
es
Frequency Distributions
qu
et
ne
(i) Bar Diagrams In bar diagrams, only the length of the bars
@
am
40
30
Frequency
Bikes
Cars
20
Scooters
Bus
10
0 X
Registered vehicles
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20
10
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class interval
If however the classes are of unequal width, then the height of
the rectangles will be proportional to the ratio of the frequencies
er
Cars
120° Bus
60°
105° 75° rs
te
Bikes oo
Sc
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Statistics 323
corresponding frequencies. These plotted points are joined by
straight lines to obtain the frequency polygon.
Y
14 D
12
Number of students
10
8 B
C
6
4 E G
F
2
A H
0 X
25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 65.5
Weights (in kg)
60 60
am
50 50
le
Cumulative frequency
Cumulative frequency
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
O O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Upper limits Lower limits
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1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean (or simple mean) of a set of observations is
obtained by dividing the sum of the values of observations by the
number of observations.
(i) Arithmetic Mean for Unclassified (Ungrouped or Raw)
Data If there are n observations, x1 , x2 , x3 , K , xn , then their
arithmetic mean
n
x1 + x2 + K + xn
∑ xi
i =1
A or x = =
n n
(ii) Arithmetic Mean for Discrete Frequency Distribution
or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Let f1 , f2 , K , fn
be corresponding frequencies of x1 , x2 ,. .. , xn . Then, arithmetic
mean
er
n
∑
ap
xi fi
np
x1 f1 + x2 f2 + K + xn fn i =1
A= =
tio
es
f1 + f2 + K + fn n
∑
qu
fi
et
ne
i =1
@
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Statistics 325
n
∑ fi u i
i =1
(c) Step Deviation Method is x = A 1 + n
×h
∑ fi
i =1
where, A1 = assumed mean
xi − A 1
u i = step deviation = and h = width of interval.
h
(iv) Combined Mean If A1, A 2 ,... , A r are means of n1 , n 2 ,... , n r
observations respectively, then arithmetic mean of the
combined group is called the combined mean of the
observation
r
n 1A 1 + n 2A 2 + K + n r A r ∑ ni A i
i =1
A= =
n1 + n 2 +K + n r r
∑ ni
er
ap
i =1
np
tio
n
∑ wi xi
gr
le
Te
i =1
Aw = n
∑ wi
i =1
2. Geometric Mean
(i) If x1 , x2 ,... , xn be n positive observations, then their geometric
mean is defined as
G = n x1 x2 K xn
log x1 + log x2 + K + log xn
or G = antilog
n
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i =1 i
ap
np
n
∑ fi
qu
et
f1 + f2 + ... + fn
ne
i =1
HM = =
@
f1 f f n
f
∑ xi
am
+ 2 + ...+ n
gr
x1 x2 xn
le
i =1 i
Te
4. Median
The median of a distribution is the value of the middle observation,
when the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order.
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Statistics 327
n n
Hence, Median = Mean of th and + 1 th observations
2 2
1 n n
= th + + 1 th of observations
2 2 2
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Quartiles
The median divides the distribution in two equal parts. Similarly, quartiles
divide the distribution in four equal parts.
Q1 Q2 = M d Q3
5. Mode
The mode ( M O ) of a distribution is the value at the point about which
the observations tend to be most heavily concentrated. It is generally
the value of the variable which appears to occur most frequently in the
distribution.
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Statistics 329
(iii) Mode for Classified (Grouped) Distribution or
Grouped Frequency Distribution
The class having the maximum frequency is called the modal class
and the middle point of the modal class is called the crude mode.
The class just before the modal class is called pre-modal class and the
class after the modal class is called the post-modal class.
Mode for classified data (Continuous Distribution) is given by
f0 − f1
MO = l + ×h
2 f0 − f1 − f2
where, l = lower limit of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the modal class
f1 = frequency of the pre-modal class
f2 = frequency of the post-modal class
h = length of the class interval
er
ap
np
Measure of Dispersion
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average
value is called the dispersion of the data. The four measure of
dispersion are
1. Range 2. Mean deviation
3. Standard deviation 4. Root mean square deviation
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1. Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest observation of a
data is called its range.
i.e. Range = X max − X min
X max − X min
∴ The coefficient of range =
X max + X min
It is widely used in statistical series relating to quality control in
production.
(i) Inter quartile range = Q3 − Q1
Q3 − Q1
(ii) Semi-inter quartile range (Quartile deviation) =
2
Q3 − Q1
and coefficient of quartile deviation =
Q3 + Q1
2. Mean Deviation (MD)
er
ap
n
et
∑ |xi − x|
ne
@
i =1
(i) For simple (raw) distribution δ =
am
n
gr
le
n
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(ii) For unclassified frequency distribution δ = n
∑ fi
n i =1
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(iii) For classified distribution δ = n
∑ fi
i =1
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Statistics 331
Limitations of Mean Deviation
(i) If the data is more scattered or the degree of variability is very
high, then the median is not a valid representative.
(ii) The sum of the deviations from the mean is more than the sum of
the deviations from the median.
(iii) The mean deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values
of the deviations and so cannot be subjected to further algebraic
treatment.
3. Standard Deviation and Variance
Standard deviation is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of deviations of the terms from their AM and it is denoted by σ.
The square of standard deviation is called the variance and it is
denoted by the symbol σ 2.
(i) For simple distribution
n
∑ ( xi − x )2
er
2
ap
1 n n
n ∑ xi − ∑ xi
np
i =1 2
σ= =
tio
n n i =1
es
i =1
qu
et
n
gr
∑ f ( xi − x )2
le
2
Te
1 n n
i =1
N ∑ fi xi − ∑ fi xi
2
σ= =
N N i =1 i =1
2
1 n n
N ∑ fi di − ∑ fi di
2
Shortcut Method σ =
N i =1 i =1
where, di = deviation from assumed mean = xi − A and A = assumed
mean
(iii) For continuous frequency distribution
n
∑ fi ( xi − x )2
i =1
σ=
N
where, xi is class mark of the interval.
2
h n n
Shortcut Method σ =
N
N ∑ fi u i2 − ∑ fi u i
i =1 i =1
xi − A
where, u i = , A = assumed mean and h = width of the class
h
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Statistics 333
S=
∑ ( x − A′ )2 , where A′ = assumed mean
n
(ii) For frequency distribution
S=
∑ f ( x − A′ )2
∑f
Note If A′ = A (mean), then S = σ
∑ f x2 .
np
(ii) σ 2 + A2 =
tio
∑f
es
∑x
qu
2
et
n
@
am
(iv) The mean deviation about the mean is less than or equal to the SD. i. e.
MD ≤ σ.
gr
le
Te
Correlation
The tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called
correlation (or covariation). It denotes the degree of inter-dependence
between variables.
Types of Correlation
1. Perfect Correlation
If the two variables vary in such a manner that their ratio is always
constant, then the correlation is said to be perfect.
2. Positive or Direct Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase or
decrease in the other, then the correlation is said to be positive.
3. Negative or Indirect Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to a decrease or
increase in the other, then correlation is said to be negative.
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Covariance
Let ( xi , yi ), i = 1, 2, 3, K , n be a bivariate distribution, where
x1 , x2 ,K , xn are the values of variable x and y1 , y2 , K , yn those of y,
then the cov ( x , y ) is given by
n
1
(i) cov ( x , y ) =
n
∑ ( xi − x )( yi − y )
i =1
cov( x , y ) cov ( x , y )
r( x , y ) =
qu
or
et
var ( x ) var ( y ) σ xσ y
ne
@
n
am
∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
gr
le
i =1
=
Te
n n
∑ ( xi − x )2 ∑ ( yi − y )2
i =1 i =1
n n
n ∑ xi ∑ y i
∑ xi yi − i =1
n
i =1
i =1
=
2 2
n n
∑ xi ∑ yi
n
n
∑ xi − i =1 ∑ yi − i =1
2 2
i =1 n i =1 n
n n n
n ∑ x i y i − ∑ xi ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1
=
2 2
n n n n
n ∑ x i − ∑ xi n ∑ yi − ∑ y i
2 2
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
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Statistics 335
Properties of Correlation
(i) − 1 ≤ r ≤ 1
(ii) If r = 1, then coefficient of correlation is perfectly positive.
(iii) If r = − 1, then correlation is perfectly negative.
(iv) The coefficient of correlation is independent of the change of
origin and scale.
(v) Correlation coefficient has no unit and it is a pure number.
(vi) If − 1 < r < 1, it indicates the degree of linear relationship
between x and y, whereas its sign tells about the direction of
relationship.
(vii) If x and y are two independent variables, then r = 0
(viii) If r = 0, x and y are said to be uncorrelated. It does not imply
that the two variates are independent.
er
|ac|
r( ax + b, cy + d ) = r( x , y ).
qu
et
ac
ne
@
1 − r2
Te
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Regression
Regression helps to estimate or predict the unknown value of one
variable from the known values of the other related variables.
er
Lines of Regression
ap
np
tio
A line of regression is the straight line which gives the best fit in the
es
The regression coefficient shows that with a unit change in the value of
le
Te
x (or y) variable, what will be the average change in the value of y (or
x) variable.
