642(S) June –2019 1

642(S)
June –2019
BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
Time Allowed : 2 Hours Full Marks : 35
Answer to Question No.l is compulsory and to be answered first.
This answer is to be made in separate loose script(s) provided for the
purpose. Maximum time allowed is 30 minutes, after which the loose
answer scripts will be collected and fresh answer scripts for answering
the remaining part of the question will be provided. On early
submission of answer scripts of Question No.l, a student will get the
remaining script earlier.
Answer any five questions from the rest.
1. A. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives (any
five) : 5×1
(a) The bio signal frequencies from various sections of the human
body are in the—
(i) RF frequency range, (ii) Microwave range,
(iii) 0 to few KHz, (iv) few kHz to few MHz
Ans. (iii) 0 to few KHz.
(b) The EEG signals are originated from the—
(i) Glia cells, (ii) Motor units,
(iii) Sino arterial node, (iv) Acetycholine.
Ans. (ii) Motor units.
(c) The bio electric generator of heart is situated at—
(i) Aortic valve, (ii) SA node,
(iii) AV node, (iv) The brain.
Ans. (ii) SA node.
(d) The valve located between left atrium and left ventricle is
called—
(i) tricuspid valve, (ii) Semilunar valve,
(iii) bicuspid valve, (iv) aortic valve.
Ans. (iii) bicuspid valve.
(e) The level of consciousness can be followed by means of—
(i) EEG, (ii) ECG,
(iii) EMG, (iv) ERG.
Ans. (iii) EMG

1
2 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S) 642(S) June –2019 3
(f) Natural pacemaker of human heart is— scan slices in a similar fashion from the skin to the central part of the
(i) AV node, (ii) SA node, body being examined. When these levels are further “added” together, a
(iii) Bundle of HIS, (iv) Purkinje’s Fibers. three-dimensional picture of an organ or abnormal body structure can be
Ans. (ii) SA node. obtained.
(g) Normal human heart rate range at rest is— (b) Draw the equivalent circuit for surface electrode.
(i) 110-175 beats/min, (ii) 60-90 beats/min, Ans.
(iii) 150-300 beats/min, (iv) None of the above.
Ans. (ii) 60-90 beats/min. Lead wire Insulation
(h) The number of electrodes required to record an
electrocardiogram is usually— R4
(i) 6, (ii) 12, AgoCl–
(iii) 5, (iv) None of these. surface layer + –
Ans. (iv) None of these. Ag metal
Electrolyte Ehc R2
(i) The value of let-go current in man is— containing
(i) 5 mA, (ii) 9 mA, Cl– ions
C4
(iii) 16 mA, (iv) 21 mA.
Ans. (ii) 9 mA. Fig. 1 Fig. 2
B. Answer the following questions (any five) : 5×1
(a) What does Computed Axial Tomography measure? (c) What is diastolic blood pressure?
Ans. Computerized (or computed) tomography, and often formerly Ans. The diastolic reading, or the bottom number, is the pressure in the
referred to as computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan, is an X-ray arteries when the heart rests between beats. This is the time when the heart
procedure that combines many X-ray images with the aid of a computer fills with blood and gets oxygen.
to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images A normal diastolic blood pressure is lower than 80. A reading of 90 or
of the internal organs and structures of the body. Computerized higher means you have high blood pressure.
tomography is more commonly known by its abbreviated names, CT scan (d) What is significance of CMRR?
or CAT scan. A CT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures Ans. The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers of the differential
in the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the gain over the common-mode gain, measured in positive decibels (thus
placement of instruments or treatments. using the 20 log rule): As differential gain should exceed common-mode
gain, this will be a positive number, and the higher the better.
A large donut-shaped X-ray machine or scanner takes X-ray images
(e) What is EMG?
at many different angles around the body. These images are processed by
Ans. Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure to assess the
a computer to produce cross-sectional pictures of the body. In each of
health of muscles and the nerve cells that control them (motor
these pictures the body is seen as an X-ray “slice” of the body, which is
neurons). EMG results can reveal nerve dysfunction, muscle dysfunction
recorded on a film. This recorded image is called a tomogram.
or problems with nerve-to-muscle signal transmission
“Computerized axial tomography” refers to the recorded tomogram (f) What is value of resting potential of the inside of the neuron?
