Chapter 1 - Introduction

At presents, the resources, we use today, are mainly form the earth. The fossil

fuels are largely depended to meet the demands of our daily life, from homing heating

to electricity to fuel our automobiles and mass transportation. As for the renewable

and non-polluting resources, the sun is considered as a power-plant in that all the

things in the universe, such as human beings, animals, plants, and other living things

in the outer space and so on, feed on it. Another fossil fuels formed millions of years

ago from ancient photosynthetic organisms, including coal, oil and natural, are also

generated through it. Among the immense energy resources, the solar energy ranks the

first in terms of abundance, which will be the case forever. With supply-decline of

fossil fuels like oil, the sun will become our primary energy source. The younger

generation or the next generation will see the day when solar energy becomes the

dominant source of energy. In recent years, concerning over the high social,

economic, and environmental costs of global warming, the intense interest has been

stirred in the renewable energy, especially in solar power energy.

According to researches, the fossil fuels account for 88% of the energy supply

we need. While these fuels are non-renewable, the burning of which have brought side

effects to our environment, and the most obvious ones are global warming and acid

rain. The present problem we are confronting is what measures we can take to deal

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with the side-effects, and how to develop and use the new energy, so as to protect our

environment. While what is urgent now is to purfy some fossil fuels, especially oil

and natural gas, because the burning of them will give some poison gases to our

environment. These concerns over solar and other dorms of renewable energy will, in

turn, create favorable policies at the state and national level, which makes it more

affordable for many businesses and tens of thousands of homeowners to install solar

power systems of all types.

Solar electric systems are becoming more and more frequently applied. We

transmit the application of resources from polluting fossil fuels to clean, reliable,

environment-friendly and affordable renewable technologies, such as solar electricity.

The solar electric systems will become the mainstream of our energy supply.

The use of resources of fossil fuels, in some extends, does harm to the

environment, for the burning of these resources produces waste production, and

warm-effect gases, such as CO2, or acidic gases, such as SO2. This dissertation

examines on the energy saving, and designs the application of solar power systems to

improve the environment and decrease the energy costs.

1.1 Aim and Objectives

1.1.1 Aim

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 The aim of this project in this dissertation is to examine the solar power systems,

and to reduce energy costs. As we all know that the burning of fossil fuels has resulted

in global pollution and ecological damage, which has threatened the survival and

development of human being. During the course of UNCEDU (Nnited Nations

Conference on Environment and Development) held in Brazil 1992, several

significant documents have been passed, including Rio DE janeiro Declaration on

Environment and Development, Agenda 21, and UNFCC (The United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change). They have established a model on the

sustainable development with the unity of environment and development.

After this conference, given the environmental protection and the solar energy.

nations have strengthened their technological exploitation on the clean and renewable

resources, which has furthered the use of solar energy. Now, our government, paying

great attention to the environment and development, has put forward the relevant

strategies and measures, and made Agenda 21 to ensured the project on further

development of solar energy.

While the project in this dissertation is to examine the solar power systems, and

to reduce energy costs. The used-efficiency of resources has been upgraded, and the

global governments on public utilities (including Hong Kong) are significant

progressed in using solar technology. The solar power is quite beneficial to the

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established businesses, and homeowners or small business owners who consider solar

power system as their primary choice. There is no need to worry about the paybacks,

for it is a long-period course to reduce costs. In the aspects of residential solar

installations, including inverters, covenants, utility interconnection, what we need to

do is examine how the solar power system can reduce the costs more economically

and effectively. There are financial incentives for the energy consumers, in order to

make it possible that the energy consumers turn their attention to solar energy. And

there are also references for their future use with cost-effective.

1.1.2 Objectives

The population has increased enormously, and the world is getting more and

more global, and thus leads to the great deal of information and enthusiasm about the

development and the increased production for the global energy needs from

alternative energy resources, referring to the energy generated form non-polluting and

renewable energies, such as that form the solar power, the wind, and the running

water. We know the primary energy resources, including coal, oil and natural gas, are

produced form the plants, animals that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, and

there is a limited supply in these fossil fuels, while we mostly depends on them for the

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energy needs, form homing heating to electricity to fuel our automobiles and mass

transportation.

Some holds that these resources will be used out within 50 years, some holds that

these will be run out within 100-200 years. But anyway, there is no escaping

conclusion of these being run out, and we needs to produce new and renewable

resources to meet our energy needs. And in this project, we will study the use of solar

power systems on the solar panel and construct proposed on, lighting system, water

system on housing, which are the two common components, and most frequently

used. These two aspects are the most cost-effective solar projects. When we examines

how to use the solar system, we attach great importance to energy saving and

environmental protection. The detailed objectives are as followings:

-An Overview of Solar Power System

-Understanding the Solar Radiation, Sun Irradiance & Irradiation

-Types of PV Cells panel

-Rating PV Modules and Sizing PV Systems

-Solar Power System consort developing in Hong Kong

-Study a Solar Electric System

-Sources of Solar Power System

-Study the Energy Saving for Solar Power System on housing

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 -Study the Solar Power System Data Collection Methodology at Hong Kong and

Oversea

1.2 Literature Review

1.2.1 The primary Solar Power Record can guide the further

development for the solar energy.