It is denoted by byx (or bxy ).
σ y cov ( x , y )
byx = r =
σx σ 2x
σ x cov ( x , y )
and bxy = r =
σy σ 2y
Regression Analysis
Regression Equation Regression equations are the algebraic
formulation of regression lines.
(i) Line of regression of y on x is
σy
y− y =r (x − x )
σx
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Statistics 337
(ii) Line of regression of x on y is
σ
x − x = r x ( y − y)
σy
(iii) Angle between two regression lines is given by
1 − r 2 σ x σ y 1 − r2
θ = tan−1 2 = tan−1
2
r σ x + σ y bxy + byx
π
(a) If r = 0, i.e. θ = , then two regression lines are
2
perpendicular to each other.
(b) If r = 1 or − 1, i.e. θ = 0, then two regression lines coincide.
regression coefficients.
np
tio
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31
Mathematical
Reasoning
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of reasoning—inductive
and deductive. Here, we will discuss some fundamentals of deductive
reasoning.
er
ap
Statement (Proposition)
np
tio
es
not both. Statements are denoted by the small letters i.e. p, q , r ... etc.
et
ne
Note
gr
le
1. Simple Statement
A statement which cannot be broken into two or more statements is
called a simple statement.
e.g. p : 2 is a real number.
2. Open Statement
A sentence which contains one or more variable such that when certain
values are given to the variable it becomes a statement, is called an
open statement.
e.g. p : ‘He is a great man’ is an open statement because in this
statement, he can be replaced by any person.
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Truth Table
np
tio
es
p ⇒q q ⇒p Tautology Contradiction
qu
p q
(p ⇒ q ) ∨ (q ⇒ p ) ~ {(p ⇒ q ) ∨ (q ⇒ p )}
et
ne
@
T T T T T F
am
gr
T F F T T F
le
Te
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
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contingency.
io
est
qu
Quantifiers
et
ne
@
Quantified Statement
An open statement with a quantifier becomes a quantified statement.
e.g. x 4 > 0, ∀x ∈ R is a quantified statemet. Its truth value is T.
Validity of Statements
Validity of a statement means checking whether the statement is valid
(true) or not. This depends upon which of the connectives and
quantifiers used in the statement.
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that the compound statement, ‘if p then q’ is true, one must consider
io
st
e
the following.
qu
et
Case I Assume that pis true, show that q must be true (direct method).
ne
@
(contrapositive method).
le
Te
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32
Linear Programming
Problem (LPP)
Linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the
maximum or minimum value of a linear function of several variables,
subject to conditions that the variables are non-negative and satisfy a
set of linear inequalities.
er
ap
np
Objective Function
qu
et
ne
Constraints
The system of linear inequations under which the objective function is
to be optimised is called constraints.
Non-negative Restrictions
All the variables considered for making decisions assume non-negative
values.
Optimal Value
The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is known as
the optimal value of LPP.
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Programming Problem
np
io
est
(ii) Plot the graph of each equation each of these will geometrically
represent a straight line.
(iii) Find the feasible region.
(iv) Determine the vertices (corner points) of the feasible region.
(v) Find the values of the objective function at each of the extreme
points.
(vi) (a) If region is bounded, then maximum (say M) or minimum
(say m) value out of these values obtained in point (v), is the
required maximum or minimum value of the objective
function.
(b) If region is unbounded, then maximum (say M) or minimum
(say m) value out of these values obtained in point (v) may
or may not be required maximum or minimum value of the
objective function. In this case, we go to next point.
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maximum profit.
np
io
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33
Elementary
Arithmetic-I
Number System
Number A number tells us how many times a unit is contained in a
given quantity.
Numeral A group of figures (digits), representing a number, is
er
ap
called a numeral.
np
tio
es
e.g. In the numeral 576432, the face value of 6 is 6 and the place value
of 6 is 6000.
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Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
number
er
Roman numerals I V X L C D M
qu
et
Indo-Arabic numerals
@
am
Classification of Numbers in
Decimal Number System
Real Number
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number.
Step III If the new number is not divisible by any of the prime
number, then given number is a prime number otherwise
it is composite number.
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n
n( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
∑r2 =
tio
es
r =1 6
qu
et
ne
2 2
n
n( n + 1) n
∑ r3 = 2 = ∑ r
gr
le
Te
r =1 r =1
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Rule 2. For even numbers When there is an even digit at unit place
np
tio
of the base, multiplying the number by itself until you get 6 in the unit
es
qu
place.
et
base, then any times of its multiplication, it will get the same digit in
unit place.
(... 1)n = (... 1)
(... 5)n = (... 5)
(... 6)n = (... 6)
Integers
Any number having sign ‘+’ ve or ‘–’ ve without having any fractional
part is called integer (including zero).
I or Z = {K ,− 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,K }
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Rational Numbers
p
A number which can be written in the form of , where p, q ∈ Z and
q
q ≠ 0, is called rational number. A rational number can be expressed as
decimal based, on which rational number are of two types :
(i) Terminating If the prime factors of denominator contains no
factor other than 2 and 5, it is terminating.
(ii) Non-terminating Recurring If the prime factors of
denominator contains factor other than 2 and 5, is
non-terminating recurring rational number.
Irrational Number
es
qu
et
Real Number
Any number, which is either rational or irrational is called real
number and it is denoted by the symbol R.
i.e. R = {Set of all rational and irrational numbers}
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a+ 0= a
np
tio
es
a ⋅1 = a
et
ne
@
a + (− a) = 0
gr
le
Te
Complex Numbers
If a and b are two real numbers, then the number ( a + ib) is called the
complex number and it is denoted by the symbol C.
i.e. C = { a + ib, a , b ∈ R }
Here, a is called real part and b is called imaginary part.
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Fraction
Fraction A fraction is a number representing ratio or division of two
natural numbers.
Types of Fractions
(i) Proper Fraction A fraction, having numerator smaller than
2 5 3
the denominator. e.g. , , .
3 8 7
(ii) Improper Fraction A fraction, having numerator greater
2 2 5 9
than or equal to denominator. e.g. , , , .
2 1 3 6
(iii) Like Fractions Fractions having same value in denominator.
2 6 11 7
e.g. , , , .
5 5 5 5
(iv) Unlike Fractions Fractions having different values in
2 2 2 2
er
denominator. e.g. , , , .
ap
3 5 11 13
np
tio
3 6 9 12
qu
5 10 15 20
@
1 1
gr
le
fraction. e.g. 2 , 5 .
Te
3 4
(vii) Decimal Fraction A fraction having 10 or power of 10 in the
5 2 61
denominator. e.g. , , .
100 10 1000
(viii) Vulgar/Common Fraction Fraction having denominator
7 5
other than 10 (or power of 10). e.g. , .
3 6
(ix) Complex Fraction A fraction, in which numerator and
7/ 3 2/ 7
denominator, both are fractions. e.g. , .
2/ 5 5/ 6
Comparison of Fractions
Fraction can be compared by any of the given method.
(i) LCM Method By taking LCM of all the denominators in the
given fraction, then comparing their numerators by making
their denominators equal.
(ii) Decimal Method By converting fractional numbers into their
corresponding decimal numbers, which can be easily compared.
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a
(iii) Cross-multiplication Method If we have two fractions
b
c
and , then cross-multiply the fraction. i.e. we get ad and bc.
d
The fraction, whose numerator after cross-multiplication gives
the greater value is greater.
a c
i.e. If ad > bc, then > .
b d
y + nb
ap
np
tio
a x x + na
et
b y y + nb
@
am
a x x + na
< , then
gr
(ii) If is smallest.
le
b y y + nb
Te
a x
(iii) If = , all values are equal.
b y
Rule 3. For arranging fractions in ascending/descending order
Step I Compare first two numbers.
Step II Compare the third number with the one obtained in Step I
(larger/smaller depending upon ascending/descending
order).
Step III Repeat Step II until the last term.
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p/ q
1
ap
1
a− p/ q
= = . We say a − p/ q is reciprocal of a p/ q on
np
p/q a
tio
a
es
Rule 1. a m × a n = a m + n Rule 2. a m ÷ a n = a m − n
gr
le
Te
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Surds
Irrational root of a rational number is called a surd.
If n is a positive integer and a is a positive rational number, which
cannot be expressed as the nth power of some rational number, then
the irrational number, n a or a1/ n that is the positive nth root of a, is
called surd or a radical. The symbol n is called the radical sign, n
is called the order of the surd (or radical) and a is called the
3
radicand. Hence, 2 is not a surd as 2 is not a rational number.
However, 7 is a surd as 7 is a rational number and square root of 7 is
not a rational number.
64 is not a surd as though 64 is a rational number but 64 = 8, which
is not an irrational number.
∴ 6
12 is a surd of order 6.
Properties of Surds
er
ap
a surd.
es
qu
4
@
7
gr
le
3
2 , 33 5 , 3 2 / 5 are cubic surds.