“sections” at different levels of the body. Ans. n most neurons the resting potential has a value of
Imagine the body as a loaf of bread and you are looking at one end approximately “70 mV. The resting potential is mostly determined by
of the loaf. As you remove each slice of bread, you can see the entire the concentrations of the ions in the fluids on both sides of the cell
surface of that slice from the crust to the center. The body is seen on CT membrane and the ion transport proteins that are in the cell membrane.
4 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester)
(g) What is cardiac output?
Ans. The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory
system in a minute. The amount of blood put out by the left ventricle of
the heart in one contraction is called the stroke volume.
The stroke volume and the heart rate determine the cardiac output. A
normal adult has a cardiac output of 4.7 liters (5 quarts) of blood per
minute.
(h) What is micro electrode?
Ans. A microelectrode is an electrode used in electrophysiology either
for recording neural signals or for the electrical stimulation of nervous
tissue (they were developed by Gilbert Ling and Ralph W. Gerard).
2. (a) Define action potential.
Ans. An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information
down an axon, away from the cell body. Neuroscientists use other words,
such as a “spike” or an “impulse” for the action potential. The action
potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a
depolarizing current.
(b) Explain different phases of bio electricity with suitable
diagram.
Ans.
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3. (a) Discuss the classifications of surface electrodes. 3
Ans. Surface electrodes are types of electrodes applied to the skin of
the subject. Major applications include electrocardiography (ECG),
electromyography (EMG), or electroencephalography (EEG), which are
techniques for recording and evaluating the electrical activities of the
heart, skeletal muscles and neurons of the brain, respectively, from the
surface of the skin. Other types of electrodes are used to measure
the conductance of body parts. Examples are measurements of skin
conductance or transthoracic impedance. In some cases, electrodes are
simple metal plates connected with a lead wire. Electrode may be made
in the form of a suction cup attached with a bulb, facilitating easy
attachment and relocation (see Fig. 8.2A). Commonly used
2 for EEG measurements are cup-shaped gold electrodes with an open apex,
from which electrolyte gel can be added to improve connection (Fig.
8.2B). Dry electrodes are types of electrodes that do not use electrolyte.
They are typically made of silicone elastomer added with graphite
powder (Fig. 8.2C). One of the most important goals for desirable surface
electrodes is to obtain a lower contact impedance, which is crucial to
attain high signal-to-noise ratio.
3 Bulb
Hole for electrolyte

Lead

Terminal
Contact
Contact
Contact
(A) (B) (C)
Fig. 4
(b) What are different problems associated with surface electrodes? 2
Embryonic Ans. Recordings of electrical activity of muscles can be contaminated
Remodeling Morphostasis Regeneration time
Development by interference from the electrical supply, mechanical artifacts, stimulus
artifacts, and activity of other muscles. The advantages and disadvantages
of surface electromyography and intramuscular EMG are compared and
Birth Wear-and-tear Aging, Severe injury,
Defects (microtrauma) Cancer regenerative medicine contrasted, and precautions to be taken when recording and interpreting
these data are described. Surface electromyography is usually more
Fig. 3 susceptible to artifacts than is intramuscular EMG. It is possible, however,
6 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S)
to make useful recordings with the surface electrodes from large superficial
muscles if appropriate precautions are observed. Intramuscular electrodes,
on the other hand, may be preferred for recording the activity from small
peripheral muscles or muscles located deep within the body.
4. Describe the different lead configurations of ECG. 5 l a pressure meter (manometer) for measuring air pressure in the
Ans. An EKG lead consists of two surface electrodes of opposite
polarity (one positive and one negative) or one positive surface electrode
and a reference point. A lead composed of two electrodes of opposite
polarity is called bipolar lead. A lead composed of a single positive
electrode and a reference point is a unipolar lead.
For a routine analysis of the heart’s electrical activity an ECG recorded
from 12 separate leads is used. A 12-lead ECG consists of three bipolar
limb leads (I, II, and III), the unipolar limb leads (AVR, AVL, and AVF),
and six unipolar chest leads, also called precordial or V leads,
( , , , , , and ).
Limb leads: I, II, III, IV, V, and VI
Lead IV also called AVR
Lead V also called AVL
Lead VI also called AVF
Chest leads: V1,V2,V3,V4,V5 and V6.