According to a research, the source of energy has mainly come to the oil and coal

for many years, and now oil has become the dominant one. But experts predict that

the oil will no longer be profitable in a few decades. The atmospheric contaminants,

generated from the burning fossil fuels, has aggravated the greenhouse effect that

artificially threaten the survival of all living beings through damaging the earth ozone

layer, and producing acid rain. As a consequence, abnormal phenomena are now

occurring, such as the melting of glaciers, unprecedented floods, and hurricanes, etc.

It is urgent to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions, and increase the

extensive use of alternative and renewable sources, among which are hydraulic,

hydrogen, solar, erotic, biomass and geothermal. It is also necessary to improve

energy efficiency. And in the following, there is a detailed analysis about it.

Concerning the energy, we know that the nuclear energy is usually developed to

provide the energy for our needs. The nuclear energy is generated by splitting atoms,

but it only accounts for 6% of the worlds` energy supplies, and it is not likely to be the

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major source of world energy consumptions, because of public pressure and relative

dangers of associated with the unleashing the power of the atom. With regards to the

solar energy, it is rich in resources, and it’s sort of simple, abundant, renewable, and

environment-friendly resources. It produces less pollution to our environment, and a

great way to significantly reduce energy costs. In order to take full advantages of

these valuable and adequate resources, we have gone through a long way in the past

decades and we should take measures to save the energy we have at present.

Based on the information discussed above, we are in the primary stage to directly

make use of the solar energy. The application of solar energy mainly lies in the solar

energy collection, solar water heating system, solar electric energy generation. The

use-efficiency of solar energy has been upgraded, and the global governments and

public utilities (including Hong Kong) have improved their solar technology

significantly, And there are several types of new financial products of solar power

systems, such as the solar cell, solar light, etc.

1.2.2 World solar energy resources can be converted into

electrical energy, from which we benefit a lot.

Solar electricity is growing in popularity, but it provides only a tiny fraction of

electric demands. However, as global supplies of fossil fuel resources decline and the

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increasing concern over global climate change, the solar electric systems could

become a major source of electricity, along with other renewable resources. Solar

energy is not evenly distributed over the earth surface. The solar energy striking the

earth in a 40 minute period is equal to all the energy that the human society consumes

in a year. In the coming future, solar power system will be mounted on homes and

business parts. Solar system could produce a substantial portion of the electricity to

meet the needs of homes, businesses, farms, ranches, schools, factories and so on.

Another solar technology currently used in utilities is known as solar thermal

electricity. Solar thermal electricity concentrates on sunlight energy to generate heat

which is used to boil water. Steam generated from this process is used to spin a

turbine connected to a generator that makes electricity. Some of the new solar thermal

electric systems even store hot water. Electricity can also be generated on cloudy days

or at night. In recent Chinese, our country has made its one-time CPS groove solar

energy station successfully in Xingjian, which symbolizes that our technology and

equipment have reached the generating requirement of thermal power.

Despite what critics say that the fossil fuels are finite, and the conventional oil,

crude oil could be depleted within 30 to 50 years, the solar energy is an abundant

resource and many forms of solar energy-capture technologies are affordable right

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now. The solar cell and the houses with heating installation are good examples of the

application of solar energy.

1.2.3 Business environment on solar system is favorable.

There exist disadvantages of the use of solar energy: low efficiency and the high

cost. At present, it is practical in theory and mature in technology, but low efficiency

of some equipments resulted in the high cost.

Generally speaking, concerning the economic aspect, the solar energy fail to

compare with the conventional energy sources. Because of the high cost, somehow

the use of the solar energy is restricted. Then from the business environment point,

many companies stand the responsibility to save thousands of solar power and some

or even all of the energy usage requirements. While in the past few years, the

alternative energy technology is getting better and better, and costs are gradually

going down, and for one thing, the established business solar power is an easy choices

to the advantages of the owners; for another thing, it’s cheaper to install the solar

power system per kilowatt.

And now, we can truly develop this plan in a building, and save money by using

solar energy to generate electricity, which is usually used in air conditioning systems,

lights, and cost-effective roof installation.

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 1.2.4 Human Energy Consumption in Earth

The following table shows the energy consumption of the world. The total solar energy absorbed

by the earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses, is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.

In 2002, there was more energy used in one hour than previous years. Photosynthesis captures are

approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the

planet is so vast that in one year, it is about twice as much as that is obtained from all of the Earth's

non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. (Fig. 1.2.4.1)

Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption

Solar 3,850,000 EJ
Wind 2,250 EJ
Biomass 3,000 EJ
Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ

Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ

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 Chapter 2 – Overview of Solar Power Systems

Generally speaking, the Solar power implies the energy form the sun radiation.

According to its definition, this sort of energy originates from the nuclear reaction of

"Hydrogen" fusing into "Helium" in the sun, and then the big amount of energy is

released from this reaction, which we call it as the "solar energy" or " solar power".

The nuclear energy reaction will last billions of years to tens of billions of years. The

radiation power from the sun to space is 3.8x10^23 KW. One out of 2billion of energy

reaches the Earth`s atmosphere, 30% of which is reflected back, 23% of which is

absorbed by the atmosphere, and the rest of which reaches the surface of the Earth

with the power of 80 trillion KW. In other words, the energy released from the sound

per second is equivalent to the heat done from the burning of 500 million tons of coal.