4. A surd of order 4 is called a biquadratic surd.
7
Hence, 4 5 , 2 4 7 , 4 4
are biquadratic surds.
5
5. A surd containing only one term is called a monomial surd.
Hence, − 2 3 5 , 34 7 are monomial surds.
6. If n a is surd, then ( n a )n = a.
7. If n a and n b are surds, then n a × n
b= n
ab
n
a a
8. If n a and n b are surds, then =n n
b b
n
9. If a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then
m n
a = n m
a = mn
a.
n n mn
10. If p
a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then ap = a pm
(index of the radical and the exponent of the radical are
multiplied by same positive integer m).
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15. Surds having same irrational factor are called similar or like
es
surds.
qu
et
4 1
ne
3 3
am
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n
21. If a p is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest rationalising
an − p.
n
factor is
n
22. If a pbq is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest
a n − pbn − q .
n
rationalising factor is
23. A surd containing only two distinct terms is called a binomial
surd. Hence, 2 + 3 , 2 3 + 3 2 , 7 + 3 are binomial surds.
24. Two binomial surds are said to be conjugates of each other, if
they differ only in sign (+ or –) connecting them.
Thus, 2 2 + 3 3 and 2 2 − 3 3 are conjugates of each other.
25. Rationalising factor of a binomial surd is its conjugate.
e.g. Rationalising factor of a b + c d is a b − c d .
26. Surds containing three distinct terms is called a trinomial
surd. Hence, 7 + 2 + 3 3 , 7 − 2 + 3 are trinomial surds.
er
ap
np
tio
(i) ( a ) = a2
(ii) ( a b )2 = a × a × b
et
ne
@
1 a 1 a− b
am
(iii) = (iv) =
a+ b a −b
gr
a a
le
Te
1 a+ b a + b a + b + 2 ab
(v) = (vi) =
a− b a −b a− b a −b
a − b a + b − 2 ab a+ b a − b 2( a + b)
(vii) = (viii) + =
a+ b a −b a− b a+ b a −b
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HCF of two or more numbers is the greatest number, which divides all
the given numbers exactly.
2. Division Method
Step I Divide the larger number by smaller number.
Step II Take remainder (as obtained in Step I) as divisor and the
last divisor as the dividend.
Step III Repeat Step II until 0 is obtained as remainder. The last
divisor will be the required HCF.
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2. HCF of Decimals
Step I First make the same number of decimal places in all the
given numbers.
Step II Remove the decimals as if they are integers, thus obtain
the HCF of obtained integers.
Step III Place as many decimal places in the obtained HCF as
there are decimal places in each of the numbers.
3. HCF of Fractions
HCF of fractions, after expressing them in their lowest form
er
HCF of numerator
ap
=
np
LCM of denominator
tio
es
qu
1. LCM of Decimals
Step I Make the same number of decimal places in all the given
numbers.
Step II Remove the decimal and consider the numbers as integer.
Step III Find LCM of obtained integers.
Step IV Mark as many decimal places as there are decimal places
in each of the number.
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(vi) To obtain the lowest number, which when divided by x , y and z leaving
tio
es
( x − p) = ( y − q) = ( z − r) = k (say).
et
ne
Simplification
Te
Quicker Methods
(i) For addition/subtraction of mixed fraction.
Step I Add/subtract integer part only.
Step II Add/subtract fraction part only.
Step III Add both the results.
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Average
er
Average is the ratio of the sum of the distributed data among different
ap
np
Sum of data
qu
i.e. Average =
et
Number of data
ne
@
and
gr
le
Te
Combined Average
(i) If x and y is the average of objects m and n respectively, then the
mx + ny
combined average of the data =
m+n
(ii) If x , y and z are the average of objects m, n and p respectively,
then combined average of the data
mx + ny + pz
=
m+n+ p
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ap
np
=
es
qu
Number of data
et
n +1
ne
2
am
gr
(ix) If a person travels half of the distance at x km/h and rest of the
le
Te
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Compositions of Ratios
(i) Compound Ratio Ratio obtained by multiplying together the
antecedents of different ratios to get a new antecedent and
consequents to get a new consequents is called compound ratio.
i.e., for a : b, c : d , e : f , compound ratio = ace : bdf
(ii) Duplicate Ratio For x : y , duplicate ratio = x 2 : y 2
(iii) Triplicate Ratio For x : y , triplicate ratio = x3 : y3
(iv) Subduplicate Ratio For x : y, subduplicate ratio = x : y
(v) Subtriplicate Ratio For x : y, subtriplicate ratio = x1/ 3 : y1/ 3
(vi) Inverse Ratio/Reciprocal Ratio
For x : y, inverse ratio = y : x
Types of Ratios
For a ratio x : y,
er
(i) If ratio between first and second quantity is a : b and the ratio
gr
Proportion
When the ratio of two quantities is same as the ratio of two other
quantities, then these quantities are said to be in proportion. i.e.
If a : b = c : d, then a, b, c and d are in proportions, where a and d are
called extremes and b and c are called means. And a : b = c : d is
denoted by a : b :: c : d or ad = bc ⇒ Product of means = Product of
extremes
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2. Direct Proportion
Two quantities are said to be in direct proportion, if by increasing or
decreasing one of the quantities, the other increases or decreases,
respectively to the same extent.
er
ap
3. Indirect Proportion
np
tio
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34
Elementary
Arithmetic-II
Time and Work
Each person has different capabilities to do any work. If a person has
lot of capability to do a work, then he takes less time to do that work
er
1
∝
ne
@
Fundamental Formula
If M1 person can do W1 works in D1 days and M 2 persons can do W 2
work in D2 days, when M1 works T1 hour with efficiency of E1 and M 2
works T2 hour with efficiency of E2, then
M1D1T1E1W 2 = M 2D2T2E2W1
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xy + yz + zx
completed in one day/hour =
es
qu
xyz
et
ne
xyz
or Number of days to complete the work =
@
xy + yz + zx
am
gr
le
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18 5
ap
np
tio
2xy
am
2× t× x× y
journey is t, then distance covered by an object =
x+ y
(ii) If an object starts from point P and goes to Q at a speed of x km/h
in time t1 and returns to P from Q in time t2 at the speed y km/h,
xy
then distance between P and Q = ( t1 + t2 )
x+ y
(iii) If an object starts at a point (say P) at a speed x km/h at
particular time (say p am) and another object starts at the same
point with speed y km/h at time (say q am), then
Meeting point’s distance from starting point
x × y × Difference in starting time x × y ×|q − p|
= =
Difference of speed |x − y|
Now, suppose first object reaches its destiny (say Q) at time
p1 am/pm and second object reaches Q at q1 am/pm, then first
and second object will meet at
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Speed of A : Speed of B = t2 : t1
es
qu
et
ne
(i) When two trains are moving with velocities x and y km/h
le
Te
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l1
and , if man is walking in opposite direction.
tio
x+z
es
qu
et
(ii) Suppose, two trains A and B starting from P and Q, with speed x
ne
@
x+ y
le
.
|x − y|
(iii) If a train passes a man/pole, standing on the platform in t1 time
and passes the platform in t2 time, then
d
Length of train = × t1
|t1 − t2|
where, d = Length of the platform
(iv) Suppose, there are two trains A and B are of length l1 and l2
respectively, if time taken by them to cross each other be t1,
when moving in same direction and t2 when moving in opposite
direction, then
l + l2 1 1
Speed of faster train = 1 +
2 t1 t2
l + l2 1 1
and speed of slower train = 1 −
2 t1 t2
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t2
and speed of train A = speed of train B × .
t1
er
Still Water When the speed of the water in the stream or river is ‘0’,
es
qu
1
(ii) x = (Speed in upstream + Speed in downstream)
2
1
and y = (Speed in downstream − Speed in upstream)
2
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where,
np
and
es
qu
et
ne
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1 1 1 ab + bc + ca
= + + =
np
tio
a b c abc
es
abc
qu
ab + bc + ca
ne
@
am
1 1 b− a ab
= − = or the time taken to fill the tank =
a b ab b− a
(h) If the cistern is empty and pipes A and B are working as inlet
and C as outlet, then part of the cistern filled in 1 h
1 1 1 bc + ca − ab
= + − =
a b c abc
abc
or time taken to fill the tank =
bc + ca − ab
(ii) If only pipe A is working as inlet, which fills it in time a and
because of a leak in the cistern, takes x units of time more to fill
the cistern. Now, if the cistern is fall, then the time taken to
a
empty the cistern due to leak is given by a 1 + .
x
(iii) If A and B are working together to fill the tank, takes x units of
time. When A works alone takes y units of time more than x and
when B works alone takes z units of time more than x , then
x 2 = yz
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Clock
Clocks consists of two arms, longer arm which shows minute is called
minute hand and shorter arm which shows hour is called hour hand.
Dial
Dial of a clock is a circle, whose circumference is divided into 12 equal
parts called ‘hour space’. Each hour space is further divided into
5 parts, called ‘minute space’.
60
ap
np
360°
es
12
ne
1
covers (1/2)°. So, in 1 min, the minute hand gains 5 °.