5. (a) What is difference between “Electrocardiogram &
Electrocardiograph”? 2
Ans. The fact of the matter is that an ECG and an EKG are the exact
same thing. That’s right, the most surprising difference between an ECG
and an EKG is that there is no difference at all. Both ECG and EKG
stand for electrocardiogram.
So, if an ECG is the same thing as an EKG, then why are there two
different abbreviations? It’s actually quite simple—when the word
electrocardiogram is translated into the German language, it is spelled
Elektro-kardiographie. EKG is just the way some people choose to say
ECG based on this translation.
The NeuroSky CardioChipTM Enables ECG and EKG
he NeuroSky CardioChipTM takes full advantage of the data collected
via ECG and EKG technology—presenting a number of benefits to
wearable device manufacturers. The world’s smallest ECG biosensor, it
is incredibly small, measuring in at 3mm x 3mm. It’s also the most
completely integrated chip on the market, making it ideal for enabling
easy-to-use mHealth wearables, devices, and apps to better track and
manage physical and mental wellness.
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(b) Explain sphygmomanometric method for blood pressure
measurement. 3
Ans. A sphygmomanometer has three parts:
l a cuff that can be inflated with air,
cuff, and
l a stethoscope for listening to the sound the blood makes as it flows
through the brachial artery (the major artery found in your upper
arm).
The scale of the pressure meter ranges from 0 to 300 mmHg. The
pressure meter has a rubber pump on it for inflating the cuff and a button
for letting the air out.
To measure blood pressure, the cuff is placed around the bare and
stretched out upper arm, and inflated until no blood can flow through the
brachial artery. Then the air is slowly let out of the cuff.
As soon as the air pressure in the cuff falls below the systolic blood
pressure in the brachial artery, blood will start to flow through the arm
once again. This creates a pounding sound when the arteries close again
and the walls of the vessels hit each other after a heart beat. The sound
can be heard by placing the stethoscope close to the elbow. Right when
you start to hear this pounding for the first time you can read your
systolic blood pressure off the pressure meter.
The pounding sound stops when the air pressure in the cuff falls
below the diastolic blood pressure in the brachial artery. Then the blood
vessels remain open. Right when the pounding stops, you can read the
diastolic blood pressure off the pressure meter.
6. (a) Describe the principle of generation of X-ray with neat
diagram. 4
Ans. X-radiation is created by taking energy from electrons and
converting it into photons with appropriate energies. This energy
conversion takes place within the x-ray tube. The quantity (exposure)
and quality (spectrum) of the x-radiation produced can be controlled by
adjusting the electrical quantities (KV, MA) and exposure time, S, applied
to the tube. In this chapter we first become familiar with the design and
construction of x-ray tubes, then look at the x-ray production process,
and conclude by reviewing the quantitative aspects of x-ray production.
8 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S)
THE X-RAY TUBE
Function
An x-ray tube is an energy converter. It receives electrical energy and
converts it into two other forms: x-radiation and heat. The heat is an
undesirable byproduct. X-ray tubes are designed and constructed to
maximize x-ray production and to dissipate heat as rapidly as possible.
The x-ray tube is a relatively simple electrical device typically
containing two principle elements: a cathode and an anode. As the
electrical current flows through the tube from cathode to anode, the
electrons undergo an energy loss, which results in the generation of x-
radiation. A cross-sectional view of a typical x-ray tube is shown in
below.
Glass
Rotor
Anode
Cathods
Fig. 5
Anode : The anode is the component in which the x-radiation is
produced. It is a relatively large piece of metal that connects to the
positive side of the electrical circuit.
The anode has two primary functions: (1) to convert electronic energy
into x-radiation, and (2) to dissipate the heat created in the process. The
material for the anode is selected to enhance these functions.
The ideal situation would be if most of the electrons created x-ray
photons rather than heat. The fraction of the total electronic energy that
is converted into x-radiation (efficiency) depends on two factors: the
atomic number (Z) of the anode material and the energy of the electrons.
Most x-ray tubes use tungsten, which has an atomic number of 74, as the
anode material. In addition to a high atomic number, tungsten has several
other characteristics that make it suited for this purpose. Tungsten is
almost unique in its ability to maintain its strength at high temperatures,
642(S) June –2019 9
and it has a high melting point and a relatively low rate of evaporation.