Nowadays, the solar energy in a broad sense refers to the source of many energies in

the Earth, including the wind energy, chemical energy, and the water potential energy,

while the solar energy in narrow sense refers to the direct photo-thermal,

photoelectric, and photochemical conversion from the solar radiation.

As the name implies, solar energy systems convert the Sun energy into

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electricity. This conversion takes place in solar modules which are also commonly

termed as solar panels. A solar module consists of numerous solar cells. Solar cells, in

turn, are made from one of the most abundant chemical substances on the Earth,

silicon – a component of sand and quartz that also makes up much of earth crust.

The solar modules is created from solar cells which are wired together and

encased in plastic sand glass with a metal frame. The plastic and glass layers protect

the solar cells from the elements, especially moisture. Two or more modules are

typically mounted on a rack, and solar modules are referred as solar array.

Electricity generated by a PV (Photovoltaic systems) array flows via wires to

another component of the system, and the inverter converts the DC (direct current)

produced by solar cells into the AC( alternating current) which is frequently used in

common buildings and businesses.

2.1 Understanding the basic terms of solar radiation, sun

irradiance & irradiation

The sun lies in the center of the universal, and it is approximately about 93

million miles from the sun to the earth. The sun is composed primarily of hydrogen

and small amounts of helium, and it is a massive fusion reactor. The intense pressure

and heat in the core of the sun force hydrogen atoms to unite or fuse, and then create

slightly larger helium atoms. In this process, immense amount of energy is released,

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and this energy migrates to the surface of sun and then radiates out into space

primarily in the form light and heat. Anyhow, there are mainly three terms to describe

the solar energy: solar radiation, solar irradiance and irradiation. And in the following,

their definition and there relative parameters will be elaborated in details.

2.1.1 Solar radiation is the source of solar energy.

The solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic wave and corpuscular stream

which are launched by the Sun to the space. The sun output is known as the intensity

of solar radiation. It ranges from high-energy, short-wavelength gamma rays to low-

energy, long-wave radiation known as radio-waves. In these extremes, they are x-rays,

ultraviolet radiation, visible light, and heat, starting from the short-wave end of the

spectrum to the long-wave and of the spectrum.

The sun releases numerous forms of radiations, most of which about 40% is infrared

radiation, and about 55% of which is visible light. They travels at a speed of 186,000

miles per second. Solar energy takes 8.3 minutes to make its 93 million miles journey

form the sun to the earth. Most PV system modules capture the energy contained in

the visible and lower end of the infrared portions of the spectrums. Solar radiation

travels virtually unimpeded through space until it encounters with the earth

atmosphere. In the outer portion of the atmosphere molecules in the ozone layer

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absorb much about 99% of the incoming ultra violet radiation.. As sunlight passes

through the lower portion of the atmosphere, it encounters with clouds, water vapor

and dust which may absorb the sun rays or reflect them back into space, reducing the

amount of sunlight striking the earth surface. as shown in (Appendix A: Fig 1), as a

result, the strength of sun radiation and the distribution of spectral power are changing

when passing through the atmosphere.

2.1.2 Sun irradiance implies the amount of the solar energy.

The solar radiation intensity in the upper atmosphere depends on the height of th

e sun angle, the distance between the Sun and the Earth, and the duration of sunshine.

The larger the solar altitude angle is, the more intensive the solar radiation is. Because

when the same beam of light shines directly, the area irradiated is minimum, yet the

certain area will obtain the most, vice verse.

The amount of solar radiation, striking a square meter of the Earth atmosphere or

the earth surface, is known as solar irradiance. It is measured in watts per square

meter(W/m). Solar radiances, about 1366 W/m on a clear day, is measured just before

the sun radiation enters the earth atmosphere. And nearly 30% of the sun radiant

energy is absorbed and converted into heat or reflected by dust and water vapor in the

earth atmosphere. By the time, the incoming solar radiation, which has reduced to

about 1000 W/m, reaches a solar array on a roof. Through the photoelectric

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conversion, the incoming solar radiation will be converted into electrical energy,

which can be applied in the solar water heaters. Solar irradiance varies during daylight

hours at any given site. The irradiance is zero before thr sun rises. While when the sun

does; the irradiance increases, peaking around noon. From noon to the sunset,

irradiance slowly decreases, falling once again to zero at night. These changes in

irradiance are determined by the angle of the sun rays, which changes continuously as

the earth rotates on its axis. The angle at which the sun rays strike the earth affects the

energy density and the amount in the atmosphere through which sunlight must travel

to reach the earth surface on (Appendix A: Fig 2). Irradiance is also influenced by the

amount of atmosphere through which the sunlight passes as shown in (Appendix A:

Fig 2). The more atmosphere sunlight passes through, the more filtering occurs. And

the less sunlight results in the lower irradiance.

2.1.3 Irradiation

Irradiance and radiant existence are radiometry terms for the power of

electromagnetic radiation per unit area at a surface. "Irradiance" is used when the

electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface. "Radiant existence" or "radiant

remittance" is used when the radiation is emerging from the surface. The SI units for

all of these quantities are watts per square meter (W/m2), while the cgs units are ergs

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per square centimeter per second (erg·cm−2·s−1, often used in astronomy). These

quantities are sometimes called intensity, but this usage leads to confusion with

radiant intensity, which has different units.( Griffiths, David J. (1999).

All of these quantities characterize the total amount of radiation present at all

frequencies. It is also common to consider each frequency in the spectrum separately.