@
am
2
gr
le
Te
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5
np
x − 65
tio
x
et
ne
@
5
65 − x
= n × 60 11 min where, x is the time in which the hands
x
of the fast clock coincide.
Calendar
Calendar is a measure of time having day as the smallest unit.
Ordinary Year A year having 365 days, is called ordinary year.
Leap Year A year having 366 days, is called leap year.
Odd Days Number of days more than the complete numbers of weeks
in a given period is called odd days.
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Saturday.
Te
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35
Elementary
Arithmetic III
Percentage
The word ‘per cent’, means ‘per hundred’ or ‘out of hundred’, symbol %
is used to express percentage.
1. To convert a fraction into percentage, multiply the fraction by
er
ap
100.
np
tio
x x
If fraction = , then its percentage = × 100 %.
es
y
qu
y
et
ne
@
percentage by 100.
gr
le
increase in quantity
Percentage increases = ( x %) = × 100 %
original quantity
100 + x
and new quantity = × original quantity.
100
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x
× 100% of y.
tio
y
qu
et
ne
xy
am
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100 + x
ap
np
tio
ne
x
× 100 %.
@
100 − x
am
gr
le
(iii) If the price of the commodity is increased by x%, such that the
Te
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to purchase an article.
ap
np
article.
qu
et
article.
(v) Discount Amount deducted from the marked price.
(vi) Net Price Amount paid by the customers to purchase an
article after deducing the discount.
(vii) Gross Profit The total profit without deducing tax.
(viii) Net Profit Profit after deducing tax.
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xy
es
100
et
ne
@
be loss.
gr
le
Te
(iii) If there are two successive loss of x% and y%, then resultant
xy
loss will be x + y − %.
100
(iv) If the same article is sold at successive profits
x1 %, x2 %, x3 %,K and successive losses y1 %, y2 %,..., then CP
will be
100 100 100 100
SP × × × ... × × × ...
100 + x1 100 + x2 100 − y1 100 − y2
Dishonest Dealer
(i) If a shopkeeper sells an article at its cost price but cheats the
customer by using false weight, then percentage gain
True weight − False weight
= × 100%
False weight
Error
or percentage gain = × 100%
True weight − Error
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False Weight
np
tio
weight (by mistake weighing more than that marked on it), then
et
ne
Error
Pecentage loss = × 100%
gr
le
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100 − x
ap
np
tio
x ×R
Actual CP = 2
@
.
x2 − x1
am
gr
le
Te
Transaction in Part
(i) If m part of a consignment is sold at x1 % profit, n part is sold at
x2 % profit and l part at x3 % profit and overall profit is ` R, then
R × 100
value of total consignment = .
mx1 + nx2 + lx3
(ii) If a man purchases a certain number of articles at R1 and the
same number at R2 and after mixing them together, he sells
them at R3 , then gain or loss
2R1R2
(according +ve or –ve sign) = − 1 × 100%.
R3 ( R1 + R2 )
(iii) If a shopkeeper marks an article at x% above its cost price and
gives purchasers as discount of d%, then the profit/loss
dx
(depending upon +ve or –ve sign) is x − d − %.
100
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(iv) If a person buys two articles at total cost of ` R and sells one at a
loss of y% and other at a profit of x%, then
CP of both × y
Cost of one article = .
x+ y
CP of both × x
Cost of second article = .
x+ y
(v) When each of the two articles is sold at same price and a profit of
x% is on first and a loss of y% is on second, then gain or loss
(depending upon +ve or –ve sign) is
100 ( x − y ) − 2xy
.
(100 + x ) + (100 − y )
(vi) If a discount of d1%, the shopkeeper makes a profit of x1% and if
the discount is d2%, then profit
100 − d2
x2% = (100 + x1 ) − 100%.
100 − d1
er
ap
np
Simple Interest
tio
es
qu
et
the borrower to the lender for the use of the money lent.
le
Te
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100 ( A 2 − A1 )
es
qu
R=
et
A1T2 − A 2T1
ne
@
am
100 ( A2 − A1 )
T =
A1R2 − A2R1
12. If a sum is put at simple interest at the rate R1 %, for T years to
obtain simple interest SI1 ,if it had been put at rate R2 % for same
years, then simple interest is SI2, then the sum was
(SI2 − SI1 ) × 100
P= .
T × ( R2 − R1 )
13. If a sum of ` P is lent on simple interest in n parts such that the
interest on first part at R1 % for T1 years, interest on second part
at R2% for T2 years, interest on third part at R3 % for T3 years and
so on being equal, then the ratio in which the sum was divided in
1 1 1 1
n parts, is given by : : : ... :
R1T1 R2T2 R3T3 Rn Tn
14. If a sum of ` P is lent on simple interest in n parts such that the
amount of first part lent at R1 % for T1 years, the amount of
second part lent at R2 % for T2 years, the amount of third part
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lent at R3 % for T3 years and so on, being same. Then, the ratio in
which the sum was divided in n parts, is given by
1 1 1 1
: : : ... : .
100 + R1T1 100 + R2T2 100 + R3T3 100 + Rn Tn
Compound Interest
Money is said to be lent at Compound Interest (CI), if the
interest at the end of year or a fixed period of time is not paid by the
borrower to the lender, it is added to the principal and thus the
amount obtained becomes the new principal for the next period and
so on.
simple interest.
ap
np
(iii) The amount of the previous year becomes the principal for the successive
tio
year.
es
qu
(iv) The difference between two consecutive amounts is the interest on the
et
ne
preceeding amount.
@
am
gr
1 +
100
(ii) If the interest is compounded half-yearly, then
2T
R / 2
A = P 1 + .
100
(iii) If the interest is compounded quaterly, then
4T
R / 4
A = P 1 + .
100
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R×T
SI = × CI
et
ne
R
T
@
100 1 + − 1
am
100
gr
le
Te
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n
R q
ap
100 100
tio
es
qu
et
ne
p
× R
@
n
R
1 − q
am
100
le
Te
3. If there is increase of R1 % in T1 years, decrease of R2 % in next
T2 years and an increase of R3 % in next T3 years, then
T1 T2 T3
R R2 R3
A = P 1 + 1 1 − 1 + .
100 100 100
4. (i) If A > P , there is an increase.
(ii) If A < P , there is a decrease.
Applications
1. Population If there is an increase/decrease of R% per annum
in the population, then
(i) population after n years will be
n
R
A = P 1 + , P = Present population.
100
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P
(ii) population n years ago will be A = n
R
1 +
100
Note If population decreases with the rate of R %, then negative sign will
be used in place of positive sign in the above mentioned formulae.
2. Old Wooden Objects If Old wooden objects decays at a
constant rate of R% per annum, then after n years, its value will
be
n
R
A = P 1 − , P = Present value
100
Partnership
Partnership is an association of two or more persons who put their
money together to carry out on a certain business. These persons are
called partners.
er
ap
np
Types of Partnership
le
Te
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company.
np
io
st
(ii) Share Capital is divided into smaller units, which are called
e
qu
share.
et
ne
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(iii) Same rules and formulae used for shares can be applied to debenture.
gr
le
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100
tio
=
qu
MV
et
ne
Amount of stock × MV
@
14. Investment =
am
100
gr
le
Te
Alligation or Mixture
1. When two or more types of quantities of things are mixed, a
mixture is produced.
2. Alligation is a rule that enables us to find.
(a) The proportion in which two or more ingrediants of the given
prices must be mixed to produce a mixture at a given price.
Note The cost price of unit quantity of the mixture is called the mean
price.
(b) The mean price of the mixture when the prices of the
ingrediants and the proportions in which they are mixed is
known.
3. Rule of alligation
Quantity of cheaper ingrediant CP of dearer − Mean price
=
Quantity of dearer ingrediant Mean price − CP of cheaper
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(D − M ) (M − C)
Quantity of cheaper : Quantity of dearer = ( D − M ) : ( M − C )
4. Mean price
Quantity of cheaper × CP of cheaper
er
=
np
5. Two vessels of equal size are full with mixtures of liquids A and
et
ne
a1 a2
le
+
Te
Quantity of liquid A a1 + b1 a2 + b2
=
Quantity of liquid B b1 b2
+
a1 + b1 a2 + b2
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a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3
ap
np
tio
m( y − x )
am
100 − y
le
Te
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36
Elementary Algebra
Polynomial
An expression of the form a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an −1x + an ,
where a0 , a1 ,... , an are real numbers and n is a non-negative integer, is
called a polynomial in the variable x. Polynomial in the variable x are
usually denoted by f ( x ), g ( x ) and h( x ) etc.
Thus, f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 + ... + an −1x + an .
(i) If a0 ≠ 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial f ( x ); it is
written as deg f ( x ) = n.
er
ap
(ii) a0x n , a1x n −1 , a2x n − 2 ,... , an −1x, an are called the terms of the
np
io
st
f ( x ).
@
m
Degree of a Polynomial
(i) In One Variable The highest power of the variable is called
the degree of the polynomial.
(ii) In Two Variables The sum of the powers of the variables in
each term is obtained and the highest sum, so obtained is the
degree of that polynomial.