For many years, pure tungsten was used as the anode material. In recent
years an alloy of tungsten and rhenium has been used as the target
material but only for the surface of some anodes. The anode body under
the tungsten-rhenium surface on many tubes is manufactured from a
material that is relatively light and has good heat storage capability. Two
such materials are molybdenum and graphite. The use of molybdenum as
an anode base material should not be confused with its use as an anode
surface material. Most x-ray tubes used for mammography have
molybdenum-surface anodes. This material has an intermediate atomic
number (Z = 42), which produces characteristic x-ray photons with
energies well suited to this particular application. Some mammography
tubes also have a second anode made of rhodium, which has an atomic
number of 45. This produces a higher energy and more penetrating
radiation, which can be used to image dense breast.
The use of a rhenium-tungsten alloy improves the long-term radiation
output of tubes. With x-ray tubes with pure tungsten anodes, radiation
output is reduced with usage because of thermal damage to the surface.
Design : Most anodes are shaped as beveled disks and attached to
the shaft of an electric motor that rotates them at relatively high speeds
during the x-ray production process. The purpose of anode rotation is to
dissipate heat and is considered in detail in another chapter..
Focal Spot : Not all of the anode is involved in x-ray production.
The radiation is produced in a very small area on the surface of the anode
known as the focal spot. The dimensions of the focal spot are determined
by the dimensions of the electron beam arriving from the cathode. In
most x-ray tubes, the focal spot is approximately rectangular. The
dimensions of focal spots usually range from 0.1 mm to 2 mm. X-ray
tubes are designed to have specific focal spot sizes; small focal
spots produce less blurring and better visibility of detail, and large focal
spots have a greater heat-dissipating capacity. Focal spot size is one
factor that must be considered when selecting an x-ray tube for a specific
application. Tubes with small focal spots are used when high image
visibility of detail is essential and the amount of radiation needed is
relatively low because of small and thin body regions as in
mammography.Most x-ray tubes have two focal spot sizes (small and
large), which can be selected by the operator according to the imaging
procedure.
10 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S)
Cathode : The basic function of the cathode is to expel the electrons
from the electrical circuit and focus them into a well-defined beam aimed
at the anode. The typical cathode consists of a small coil of wire (a
filament) recessed within a cup-shaped region, as shown below.
Cathode
High Energy
Electrons (100 keV)
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy
Anode
Low Energy
X-ray
Electrons
Fig. 6 Energy Exchange within an X-Ray Tube
Electrons that flow through electrical circuits cannot generally escape
from the conductor material and move into free space. They can, however,
if they are given sufficient energy. In a process known as thermionic
emission, thermal energy (or heat) is used to expel the electrons from the
cathode. The filament of the cathode is heated in the same way as a light
bulb filament by passing a current through it. This heating current is not
the same as the current flowing through the x-ray tube (the MA) that
produces the x-radiation. During tube operation, the cathode is heated to
a glowing temperature, and the heat energy expels some of the electrons
from the cathode.
Envelope : The anode and cathode are contained in an airtight
enclosure, or envelope. The envelope and its contents are often referred to
as the tube insert, which is the part of the tube that has a limited lifetime
and can be replaced within the housing. The majority of x-ray tubes have
glass envelopes, although tubes for some applications have metal and
ceramic envelopes.
The primary functions of the envelope are to provide support and
electrical insulation for the anode and cathode assemblies and to maintain
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a vacuum in the tube. The presence of gases in the x-ray tube would allow
electricity to flow through the tube freely, rather than only in the electron
beam. This would interfere with x-ray production and possibly damage the
circuit.
Housing : The x-ray tube housing provides several functions in addition
to enclosing and supporting the other components. It functions as a shield
and absorbs radiation, except for the radiation that passes through the
window as the useful x-ray beam. Its relatively large exterior surface
dissipates most of the heat created within the tube. The space between the
housing and insert is filled with oil, which provides electrical insulation
and transfers heat from the insert to the housing surface.