When this is done for radiation incident on a surface, it is called spectral irradiance,

which has SI units W/m3, or commonly W·m−2·nm−1. (Griffiths, David J. (1999)).

If a point source radiates light uniformly in all directions without absorption,

then the irradiance drops off in proportion to the distance from the object squared.

though the total power is constant. It is spread over an area which increases with the

square of the distance from the source. (Quaschning, Volker (2003)).

Irradiance and irradiation straight, on the one hand, it is regarded as a measure of

instantaneous power; on the other hand, it is a measure of power over some period of

time and a measure of energy. Irradiation is akin to the distance a vehicle travels. The

distance is determined by multiplying the speed of a vehicle which travels at a given

speed. In solar energy, the greater the irradiance over a period of time, the greater the

solar irradiation.

2.1.4 Effective factors of the solar irradiance: day length and

altitude angle of tilt and orbit around the sun

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 The earth will completes its orbits around the sun for 365 days. In (Appendix A:

Fig 3), the Earth`s axis is tilted 23.5o . The earth maintains this angle trough out the

year as it orbits around the sun. In (Appendix A: Fig 4), it is easy to notice that the

angle remains nearly fixed, the earth were attached to a wire anchored to a fixed point

on outer space. Because the earth tilt remains constant, the northern hemisphere is

tilted away from sun during the winter. As a result, the sun rays enter and pass through

earth atmosphere at a very low angle. Sunlight penetrating at a low angle passes

through more atmosphere, and therefore it is absorbed or scattered by more dust and

water vapor. In turn, the irradiance is reduced, which reduces the output of a solar

array.

The altitude angle of the Sun is determined seasonally by the angle of the earth in

relation to the sun. The altitude angle is also determined daily by the rotation of the

earth on axis. As seen in (Appendix A: Fig 5), the altitude angle increases between

sunrise and noon, then decreases to zero once again at sunset.

2.1.5 Another two effective factors: azimuth and atitude

The sun position in the sky relative to a fixed point, such as a PV array, also

changes by the minute. Scientists locate the Sun position in the sky in relation to the

fixed point by the azimuth angle in (Appendix A: Fig 6). True south is assigned a

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value of 0o East is + 90o . West is - 90o. North is 180o . The angle between the sun and

0o south is known as the solar azimuth angle. If the sun is east of south, the azimuth

angle falls in the range of 0o to +180o, so if the sun is west of south, it fall between 0 o

~ 180o. Like altitude angle, azimuth angle changes as a result of the earth rotation on

its axis.

2.1.6 Solar and weather conditions In Hong Kong service as an

example of the application of the solar energy.

The solar energy has the following advantages:

Firstly, solar energy is a renewable and clean resource. It cannot be utilized at

night or on cloudy days, and what has converted can supply the need for a day. The

solar energy supply will last as long as the sun.

Secondly, solar energy is non-polluting. Of all the advantages of solar energy

compared with burning sourced, such as oil, this is perhaps the most significant one.

The burning of oil releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. In

addition, the process of obtaining it may result in damaged ecosystems through

dredging or spills.

Last but not lest, it is big in amount and inexhaustible. For one thing, if estimated

by the productive rate of nuclear energy generated from the Sun, the storage of

Hydrogen will ensure the needs for tens of billions of years, while the overall history

of the Earth is just billions of years, then to such an extend, the energy originated

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from the Sun is inexhaustible. For another thing, the annual amount that the solar

radiation reaches to the surface of the Earth is equivalent to that of about 130 trillion

tons of coal. So it is the biggest source we could exploit at present concerning its

amount.

However, the amount varies from places to places, which is affected by many

factors, such as the weather condition. The solar and weather data provide an

important background for assessing the solar potential and the characteristics of

energy use in buildings. In the following, the solar condition in Hong Kong will be

taken as an example. Just as (Appendix C: Table 1) has shown that the annual mean

daily global solar radiation is 14.46 MJ/m2. Compared with a figure of around 9

MJ/m2 in Hong Kong, this is not bad at all. If we look at the cloud amount and

percentage of sunshine, the data indicates that cloudiness in some months may affect

directional solar radiation. Diffuse component of the solar radiation becomes

significant, especially in months from February to June. The following table shows

the solar conditions, average temperature and humidity in Hong Kong.

Average temperature and humidity in Hong Kong are given in (Appendix C:

Table 2). With an annual dry-bulb temperature of 23.0 oC, the heating demand in most

buildings in Hong Kong is not significant. The cooling requirements is large in the

summer period which lasts from May to October. The humidity level remains high in

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months from February to September and this presents a need for dehumidification or

sufficient ventilation in most buildings in order to maintain human comfort.

2.2 Implication of sun earth relationships on solar installation

As what has discussed before, the solar energy is inexhaustible, and we should

take full use of it. In the recent years, we have developed equipments which could

mounted to capture the sun energy, and then convert it into electricity. During all the

process, the solar modules have played a significant role.

Solar modules can be mounted on four types of racks fixed, seasonally adjustable

fixed, single axis tracker or a dual axis tracker. Fixed racks are oriented to the south

and are set at a fixed tilt angle, usually equal to the latitude of the site. As shown in

(Appendix A: Fig. 7), the tilt angle is the angle between the surface of the array and

an imaginary horizontal line extending back from the bottom of the array. Fixed racks

are mounted on the roofs of buildings or on the ground or on poles.