Types of Polynomials
(i) Constant Polynomial A polynomial having degree zero.
(ii) Linear Polynomial A polynomial having degree one.
(iii) Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree two.
(iv) Cubic Polynomial A polynomial having degree three.
(v) Biquadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree four.
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Factorisation of Polynomials
(i) ( x − a )2 = x 2 − 2xa + a 2
(ii) ( x + a )2 = x 2 + 2xa + a 2
(iii) ( x + a )3 = x3 + 3x 2a + 3a 2x + a3
(iv) ( x − a )3 = x3 − 3x 2a + 3a 2x − a3
(v) ( x + y + z )2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2 yz + 2zx
(vi) ( w + x + y + z )2 = w2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2w( x + y + z )
+ 2x( y + z ) + 2 yz
(vii) a + b + c − 3abc = ( a + b + c) ⋅ ( a + b + c − ab − bc − ca )
3 3 3 2 2 2
(viii) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
(ii) ( x − a )( x 2 + xa + a 2 ) = x3 − a3
tio
es
(iii) ( x + a )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x3 + a3
qu
et
ne
(iv) ( x − a )( x + a )( x 2 + a 2 ) = x 4 − a 4
@
am
(v) ( x 2 + xa + a 2 )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x 4 + x 2a 2 + a 4
gr
le
Te
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Value of a Polynomial f ( x ) at x = α
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an be a polynomial in x and α be
er
ap
is denoted by f(α ).
am
gr
le
Te
Remainder Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that, if p ( x ) is divided by a polynomial of the form ( x − a ), then the
remainder is p ( a ).
Factor Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that p ( a ) = 0, then ( x − a ) is a factor of p ( x ).
Zeroes/Roots of a Polynomial
A real number α is a zero of the polynomial p ( x ), if and only if f(α ) = 0.
If p ( x ) is a polynomial of order n, such that
p ( x ) = a0x + a1x n − 1 + a2x n − 2 + K + an − 1x + an = 0,
where a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an ∈ R and p ( x ) have roots α1 , α 2 , α3 , K , α n , then
(i) Sum of roots
a
α1 + α 2 + K + α n = ( − 1)1 1
a0
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(i)
es
(ii)
et
(iii)
@
HCF of Monomials
To find the HCF of two or more monomials, we multiply the HCF of
the numerical coefficients of the monomials by the highest power of
each of the letters common to both the polynomials.
LCM of Monomials
To find the LCM of two monomials, we multiply the LCM of the
numerical coefficient of the monomials by all the factors raised to the
highest power which it has in either of the given polynomials.
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Linear Equations
(i) Equation A statement of equality of two algebraic expressions
involving two or more unknown variable, is called equation.
(ii) Linear Equation An equation involving the variables in
maximum of order 1 is called a linear equation. Graph of linear
equation is a straight line.
Linear equation in one variable is of the form ax + b = 0.
er
ap
equation makes the two sides of the equation equal, is called the
@
am
solution of an equation.
gr
le
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Step III Substituting this obtained value of variable (x) in the first
am
3. Cross-multiplication Method
Step I Consider the system of simultaneous linear equations, in
two variables x and y.
i.e. a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0
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b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2
Step III Now, find the value of x and y according to the following
relation
x y 1
= =
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 a1b2 − a2b1
which gives
b1c2 − b2c1
x=
a1b2 − a2b1
c1a2 − c2a1
y=
er
and
ap
a1b2 − a2b1
np
tio
es
4. Graphical Method
qu
et
ne
When we draw the graph of each of the two equations, we have the
@
following possibilities.
am
gr
(a) If two lines intersect at one point, then it has a unique solution
le
Te
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Rational Expression
f(x)
If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two polynomials and g( x ) ≠ 0, then quotient is
g( x )
called a rational expression.
Every polynomial is a rational expression but every rational expression
f(x)
is not a polynomial. is said to be in lowest form, if f ( x ) and g( x )
g( x )
have no common factor.
g( x ) r( x )
np
tio
p ( x ) f ( x ) p ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) − f ( x ) ⋅ r( x )
− =
es
qu
r( x ) g( x ) r( x ) ⋅ g( x )
et
ne
f(x) p (x)
@
g( x ) r( x )
gr
× =
Te
as
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) ⋅ r( x )
f(x) p (x)
(iv) Division When is divided by , we get it as
g( x ) r( x )
f ( x ) p ( x ) f ( x ) r( x )
÷ = ⋅
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) p ( x )
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37
Logarithms
If a is a positive real number other than 1 and a x = m , then x is called
the logarithm of m to the base a, written as loga m. In loga m , m
should be always positive.
(i) If m < 0, then loga m will be imaginary and if m = 0, then
loga m will be meaningless.
(ii) loga m exists only, if m , a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
Types of Logarithms
er
ap
np
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Note In place of −1 or −2 etc., we use 1 (one bar) and 2 (two bar) etc.
np
tio
es
Properties of Logarithms
qu
et
ne
Anti logarithm
The positive number a is called the anti logarithm of a number b, if a is
anti logarithm of b, then we write a = antilog b.
So, a = antilog b ⇔ log a = b.
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Logarithms 409
logb x
(v) loga x = loga b × logb x = ; a , b > 0, ≠ 1, x > 0
logb a
(vi) For m , n > 0, a > 0 and a ≠ 1
(a) loga ( mn ) = loga m + loga n
m
(b) loga = loga m − loga n
n
(c) loga ( m )n = n loga m
(vii) For x > 0, a > 0, ≠ 1
1
(a) loga n ( x ) = loga x
n
m
(b) loga n x m = loga x
n
(viii) For x > y > 0
(a) loga x > loga y , if a > 1
(b) loga x < loga y , if 0 < a < 1
er
ap
np
0<b<1
(1, 0) (1, 0)
X' X X' X
O O
Y' Y'
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38
Geometry
Point
A fine dot on paper or a location on plane is called point. Point has no
length, breadth or thickness.
Line
A line is defined as a line of points that extends infinitely in both
directions.
P Q
er
ap
np
Line Segment
tio
es
points and contains every point on the line between its end points.
ne
@
am
A B
gr
Ray
le
Te
Angle
If two rays are drawn in different directions from y
a common initial point, then they are said to form Ra
an angle. Angle
O
(i) An angle of 90° is a right angle and an Ray
angle less than 90° is an acute angle.
(ii) An angle between 90° and 180° is an obtuse angle.
(iii) An angle between 180° and 360° is a reflex angle.
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Geometry 411
(iv) The sum of all angles on one side of a straight line AB at a point
O by any number of lines joining the line AB at O is 180°.
(v) When any number of straight lines joining at a point, then the
sum of all the angles around that point is 360° which is called as
complete angle.
(vi) Two angles whose sum is 90° are said to be complementary to
each other and two angles whose sum is 180° are said to be
supplementary to each other.
Intersecting Lines
When two straight lines intersect each other, then vertically opposite
angles are equal.
l2
1
2 O 4
3
l1
er
ap
i.e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 3, ∠ 2 = ∠ 4
np
tio
es
Parallel Lines
qu
et
ne
X
Te
2 1
l2
3 4
6 5
l1
7 8
Y
The following are the relationships between various angles that are
formed.
(i) Alternate angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 7,∠ 2 = ∠ 8, [alternate exterior angles]
∠ 3 = ∠ 5 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 6. [alternate interior angles]
(ii) Corresponding angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 5, ∠ 2 = ∠ 6, ∠ 3 = ∠ 7 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 8.
(iii) Sum of interior angles on the same side of the transversal line is
equal to 180°.
i. e. ∠ 3 + ∠ 6 = 180° and ∠4 + ∠5 = 180°
This is also known as cointerior angles.
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Triangles
A figure bounded by three line segments in a plane is called a triangle.
It has three vertices, three sides and three angles.
A
B C
60°
60° 60°
B C
i.e. AB = BC = AC
or ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°
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Geometry 413
Important Properties of Triangles
(i) Sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ii) Sides opposite to equal angles are equal and vice-versa
(iii) In an isosceles right angled triangle one angle is 90° and other
two angles are 45° each.
(iv) The exterior angle of a triangle (at each vertex) is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles (exterior angle is the
angle formed at any vertex, by one side and the extended portion
of the second side at that vertex) ∠Z = ∠X + ∠Y .
Y Z
(v) Side opposite to the greatest angle is the longest side and
er
vice-versa.
ap
np
Also, side oppest to the smallest angle is the smallest side and
tio
vice-versa.
es
qu
et
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F r r E
I
r
B D C
The circle drawn with incentre as centre and touches all three sides on
the inside is called incircle. The point of intersection of two external
er
ap
3. Orthocentre
et
ne
A
le
Te
B C
4. Centroid
Median is the line joining the mid-point of a side to the opposite
vertex. The three medians of a triangle meet at a point is called the
centroid G. Centroid divides the median in the ratio 2 : 1.
A
E
F G
C
B D
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Geometry 415
Important Points about Centres of Triangles
(i) In a right angled triangle, the vertex where the right angle is
formed ( i. e. the vertex opposite to the hypotenuse) is the
orthocentre.