THE X-RAY CIRCUIT : The energy used by the x-ray tube to produce
x-radiation is supplied by an electrical circuit as illustrated below. The
circuit connects the tube to the source of electrical energy, that in the x-
ray room is often referred to as the generator. As described in another
chapter, the generator receives the electrical energy from the electrical
power system and converts it into the appropriate form (DC, direct current)
to apply to the x-ray tube. The generator also provides the ability to
adjust certain electrical quantities that control the x-ray production process.
The three principle electrical quantities that can be adjusted are the :
l KV (the voltage or electrical potential applied to the tube)
l MA (the electrical current that flows through the tube)
l S (duration of the exposure or exposure time, generally a fraction
of a second)
The circuit is actually a circulatory system for electrons.
They pickup energy as the pass through the generator and transfer
their energy to the x-ray tube anode as described above.
THE X-RAY SYSTEM
AN ELECTRON CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
GENERATOR
X-RAY TUBE
X-RAY
Fig. 7
12 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S) 642(S) June –2019 13
(b) Give some uses of X-Ray examination. 1 (b) Why biotelemetry system is needed in biomedical
Ans. The most common form of X-ray used is X-ray radiography, instrumentation? 1
which can be used to help detect or diagnose : Ans. The biotelemetry measurements can be applied to two categories:
l Bone fractures. 1. Bioelectrical variables such as ECG, EMG and EEG. Here the signal is
l Infections (such as pneumonia) obtained directly in electrical form. 2. Physiological variables that require
l Calcifications (like kidney stones or vascular calcifications) transducers such as blood pressure, gastrointestinal pressure, blood flow
l Some tumors. and temperatures. It requires excitation because the physiological
l Arthritis in joints. parameters are measured as variations of resistance, inductance or
l Bone loss (such as osteoporosis)
capacitance.
l Dental issues.
8. Discuss the different types of ventilators used in biomedical
7. (a) Draw the block diagram of biotelemetry system and explain
instrumentation. 5
each block of the system. 4
Ans. Ventilator types are broken up into two categories: noninvasive
Ans. Biotelemetry consists of two parts i.e. Bio and Telemetry. Bio is
related to living being or process or phenomenon occurring in the human ventilators and invasive ventilators.
body. Telemetry is the measurement at a distance. Noninvasive ventilators provide breathing support through an external
So, Biotelemetry is a method of measuring biological parameters from interface, such as a mask or nasal prongs. These are positive airway
a distance. pressure ventilators that use positive pressure to force gas or air into a
The transmission of data from the point of generation to the point of patient's lungs. Breathing can be triggered by either the patient or the
reception can be done in various ways. We can transmit data using machine. There are six types of positive pressure ventilators.
telephone links, or radio transmission, etc. l Volume-cycled ventilators-deliver a preset volume of gas/air or a
The simplest example of biotelemetry is stethoscope. The device ‘‘tidal’’ volume and allow passive exhalation. This is ideal for
amplifies acoustically the heartbeats and transmits their sound to the ears patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome or bronchospasm.
of a doctor through a hollow tube system. l Pressure-cycled ventilators-deliver gases at a preset pressure and
Biotelemetry Working : A biotelemetry system consists of transmitter allow passive exhalation. They decrease the risk of lung damage
and receiver. The biotelemetry transmitter and receiver block diagram are from high inspiratory pressures. A disadvantage is that the tidal
shown below. Physiological (EEG, ECG, EMG, etc.) signals are obtained
volume delivered can vary with changes in lung resistance and
by a suitable transducer which is amplified and subjected to modulate the
compliance if the patient has poor lung compliance and increased
carrier waves for transmission. The receiver receives the transmission and
airway resistance. It is often used in short-term therapy.
demodulates to separates to separate the signal from the carrier waves to
l Flow-cycled ventilators-deliver oxygenation until a preset flow rate
display or record the signal as shown in the block diagram.
is achieved during inhalation.
Physiological l Time-cycled ventilators-deliver oxygenation over a preset time
Signals
Physiological
period. These are not used as frequently as the volume-cycled and
Amplifier Processor Modulator
Signals pressure-cycled ventilators.
Physiological
Variable
Transducer l Continuous positive airway pressure ventilators-increase the work
of breathing by forcing the user to exhale against resistance. Because
Excitation Carrer this ventilator provides a continuous flow of air at the same level
wave
Biotelemetry Transmitter
generator of pressure during inhalation and exhalation to keep the airway
open, it is ideal for treating obstructive sleep apnea. This type of
Tuner Demodulator Display or
record ventilator is not considered a true ventilator because it doesn't assist
Slotelemetry Receiver with breathing.