Seasonally of fixed racks resemble fixed racks, but can be adjusted to increase or

decrease the tilt angle during various seasons. Tilt angle may be increased in the

winter to capture more energy from the low angled winter sun and decreased in the

summer to capture more energy from the low angled winter sun and decreased in the

summer to capture more of the high angled summer sun.

Single axis trackers are designed to follow the sun from sunrise to sunset by

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automatically adjusting for changes in the azimuth angle of the sun. Dingle axis

trackers can increase the output of an array up to 30%. Dual axis trackers

automatically adjust both the tilt angle and the azimuth angle, and can increase the

output of an array up to 40%. Depending on the location, and true north and south are

measurement taken by surveyors to determine property lines. They are imaginary line

that run parallel to the lines of longitude, which can run from the north pole to south

pole; on the other hand, the north and south are determined by the earth magnetic

field. They are measured by compasses. Unfortunately, magnetic north and south

rarely line up with the lines of longitude. They rarely run true north and south. In

some areas, magnetic north and south can deviate quite significantly from true north

and south. How far magnetic north and south deviate from true north and south is

know as the magnetic declination.

As shown in (Appendix A: Fig. 7), the altitude angle decreases from the summer

solstice to the winter solstice. After the winter solstice, however, the altitude angle

increase, growing a little each day, until the summer solstice returns. Day length

changes along with altitude angle, decreasing for six months from the summer solstice

to the winter solstice, then increasing until the summer solstice arrives once again.

2.3 Solar application: PV Cells Panel

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 PV cells are a new type for applying in our daily life. PC (Photovoltaic cells)

panels are solid state electronic devices like transistors, diodes, and other components

of modern electronic equipment. These devices in these panels are referred as solid

state because electrons flow through solid material within them. Most solar cells used

today are made from one of the most abundant materials on the planet, silicon, which

is extracted from quartz and sand. Since 19th century, the scientists have found the sem

iconductive feature of crystalline silicon, and it almost changed everything, even

human`s thinking. In the last years of 20 th century, the silicon is frequently used in

our daily life. The crystalline silicon solar-battery has rapidly formed into

industrialization in recent 15 years. Like all atoms, silicon atoms contain electrons

that orbit around a central nucleus which contains protons and neutrons. Some

electrons in silicon can be jolted loosely from their orbit around the nuclei of the

silicon atoms when struck by sunlight. These loose electrons can be made to flow

together, creating an electrical current.

The solar cells are wired in series in a PV nodule. Numerous electrons can be

gathered up and conducted away from the array to bear household loads. Most solar

cells used today are thin wafers of silicon about 1/100 of an inch thick, and most solar

cells consist of two layers: a very thin upper layer and a much thicker lower layer. The

upper layer is made of silicon and phosphorus atoms, the bottom layer consists of

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silicon and phosphorus atoms, while the bottom layer consists of silicon and boron

atoms.

When sunlight strikes the silicon atoms in solar cells, the electrons will launch

from the atoms in both layers. These electrons flow preferentially toward the surface.

These electrons flow into the metal contacts located on the front of solar cells.

Numerous solar cells are wired in series in a solar module, because of electrons

extracted from one cell flow to the next cell, and then to the next cell. They reach the

negative terminal of the module. Electrons flow from the array through wires

connected to the house to power a load. After delivering the energy gaining from

sunlight, they are converted to power load, then the energized electrons flow back into

the solar cells, filling the empty spots left in the atoms and created by their ejection.

This permits the flow of electrons to continue infinitly. The following diagram gives a

more detailed description. (Appendix A: Fig. 8)

2.3.1 Types of PV cells

There are mainly three types of PC panel: crystalline silicon panels, amorphous

silicon panels, and chemical dyestuff panels. As a whole, solar cells can be made from

a variety of semiconductor materials. By far the most commonly used is silicon. As

noted earlier, silicon is produced from silicon dioxide, which is derived from two

sources quartzite and silica sand. Quartzite is a rock made entirely of the mineral

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quartz, which in turn consists of nearly pure silica. Silica sand is relatively pure sand

containing a high percentage of silica. Geologically, silica sand is derived from quartz.

Silicon dominates the semiconductor market, even though there are other materials

that more efficiently convert sunlight to electricity because silicon semiconductors

produce the most electricity at the lowest cost. Three forms of silicon are used to

make solar modules: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous.

2.3.2 Monocrystalline PV cells

Monocrystalline silicon, an significant component of the crystal materials, is a

kind of active nonmetal elements, which and has been the leading edge of the

development of new energy. It is mainly applied in the semiconductor materials and

solar pv (photovoltaic) industry. In recent years, the rapid development of the solar

photovoltaic industry has made a great contribution to continued and rapid

development of the silicon industry.

Monocrystalline cells are called single crystal cells. It is the first commercially

manufactured solar cells. They are made from wafers sliced from a single large,

cylindrical manufactured crystal of silicon. Single crystal ingots are made by melting

highly purified chunks of polysilicon and a trace amount of boron. Once being

extracted from the melt ingots, the rounded edges are trimmed into the square or

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rectangular ingot, and then are sliced with a diamond wire saw to produce ultrathin

wafers used to make solar cells. The highest efficiency of all conventional PV cells is

around 15%. From one manufacturer to the next, it ranges from 14 to 17%.