(ii) In an obtuse angled triangle, the orthocentre lies outside the
triangle.
(iii) Centroid divides each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1, the part of
the median towards the vertex being twice in length to the part
towards the side.
(iv) In a right angled triangle, the length of the median drawn to the
hypotenuse is equal to half the hypotenuse. This median is also
the circumradius and the mid-point of the hypotenuse is the
circumcentre. In an obtuse angled triangle, the circumcentre
lies outside the triangle.
(v) In an isosceles triangle, centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre
and incentre all lie on the median to the base.
er
ap
is 2 : 1.
@
m
a
Congruency of Triangles
gr
le
Te
Two triangles that are identical in all respects are said to be congruent
and it is denoted by the symbol ≅. In two congruent triangles,
(i) the corresponding sides are equal.
(ii) the corresponding angles are equal.
Two triangles will be congruent, if atleast one of the following
conditions is satisfied.
(i) Three sides of one triangle are respectively equal to the three
sides of the second triangle. (SSS)
(ii) Two sides and the included angle of one triangle are respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the second triangle.
(SAS)
(iii) Two angles and the included side of a triangle are respectively
equal to two angles and the corresponding side of the second
triangle. (ASA) or (AAS)
(iv) Two right angled triangles are congruent, if the hypotenuse and
one side of one triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse
and one side of the second right angled triangle. (RHS)
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Similarity of Triangles
Two triangles are said to be similar, if they are alike in shape only and
it is denoted by the symbol (~). The corresponding angles of two similar
triangles are equal but the corresponding sides are only in proportional
but not equal. Two triangles are similar, if
(i) the three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the
three angles of the second triangle. (AAA) or (AA)
(ii) two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of the
other and the included angles are equal. (SAS)
(iii) the corresponding sides of two triangles are in the same ratio,
then triangles are similar. (SSS)
90°
ne
C B
@
am
AB BD
Te
= .
AC DC
A
B D C
3. If D and E divide AB and AC in the ratio m : n respectively, then
m
DE = BC.
m+n
4. Mid-point Theorem The line segment A
joining mid-points of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side and equal to
half of it. D E
1
i.e. BC|| DE and DE = BC B C
2
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Geometry 417
5. In ∆ABC, if D and E are the points on AB and AC, respectively
AD AE
such that DE is parallel to BC, then = .
AB AC
6. In ∆ABC, if AD is the median from A to side BC meeting BC at
its mid-point D, then 2 ( AD 2 + BD 2 ) = AB2 + AC 2. This is called
the Apollonius theorem.
7. The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of
the squares of any two corresponding sides.
8. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of corresponding altitudes.
9. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of the corresponding medians.
10. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of the corresponding angle bisector segments.
11. If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, then the triangle
er
ap
Quadrilaterals
qu
et
ne
quadrilateral.
am
A
gr
le
Te
B D
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Parallelogram
A quadrilateral having opposite sides are A B
parallel is called a parallelogram. In a
parallelogram,
(i) opposite sides are equal.
(ii) opposite angles are equal. D C
E
(iii) each diagonal divides the
parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
(iv) sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°.
(v) the diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus
A parallelogram is a rhombus in which every pair of adjacent sides are
equal (all four sides of a rhombus are equal).
A B
er
ap
np
tio
es
qu
et
ne
@
am
D C
gr
E
le
Te
Rectangle
A parallelogram is a rectangle in which each of the angles is equal to
90°. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
A B
90°
D C
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Geometry 419
Square
A rectangle is a square in which all four sides are equal (a rhombus in
which all four angles are equal, all are right angles).
A B
D C
Hence, the diagonals are equal and they bisect at right angles.
Trapezium
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, then it is
called a trapezium.
D A
er
ap
np
tio
es
P Q
qu
et
ne
@
C
am
E F B
gr
le
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Polygon
Any figure bounded by three or more line segments is called a polygon.
A regular polygon is one in which all sides are equal and all angles are
equal. A regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle.
The name of polygons with three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine and
ten sides are respectively triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, nonagon and decagon.
Convex Polygon
In a convex polygon, a line segment between two points on the
boundary never goes outside the polygon.
D
F G
E C
er
ap
np
tio
es
qu
et
A B
ne
@
am
Concave Polygon
gr
le
E F C
G
A
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Geometry 421
360°
(ii) Exterior angle of a regular polygon is .
n
360°
(iii) Interior angle of a regular polygon is 180° −
n
n( n − 3)
(iv) Number of diagonals of a convex polygon with sides is .
2
Circles
A circle is a set of points which lie in a plane which area at a constant
distance from a fixed point in the plane.
1. Radius Radius is the shortest distance between the centre of
the circle and a point on the circumference of the circle.
2. Chord A chord is a line joining two points on the circumference
of a circle.
3. Diameter Diameter is the largest chord of a circle.
er
ap
points.
es
qu
PA ⋅ PB = PC ⋅ PD.
@
am
gr
le
D B
Te
A P C
6. Tangent A line that touches the circle at only one point is called
a tangent to the circle (RR ′ is a tangent touching the circle at R).
P Y
90° A X
R
O
Q
Y'
R'
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12. If two circles touch externally, then the distance between two
np
tio
the centres not between the two circles but on one side of the
gr
circles.
le
Te
Com
m
tang on
e nt
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Geometry 423
Arc and Sector
An arc is a segment of a circle. In the figure, ACB is called minor arc
and ADB is called major arc. In general, when we say it is an arc AB,
we refer to the minor arc. The closed figure AOBCA is called the
sector. ∠AOB is called the angle of the sector.
X
Y
D
O
B
A
C
(i) Angles in the same segment are equal. In the figure,
∠AXB = ∠AYB.
(ii) The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
er
ap
D B
P A T
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E F
B C
B C
es
D
qu
et
each other.
am
(iv) If two circles touch each other internally, then the distance between the
gr
le
two centres is equal to the difference in the radii of the two circles.
Te
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39
Mensuration
Perimeter and Area of Plane Figure
Plane Figure A figure enclosed by three or more sides or by a
circular boundary.
Perimeter Total length of the sides of a plane figure.
Area Space covered by a plane figure.
er
Triangle
ap
np
tio
Perimeter = a + b + c = 2 s b
et
c
ne
1 h
Area = Base × Height = ( a × h )
@
am
2
B C
gr
a
or Area = s( s − a )( s − b)( s − c), it is called
le
Te
Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = = semi-perimeter of the triangle.
2
Perimeter = b + d + h d
h
1
Area = ( b × h )
2
C
B b
Hypotenuse = d = h 2 + b2
(ii) Equilateral Triangle A
Perimeter = 3a
a a
3
Altitude = Height ( h ) = a h
2
3 2 B a C
Area = a
4
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Perimeter = 2a + 2a
b
Hypotenuse (b) = 2a a
1 2
Area = a
2 B C
a
b
α
ap
np
1 1 1
Area = ab sin γ = bc sin α = ac sin β
tio
A
es
2 2 2
qu
et
ne
B
(vi) Acute Angled Triangle
@
am
Perimeter = a + b + c a
gr
c
h
le
Te
2
bh b a 2 + b2 − c2
Area = = a2 − A C
2 2 2b b
B
(vii) Obtuse Angled Triangle
Perimeter = a + b + c
c h
2 a
bh h c − a − b
2 2 2
Area = = a2 −
2 2 2b A
b C
D
Quadrilateral
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA A
h1 h2
1
Area = ( h1 + h2 )BD
2 B
C
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Mensuration 427
Different Types of Quadrilaterals
(i) Rectangle A l D
Let l = length, b = breadth
Perimeter = 2( l + b)
b b
Area = l × b
Diagonal, AC = BD = l 2 + b2
B l C
(iii) Square A a B
np
tio
Perimeter = 4a
es
qu
Diagonal AC = BD = 2a = 2 × Area
et
a a
ne
@
Area = a 2
am
gr
1 1 1
Area = ( AC )( BD ) = ( AC )2 = ( BD )2 a
le
D C
Te
2 2 2
A D
(iv) Parallelogram
d1
Perimeter = 2( a + b) h
d2
b
Area = a × h
Also, d12 + d22 = 2( a 2 + b2 ) or B a C
Area = 2 s( s − a )( s − b)( s − d )
a+ b+ d
where, s =
2
(v) Rhombus
Perimeter of rhombus = 4a A a D
d1
Area of rhombus = a × h d2
a h a
1
Area of rhombus = d1 d2
2
B a C
Also, d12 + d22 = 4a 2
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(vi) Trapezium A a B
Let a and b are the length of the
parallel sides and h = height h
1
Area = ( a + b) × h D b C
2
Area of trapezium, when the lengths A a B
of parallel and non-parallel sides are
given c h d
a+b
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d ) D b
C
k
k+ c+ d
where, k = ( b − a ) and s =
2
Perpendicular distance (h) between the two parallel sides
2
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d )
er
k
ap
np
(vii) Trapezoid
tio
es
D
qu
et
ne
A
@
am
h1 h2
gr
le
Te
B C
a b c
( h1 + h2 )b + ah1 + ch2
Area =
2
A trapezoid can also be divided into two triangles. The area of
each of these triangles is calculated and the result added to find
the area of trapezoid.