14 Solution of Biomedical Instrumentation (Semester) 642(S)
l Bi-level positive airway pressure ventilators-deliver air at two
pressures for inhalation and for exhalation. They help treat
neuromuscular disease with a spontaneous timed mode or backup
rate that initiates breathing, particularly at night.
Invasive ventilators deliver air through an endotracheal tube inserted
into the patient's nose or mouth, or through a tracheostomy, a surgical
incision in the neck to access the trachea. Air is delivered on a timed cycle
through the tube and ensures that the patient takes a minimum number of
breaths per minute. These ventilators can be adjusted to respond to the
patient's own efforts to breathe or to override these efforts.
9. Write short notes (any two)—(i) Pacemaker, (ii) Bundle of HIS,
(iii) EMG, (iv) Microelectrode. 21 / 2×2
Ans.
(i) Pacemaker : A pacemaker is a small device that's placed in the
chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms. This device
uses electrical pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate.
Pacemakers are used to treat arrhythmias (ah-RITH-me-ahs).
Arrhythmias are problems with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat. During
an arrhythmia, the heart can beat too fast, too slow, or with an irregular
rhythm.
A heartbeat that's too fast is called tachycardia (TAK-ih-KAR-de-ah).
A heartbeat that's too slow is called bradycardia (bray-de-KAR-de-ah).
During an arrhythmia, the heart may not be able to pump enough
blood to the body. This can cause symptoms such as fatigue (tiredness),
shortness of breath, or fainting. Severe arrhythmias can damage the body's
vital organs and may even cause loss of consciousness or death.
A pacemaker can relieve some arrhythmia symptoms, such as fatigue
and fainting. A pacemaker also can help a person who has abnormal heart
rhythms resume a more active lifestyle.
(ii) Bundle of HIS : The bundle of His is a collection of heart muscle
cells specialized for electrical conduction that transmits the electrical
impulses from the AV node (located between the atria and the ventricles)
to the point of the apex of the fascicular branches via the bundle branches
The bundle of His branches into the left and the right bundle branches,
which run along the interventricular septum. The left bundle branch further
divides into the left anterior and the left posterior fascicles. These bundles
and fascicles give rise to thin filaments known as Purkinje fibers. These
fibers distribute the impulse to the ventricular muscle. The ventricular
conduction system comprises the bundle branches and the Purkinje network.
It takes about 0.03-0.04 seconds for the impulse to travel from the bundle
of His to the ventricular muscle.
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(iii) EMG : Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure to
assess the health of muscles and the nerve cells that control them (motor
neurons). EMG results can reveal nerve dysfunction, muscle dysfunction
or problems with nerve-to-muscle signal transmission.
Motor neurons transmit electrical signals that cause muscles to contract.
An EMG uses tiny devices called electrodes to translate these signals into
graphs, sounds or numerical values that are then interpreted by a specialist.
During a needle EMG, a needle electrode inserted directly into a muscle
records the electrical activity in that muscle.
A nerve conduction study, another part of an EMG, uses electrode
stickers applied to the skin (surface electrodes) to measure the speed and
strength of signals traveling between two or more points.
(iv) Microelectrode : Microelectrodes are biopotential electrodes with
an ultrafine tapered tip that can be inserted into individual biological
cells. These electrodes serve an important role in recording action potentials
from single cells and are commonly used in neurophysiological studies.
The tip of these electrodes must be small with respect to the dimensions
of the biological cell to avoid cell damage and at the same time sufficiently
strong to penetrate the cell wall. Figure 10.8 illustrates the construction
of three typical types of microelectrodes: glass micropipettes, metal
microelectrodes, and solid-state microprobes.
Ag/AgCl wire
KCl electrolyte
(a) Lead
Glass Capillary
insulation
metal
(b) tip
shank stem
bonding pads
Exposed Recording
Electrodes
Insulated Leads
Leads
(c)
Support Structure
Fig. 9 Biopotential microelectrodes : (a) a capillary glass
microelectrode, (b) an insulated metal microelectrode, and
(c) a solid-state multisite recording microelectrode.
———