2.3.3 Polycrystalline PV cells

The PV (polycrystalline) Cells and the Monocrystalline PV cells, both of which

are devices, work alike just to convert the luminous energy into the electricity through

the photoelectric effect or the photochemical effect. The solar cells with thin film

running through the photoelectric effect are frequently used, while the wet solar cells

operating through the photochemical effect are at their primary stage. Yet, the

polycrystalline solar cells have their special features.

Polycrystalline solar cells are made from silicon with a trace of boron just like

monocrystalline cells. To make a polycrystalline cell, however, the molten material is

poured into a square or rectangular. It is then allowed to cool very slowly. As the ingot

cools, many smaller crystals form internally. Once cooled, the cast ingot is removed

from the mold, then sliced using a diamond wore saw, creating wafers used to

fabricate solar cells.

2.3.4 Ribbon Polycrystalline PV (Amorphous)

While most polycrystalline cells are sliced from ingots, wafers can also be made

in long continuous ribbons, and a seed crystal is attached to two heat resistant wires of

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silicon and then slowly drawn from the melted silicon. The ribbon grows linearly as

the molten silicon that spans the wires solidifies. Once the ribbon is completely

formed. Although the efficiency of ribbon silicon wafers is slightly lower than other

PV cells, 11% to 13% range of nology offers several advantages. Among these

advantages,one is to require considerably less energy than monocrystalline and

polycrystalline production. The ribbon technology also eliminates a lot of time

consuming, wasteful and costly ingot slicing at present.

2.4 Rating PV modules and sizing PV system

PV manufacturers rate is measured by various parameters, including rated power,

power per square foot. The efficient parameters are discussed in power from the sun

for those wishing. These parameters are used to compare PV module and to design PV

systems to ensure that components can handle the voltage and current produced by the

array under all condition.

Rated power is the wattage a module produces under standard test conditions

(STC). This measurement is used to compare one module to another. The standard test

conditions used to determine rated power rarely reflect the type of operating

conditions. A more practical measure is the rated power derived under more typical

field conditions, known as PTC.

Module efficiency is also a handy number. It is the ratio of output power from a

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module to input power from the sun. A 15% module efficiency means that 15% of the

incident solar radiation is converted into electricity.

2.4.1 Rated Power and capacity

Rated power is the instantaneous output of a solar module measured in watts

under standard test conditions(STC). Watts is a measure of the rate of flow of energy.

Most of building is related with the term watts. It is used to rate devices that consume

electricity, for example, 100 watt light bulbs and 1200 watt microwaves. This number

describes the amount of power a device consumes.

Watts is also used to rate technologies that produce electricity, such as solar

modules, for instance, install about 3000 watt solar system at normal home.(3000

watts is rated output). In PV system, it is determined under standard test conditions to

add up the rated output of the modules. The test takes place at about 25C, the modules

are only slightly warm. The light at 1000 watt per square meter, which is equivalent to

the full sun, is flashed on the module to be measured in watt, so the light rays arrives

perpendicular to the module, and then the surface results in the greatest absorption of

sunlight.(Most residential solar electric systems fall with the range of 1000 to 6000

watts or 1 to 6 kilowatts(kW), and PV system as large as 9000 or 10000 watts are

sometimes required for large homes or businesses.

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 2.4.2 Solar energy is converted to generate the electricity

Creating electricity from the sun is a technology that every one of us knows well.

It is a promising method to generate electricity through the photoelectric effect,

concerning its infinite storage and its special feature of non-pollution. It could be

generated through pocket calculators, photovoltaic panels in your home or a satellite.

It can all get the job done. But for those who are curious, how do you explain solar

electricity? What is a PV power and just how much energy can a PV produce? This is

solar electricity explained.

Solar electricity is generated by using photovoltaic (PV) technology which

converts the free energy from the sun into electricity from sunlight. Through

photovoltaic systems, sunlight is used to power electrical with equipments like

household appliances, lighting and computers.

A photovoltaic cell consists of two or more thin layers of mostly silicon which is

a semi-conductor. Once the silicon is exposed to light, electrical charges will be

generated and conducted away by metal contacts into direct currents (DC). A single

PV cell is only capable of a small electrical output, so multiple cells are needed to be

connected together and encapsulated behind a glass to form a panel, which is also

called as a module.

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 The PV panel is then the principal building block of the system where any

number of panels can be connected together for the desired solar electricity output.

But the PV equipment does not have moving parts so it only requires minimal

maintenance. It generates electricity without producing and emitting greenhouse gases

and it operates silently.

PV systems are actually used to supply solar electricity to city buildings which

are also connected to the normal local solar power network. PV systems also supply

power to garden lights or even to remote relay stations. But the use of photovoltaic

technology on buildings is ideal because it provides a noise and pollution free solar

power without needing extra space.

PV systems are set up into buildings in different ways. Ideally, it should be on

sloping rooftops where the panels can simply be mounted by using frames. It can also

be built into the actual building fabric, such as PV roof tiles, and alternatively be

incorporated as canopies, building facades and many other applications.

There are various types of PV cells. Monocrystalline silicon cells, the most

efficient ones of this technology, are made of cells saw-cut from one cylindrical

crystal of silicon. But the disadvantage is that it is of higher costs compared to the

other PV technologies.