Circle
Let radius of circle = r, diameter = d r
Perimeter = 2πr = πd (Q d = 2 r) O
Area = πr 2
(i) Semi-circle
36
Perimeter = ( π + 2)r = πr + d = r
7 r
1
Area = πr 2 A O B
2
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Mensuration 429
(ii) Quarter Circle
π B
Perimeter = + 2 r
2
r
1
Area = πr 2 O A
4
(iii) Sector of a Circle
2πr A
Length of the arc AB = θ r
360°
θ
2πrθ O r
Perimeter of the sector AOB = 2r + B
360°
πr 2
Area of the sector AOB = θ
360°
1
Area of the sector AOB = × arc AB × r
2
er
A
es
Minor
qu
segment
et
ne
θ
@
B
O
am
gr
Major
le
Te
segment
r 2 θπ
Area of minor segment = − sin θ
2 180°
r 2 ( 360° − θ )n
Area of major segment = + sin θ
2 180°
Concentric Circles
Perimeter = 2π (r1 + r2) r2
Area of the shaded region r1
= π (r22 − r12 )
= π (r2 + r1 )(r2 − r1 )
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1
Area of a regular polygon = × Number of sides
qu
et
2
ne
3 3
gr
2
(b) Area of regular octagon = 2 ( 2 + 1 )(Side)2
(v) If the area of the square is A, then area of the circle formed by
4A
the same perimeter = .
π
(vi) If all the measuring sides of a plane figure, is
increased/decreased by x%, then
(a) Its perimeter increases/decreases by x %.
x2 x2
(b) Its area increases or decreases by 2x + % or 2x − %.
100 100
(vii) Area of room = Length × Breadth
(viii) Area of 4 walls of a room = 2(Length + Breadth) × Height
a
(ix) Radius of incircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
2 3
a
(x) Radius of circumcircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
3
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Mensuration 431
(xi) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 60 min = 360°
(xii) Angle inscribed by hour hand in 12 h = 360°
(xiii) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 1 min = 6°
(xiv) Distance moved by a wheel in one revolution = Circumference of
the wheel = 2πr, where r is the radius of a circle
(xv) If the length of a square/rectangle is increased by x% and the
breadth is decreased by y%, the net effect on the area is given by
xy
Net effect = x − y − %
100
(xvi) If the side of a square/rectangle/triangle is doubled the area is
increased by 300%, i.e. the area becomes four times of itself.
(xvii) If the radius of a circle is decreased by x %, the net effect on the
x2 x2
area is − %, i.e. the area is decreased by %.
100 100
er
lb
tio
w
qu
et
ne
width w metre at the rate ` X per metre, then the total amount
gr
Xlb
le
required is ` .
Te
w
(xx) If a room of dimensions ( l × b)m is to be paved with square tiles,
then
(a) the side of the square tile = HCF of l and b
l×b
(b) the number of tiles required =
(HCF of l and b)2
(xxi) If the sides of a rectangular field of area x sq m are in the ratio
m n
m:n, then the sides are given by x ⋅ and x ⋅ .
n m
(xxii) If the side of a regular polygon is a and the polygon has n sides,
n π
then the area of the polygon is cot a 2 sq units.
4 n
(xxiii) Area of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r 2 and the
side of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r.
(xxiv) The area of the largest triangle inscribed in a semi-circle of
radius r is r 2.
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(ii) The volume of the material in a hollow body is equal to the difference
np
have to find its exposed surface area and then multiply it by unit cost.
ne
@
volume.
gr
le
Te
Solid Figure
The objects which occupy space (i.e. they have three dimensions) are
called solids.
1. Cuboid (Parallelopiped)
A figure which is surrounded by six rectangular surfaces is called
cuboid.
h
b
l
Lateral surface area = 2( l + b)h
Total surface area = 2( lb + bh + lh )
Volume = lbh
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Mensuration 433
Length of the diagonal = l 2 + b2 + h 2
Area of base / top × Area of side face
Volume =
× Area of other side face
2. Cube
A cuboid whose length, breadth and height are same is called a cube.
a
a
Volume = a3
es
qu
4. Hollow Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2π ( R + r )h
Total surface area = 2π ( R + r )( h + R − r )
Volume = πh ( R 2 − r 2 )
or Volume of material = π( R 2 − r 2 )h
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l
h
Slant height, l = h 2 + r 2
tio
es
qu
If a right circular cone is cut off by a plane parallel to its base, then the
am
portion of the cone between the cutting plane and the base of the cone
gr
le
r1
h l
r2
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Mensuration 435
7. Sphere
A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a
semi-circle about its diameter.
Surface area = 4πr 2 = π d 2
d
4 3 π 3 r
Volume = πr = d
3 6
8. Hemisphere
A plane passing through the centre of a sphere, divides the sphere into
two equal parts. Each part is called a hemisphere.
r
er
ap
np
2
ne
Volume = πr3
@
3
am
gr
le
r2 r1
d
d D
r2
4
Volume of the material = π(r23 − r13 )
3
π
= ( D3 − d 3 )
6
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A
B
a r1
r2
a X
X' L M
d1
d2
er
ap
Y'
np
tio
2 2
Total surface area = 2π ad + ( πr1 + πr2 )
et
ne
@
2 2
= π ( 2ad + r1 + r2 )
am
gr
le
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Mensuration 437
(i) Triangular Prism
A three sided prism having parallel bases and in
equilateral triangle. Lateral surface area = 3ah
3 2
Total surface area = 3ah + a h
4 a
3 2
Volume = a ×h
4
(ii) Pentagonal Prism
Surface area of pentagonal = 3a 2
h
Lateral surface area = 5a × h = 5ah
Total surface area = 5ah + 2 3a 2
a
Volume = 3a 2 × h = 3a 2h
(iii) Hexagonal Prism
3 3 2
Surface area of hexagonal = a = 2.5981 a 2
er
2
ap
h
np
3 3 2
Total surface area = 6ah +
qu
a
et
2
ne
a
@
3 3 2
Volume = a h = 2.5981a 2h
am
2
gr
le
Te
13. Pyramid
It is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to
a single point at the top.
1
Lateral surface area = × Perimeter of base × Slant height
2
Total surface area = Lateral surface area + Area of base
1
Volume = × Area of base × Height
3
(i) Triangular Pyramid
1
Lateral surface area = ( 3a ) × s s
h
2
3
= as
2
3 3 2
Total surface area = as + a a
2 4
1 3 2 3 2
Volume = × a ×h= a h
3 4 12
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1 a 2h
Volume = × h × a2 =
3 3
a
(iii) Pentagonal Pyramid
1 5
Lateral surface area = × 5a × s = as
2 2
5 s
Total surface area = as + 3a 2
2
1 1 2
Volume = × 3a = 2
a h
3 3
a
(iv) Hexagonal Pyramid
1
er
2
np
s
tio
3 3 2
Total surface area = 3as +
es
a h
qu
2
et
ne
3 2
Volume =
@
a h a
am
2
gr
le
Te
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Mensuration 439
xy + yz + zx xyz
is given by x + y + z + + %.
100 (100 )2
(b) Cube If the sides of the cube are changed by x%, then
3x 2 x3
change in the volume is given by 3x + + %
100 (100)2
x
3
or 1 + − 1 × 100%.
100
x 2 + 2xy x2 y
ne
2x + y + + %.
@
100 (100)2
am
gr
le
Te
(f) If height and radius are changed by x%, then change in the
volume is given by
3x 2 x3
3x + + %.
100 (100)2
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Aryabhatta
qu
et
ne
has given the world innumerable theorems and research subjects. His
two other major contributions are the introduction of zero to the world
and calculating the approximate value of pie. His works are also
spread in fields like include algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry,
quadratic equations and the sine table.
Ramanujan
Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar, the greatest Indian mathematician of
20 th century, contributed immensely in fields like number theory,
mathematical analysis, string theory and crystallography.
His genius has been admired by some greatest contemporary
mathematicians of his time. He is hailed to be one of the most famous
mathematicians in the field of number theory. Although he lived for a
short span of 32 yr, he compiled nearly 3900 phenomenal results that
leave even the best mathematical brains of today in sheer awe and
wonder!
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Rene Descartes
The French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes was
famous for his method of expressing geometric shapes in the form of
algebraic equation. It was because of Rene Descartes that we got
introduced to the beautiful branch of coordinate geometry. The
Cartesian coordinates, in fact, refer to his name. Besides this Rene
made valuable contributions in the field of optics and energy
conservation.
Leonhard Euler
Euler, a Swiss mathematician and physicists is widely acclaimed for
er
ap
influential.
@
am
gr
Fibonacci
le
Te
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Pythagoras
e
qu
hypotenuse (z), is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
le
Te
Benjamin Banneker
A child prodigy, a watch designer and a mathematician, Bannerker
discovered many puzzles in fields of trigonometry. He was a genius in
logarithms and used them extensively in trigonometry. He is still
regarded as the most popular black mathematician.
John Von Neumann
The Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, John made
valuable contribution in several fields like set theory, functional
analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, continuous geometry
and statistics.
His operator theory in mechanics is still regarded as one of his most
pioneering works. He was also a key figure in the development of game
theory.
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Albert Einstein
np
io
Nobel Prize in 1921 for his contributions to Physics and the discovery
a
gr
le
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Appendix 1
Table of Symbols
Symbol Reference
= equal to
≠ not equal to
≡ identity
~− approximately equal to
≅ congruent to
→ approaches, ray
∝ proportional to
< less than
>| not less than
> greater than
|> not greater than
≤ less than or equal to
≥ greater than or equal to
<< much less than
er
ap
∞ infinity
tio
es
σ or ∑ sigma
qu
et
% percentage
ne
+ plus, positive
@
−
am
minus, negative
gr
± plus or minus
le
Te
a×b
123 123
multiplication
a⋅ b
a÷b division
a/b
∴ therefore
Q since
— line segment
∠ acute angle
⊥ perpendicular
|| parallel
triangle
rectangle
square
log b a logarithm (to base b)
log10 a common logarithm
loge a or ln a natural logarithm
∧ conjunction (and)
∨ disjunction (or)
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A∆ B symmetric difference
np
n( A ), # ( A ) cardinality
tio
es
n! factorial
qu
() small bracket
et
ne
{} semi bracket
@
am
[] large bracket
gr
[a, b ]
Te
common multiple
open interval,
( a, b ) greatest common
divisor
[a, b ), ( a, b ] interval open at one
end
n
or nC r binomial coefficient
r
[ x] integer part
{ x} fractional part
(x) least integer
| x| absolute value
| z| modulus
z conjugate
i imaginary
Re (z) real part
Im (z) imaginary part
arg (z) or amp (z) argument
multiplicative inverse
z− 1 or reciprocal
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Symbol Reference
ω,ω 2 cube roots of unity
→
AB directed line segment
→
| AB|,| AB| length
square root
n nth root
Σ, ∑ summation
Π, ∏ product
π pi
aRb a relation to b
R −1 inverse relation
f : x→ y function, mapping
f :S → T function, mapping
x→ h limit
fog composition
inverse function,
f −1
er
ap
inverse mapping
np
df dy derivative, derived
f ′, , y′ ,
tio
es
dx dx function
qu
d 2f d nf higher derivative
@
2
, …,
dx n
am
dx
gr
d 2y d ny higher derivative
2
, …,
dx dx n
∂f ∂f
fx , fy , f1, f2, , partial derivative
∂x ∂y
fxx, fxy , …, f11, f12, higher order partial
derivative
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
123
…, , ,…
∂x 2
∂x ∂y
⋅⋅ rate of change
x&, x
indefinite integral,
∫ anti-derivative
b
∫a definite integral
| a| magnitude of a
a⋅ b scalar product
a×b vector product
a ⋅ (b × c ), [ a b c ] scalar triple product
a × (b × c) vector triple product
[ ] or ( ) or || || matrix
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( R, + ×, ) ring
E( X ) expected value
σ standard deviation
er
Var ( X ) or σ 2 variance
ap
np
Cov ( X , Y ) covariance
tio
P( A) probability
es
qu
P ( A / B) conditional probability
et
ne
@
am
Appendix 2
gr
le
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Appendix 3
Table of Roman Numerals
The basic values are I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500 and
M = 1000.
If smaller numbers follow larger numbers, then the numbers are
added, but if a smaller number comes before a larger number it is
subtracted, so CM is 900 and MC is 1100.
11 XI 100 C
et
30 XXX 1500 MD
ne
45 2009
Te
15 XV 150 CL
Appendix 4
Conversion of Units
Conversion of Length
10 millimetres (mms) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre (dm)
10 decimetres = 1 metre (m)
10 metres = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametres = 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (km)
Conversion of Area
100 square millimetres = 1 square centimetre
100 square centimetres = 1 square decimetre
100 square decimetres = 1 square metre
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10 centilitres = 1 decilitre
ap
np
10 decilitres = 1 litre
io
st
10 litres = 1 decalitre
e
qu
et
10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre
ne
@
10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre
am
gr
Conversion of Weight
le
Te
10 milligrams = 1 centigram
10 centigrams = 1 decigram
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g)
10 grams = 1 decagram
10 decagrams = 1 hectogram
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg)
100 kilograms = 1 quintal
10 quintals or 1000 kg = 1 metric tonn.
Conversion of Time
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week
15 days = 1 fortnight
28, 29, 30 or 31 days = 1 month
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12 months = 1 year
365 days = 1 year
366 days = 1 leap year
10 years = decade
25 years = silver jubilee
50 years = golden jubilee
60 years = diamond jubilee
75 years = radium jubilee or platinum jubilee
100 years = century
1000 years = 10 centuries or 1 millenium
Equivalents of Units
Units of Lengths
12 inches = 1 feet (ft) = 0.348 metres
er
ap
22 yards = 1 chain
et
ne
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(for all x)
ap
3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
np
tio
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
es
(for all x)
et
2! 4! 6! ( 2n )!
ne
@
x 2 x3 x 4 xn
+ … + ( −1)n + 1
am
2 3 4 n
le
Te
x 2 x3 xn
(ix) ln(1 − x ) = − x + + + ... + + ... ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
2 3 n
x3 x5 x7 x 2n + 1
(x) tan−1 x = x − + − + … + ( −1)n + 1 + … ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
3 5 7 2n + 1
1 x3 1 × 3 x5 1 × 3 × 5 x7
(xi) sin−1 x = x + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ +…
2 3 2× 4 5 2× 4× 6 7
2n x 2n + 1
+ 2n + … ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
n 2 ( 2n + 1)
x3
(xii) cos−1 x = x − +L ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
6
α α(α − 1) 2
(xiii) (1 + x )α = 1 + x + x +L
1! 2!
α(α − 1) … (α − n + 1) n
+ x +L
n!
( −1 < x < 1)
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Appendix 6
Derivatives of Different Functions
dy dy
y y
dx dx
xn nx n−1 cosh x sinh x
du dv
u + v + tanh x sech2 x
dx dx
u
dv
+ v
du cosech x − cosech x coth x
uv
dx dx sech x – sech x tanh x
1 du
− u
u dv 1
v coth−1 x
v v 2 dx dx 1 − x2
1
ax a sinh−1 x
( x 2 + 1)
1
sin x cos x cosh−1 x
( x 2 − 1)
1
cos x − sin x tanh−1 x
x2 − 1
er
ap
1
−
cosech−1 x
np
tan x sec 2 x
x (1 + x 2 )
tio
es
1
−
qu
x (1 − x 2 )
ne
@
1
sec x sec x tan x coth−1x − 2
am
x −1
gr
− cosec 2 x
le
cot x
Te
1
1
cot −1 x −
sin −1
x 1 + x2
(1 − x 2 )
1
−
cos −1 x 1
(1 − x 2 )
sec −1 x
1 x ( x 2 − 1)
tan−1 x
1 + x2
e x
ex 1
−
cosec −1 x
e −x – e −x x ( x 2 − 1)
a x
a x log a 1
log x
sinh x cosh x x
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(ln x )2 + C tan−1 x
ap
x 2 2
np
1
x cot −1 x + ln(1 + x 2 ) +C
tio
ex ex + C cot −1 x
es
2
qu
1 ax
e +C
et
e ax sinh x cosh x + C
ne
a
@
ax
am
ax +C cosh x sinh x + C
gr
ln a
le
a +1
Te
x ln x − 1 C ,
+
x a ln x a + 1 a + 1 tanh x ln cosh x + C
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y ∫ y dx y ∫ y dx
1 x
− a 2 cos −1
1 x 2 a
sin−1 +C (a2 − x2 )
(a2 − x2 ) a 1
+ x (a2 − x2 ) + C
2
1 1 a− x 1 2 x
ln + C, a cosh−1
x2 − a2 2a a + x 2 a
( x2 − a2 )
for| x| < a, a > 0 +
1
x ( x2 − a2 ) + C
2
1 x−a 1 2 x
ln +C a sinh−1
2a x+ a 2 a
( x2 + a2 )
1
for| x| > a, a > 0 + x ( x2 + a2 ) + C
x 2
(a + x2 )
2
(a2 + x2 ) + C
Reduction Formulae
tio
es
sinn −1 ax cos ax n − 1
et
∫ sin ax dx = − ∫ sin
n −2
ne
(i) n
+ ax dx
@
na n
am
cosn −1 ax sin ax n − 1
gr
∫ cos ax dx = +
n ∫
cosn − 2 ax dx
n
le
(ii)
Te
na
1
(iii) When n > 1, ∫ tann ax dx = tann −1 ax − ∫ tann − 2 ax dx
a( n − 1)
1 n ax n n −1 ax
∫x e dx = x e − ∫ x e dx
n ax
(iv)
a a
∫ (ln x ) dx = x(ln x )n − n ∫ (ln x )n −1 dx
n
(v)
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