Multicrystalline silicon cells, made of cells cut from an ingot of melted and re-

crystallized silicon, tend to be slightly less efficient. Thick-film silicon is an

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encapsulated multicrystalline technology wherein the silicon is deposited in a

continuous process onto a base material which results to a fine-grained sparkling

appearance. Amorphous silicon cells, however, are made from silicon atoms in a thin

homogenous layer instead of a crystal structure but being a thin film, it effectively

absorbs more light.

But the typical PV system configuration has the building-mounted PV array

consisting of typical photovoltaic panels connected together with a rated output of 75

to 120 watts peak each. An inverter is also used to convert the low voltage direct

current (DC) into the higher voltage alternating current (AC). Other components

include the array mounting structure, cables, switches and a meter to make sure that

you, as the system owner, can be credited for any solar electricity fed into the main

supply.

2.4.3 The Pros and Cons of solar Electricity

Solar energy is a seemingly ideal fuel source. Its clean, free, abundant features

could ease many of the world most pressing environmental problems, especially the

global climate change. The generation of electricity is affected by many factors, such

as the day and night, rain or shine, and the season, but this can be realized in a

scattered way that is suitable in every individual family. When they have generated

excessive electricity, then they could sell it to the electric power company; if being in

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shortage of electricity,they could bought it back. And this could achieve the purpose to

save the energy. It is quite easy to settle the problems on the technology, while the key

point is to provide the corresponding law garantee. Nowadays, developed countries

like Japan and America have formulated relevant laws to guarantee the interests of

families and encourage them to generate electricity from the solar energy. All of these

measures that have taken have ensured it practical to make full use of the solar energy.

Everything has two sides.we do confront the issues of the cost on the solar

electricity, while we are making efforts to advance our technology, in order to reduce

the cost. With the rapid development of our science, we are firmly convinced that the

day is just around the corner.

2.5 Availability and Variability

Although the Sun shines at 24 hours per day and beams down on the earth at all

times, half the planet is always immersed in darkness. This also poses another

problem, because modern societies consume electricity 24 hours per day and 365 days

per year. Another problem is the daily variability of solar energy. That is to say that

even during daylight hours clouds can block the Sun, sometimes for days to end. The

PV systems are unable to generate electricity 24 hours a day like coal fired and

nuclear power plants, Normally homeowners like myself who live off grid solve the

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problem by installing batteries to store electrical to meet their nighttime demand and

to supply electricity for use on cloudy days. As a result, they are supplied with

electricity 24 hours a day and 365 per year by PV systems. At (Figure 1.5), the data

shows that the solar resources in the renewable energy education center shines a lot in

the spring, summer, and early fall to winter and during winter, ensuring a reliable,

year-round supply of electricity at this and other similar sites.

And there are more exciting plans on the solar electrical energy generation. One

relies on the Japan`s unprecedented plan to generate electricity through the large ares

of the desert and the ocean; another comes from the plant to do it in the space. Since

1980, the NASA (Dational Aeronautics and Space Administration) and

DOE(Department of Energy) have put forward this assumption to establish a power

station in the space.

2.5.1 Solar Power System consort developing in Hong Kong

Before your invest your hard earned cost in a solar power system, it is important

to determine whether a system makes sense for you. Will a PV system meet your

needs? how much will it cost? Would is better than using utility power? Would other

types of renewable energy system make more sense? And even if it can make perfect

sense economically, what about the environmental benefits and personal gratification

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of the right thing? what about alternatives to buying your own PV system in

particular, leases and power purchase agreement?

2.5.2 Assessing Electrical Demand

With the rapid development of economy and advance of the society, the

requirements for the resources have increased. It has become an urgent issue to look

for new energy sources. There are mainly three types of sources: thermal power,

water and electricity and nuclear power. Given our current life, we greatly get used to

electricity to ensure our daily life. For example, we need electricity to provide light in

the night. We also need it to ensure the normal work of our information-transmission,

because our world is a world with large amount of information which is transmitted

spontaneously and rapidly. Considering the big demand for the electricity, we need

more energy to meet that. With regard to the present resources, solar energy is really

inexhaustible. And solar energy will not produce any pollution to our environment, so

solar energy is known as the ideal energy. To make it into the truly practical level, for

one thing, the efficiency of solar photovoltaic transform should be improved, and the

cost reduced; for another thing, it should be realized to connect the solar electrical

energy generation with the power grid.

However, the cost of solar power system depends on many factors, including the

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size of the system, the complexity of the system, the distance the installer must travel,

the type of installation, and the difficulty of the installation.

Concerning solar resources and electrical consumption, very most residential

solar electric systems fall within about 1 to 6 kW range, and the most common is

about 3 to 6 kW per system. In all electric home equipped with a wide assortment of

electric appliances, such as central air conditions, electric water heater and electric

light, the average monthly electrical consumption typically falls within the 2000 to

3000 kilowatt hour/ month range. Even in very sunny climates, very large PV systems

would be required to meet electrical demand systems on the order of 10kW.

In homes where natural gas or propane is used to cook for heat water, and to

provide electrical consumption maybe as low as 400 or 500 kWh per month, much

smaller systems would be needed in such instances. In a relatively sunny climate, 3 to

4 kW system might suffice. Although many factors affect the cost of a PV system, the

size of the system depends on electrical consumption and solar resources. The

calculating consumption depends on an existing structure or one that about to be built,

and now let begin with existing structures.

2.5.3 Assessing Electrical Demand in Existing Structure

Assessing the electrical consumption of an existing home or business is fairly

easy. Most people obtain this information form the monthly electric bills, going back

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two to three years, if possible on area, every utility bill includes a summary of year

electrical consumption. If you don`t believe your electric bills, a call to the local

power company will usually yield the information you need. Some customers can

access the data online through their utility company website. All you need is your

customer number. If you purchased a home that been around for a while, you can

obtain energy differently. If you purchased a home that been around for a long period,,

you can obtain energy data from the previous owner. There is one thing that all of us

should keep in mind that do not consume electricity, so do its occupants. Sometimes

we use energy wastefully, to some extend, the energy consumption data may be of

little value to you, for your family are energy misers.

To determine total annual electrical consumption from utility bills, look at the

cost in dollars and cents, instead of looking at the kilowatt hours of electricity

consumed each month. Calculate the total for each year and then calculate a yearly

average, if you are considering installing a grid tied solar electric system. A PV

system that feeds surplus electricity back to the grid of annual electrical demand is

often all you need. You can size your system based on this information. If you are

thinking about severing your ties with the utility. That is taking your house off the

grid, and you will need to calculate monthly average as well. How much electricity is

used on average during each month of the year, add up household electrical

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consumption for each month, and then divide by the number of year worth of data you

have off grid systems which are sized to meet demands during the time of highest

consumption.

After having calculated the energy consumption, take a few moments to look for

trends in energy use. Is energy consumption on the rise or is it staying constant or

declining for energy use? It should dump earlier year data. It reflects your current

consumption. and undersized the system. On the other hand, electrical energy

consumption has declined because you become more energy efficient, earlier data will

artificially inflate electrical demand, which could indicates that you will need less

electricity than the averages.

However, if you are intended to have your house a more energy efficient, the

home should be installed with much more energy efficient lighting, appliances and

incorporating passive solar heating and cooling equipments. As a result, the electrical

consumption could easily 50%, perhaps 75% lower than the figure in your current

home. For your own benefits, adjust the electrical demand to upgrade the efficiency.

Another way to estimate electrical consumption is to perform a load analysis. A

load analysis is an estimate of electric consumption based on the number of electronic

devices in home: their average daily use, and energy consumption. To perform a load

analysis, a homeowner begins with listing the appliances, lights and electronic devices

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in home. To keep track of all loads, we using a worksheet like the one shown as Table

1.1 to found the detail on it.

After you have determined the wattage of each electrical device and light, you

must estimate the number of hours each one is used on an average day and how many

days each device is used during a typical week. From this information, you calculate

the weekly energy consumption of all devices in your home or business. Then divide

this number by seven to determine the average daily consumption of your home or

business in watt hours. You will use this number to determine the size of your PV

system.

2.6 Sizing a solar electric system to meet the demand for the

energy.

At present, people all over the world seems to attach great importance to the

solar electricity for it is a renewable energy. Scientists are makeing great effort to

realize the common goals that is to improve the generating efficiency, and the prolong

its duration on working. The solar electric system is made up of parts, including the

solar-cell panel, controller, and the storage battery. If the OVDD is 220V or 110V, an

inverter should be added.

And once you have estimated your electrical demand and have implemented a

strategy to make your energy use more efficient, it is time to determine the size of the

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system for your needs. This is a step usually performed by professional solar electric

installers. The size of the system varies and depends on electrical demand and your

goals. PV systems fall into three broad categories: grid-connected, grid connected

with battery backup, and off -grid. (Appendix B: Layout 9 and Fig. 2.6.1)

Fig. 2.6.1 The diagram shown the grid connected system wiring.

2.6.1 Sizing a grid connected system

Sizing a grid connected system is the easiest of all. To meet 100% of your needs,

simply divide your average daily electrical demand by the average peak sun hours per

day for area, peak sun hours can be determined from solar map and from various

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websites and tables.

Suppose that you and your family consume 6000 kWh of electricity per year, or

500 kWh per month., and bout 17 kWh per day. Let suppose you live in Lexington,

Kentucky where the average peak sun hours per day is 4.5. Dividing 17 by 4.5 gives

you the array size: 3.8 kilowatts. But don`t run out and order a system based on that

number.

This calculation yield system size if the system were 100% efficient. As a result,

most solar installers date grid connected PV systems by 22 ~ 25% to account for

losses. This loss in due to voltage drop as electricity flows through wires, resistance at

fuses, breakers and connections, dust on the array and inefficiencies of various

components such as the inverter. So if your PV array is not shaded by trees or nearby

building , then you are in need of 22 ~ 25% larger system to provide 17 kWh of

electricity per day. (Appendix B: Layout 10 and Fig. 2.6.1.1), (Refer to regulations

table Appendix D: Table 1)

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Fig. 2.6.1.1 This is a grid connected system conduit to EL power system wiring plan.

Chapter 3 – Parts Related with the Solar Power System

This report intends to give some information on the sources of solar power

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system which is applied to the systems, including Solar Water Heater, Solar Lighting.

All the field that have operated on the basis of solar power system, and they are

necessary in our daily life. Then, let us look at these parts in the following discussion.

3.1 Solar Water Heating (SWH) systems covert the solar

energy, and then heat water.

SWH is a device to convert the solar energy into the thermal energy through the

solar thermal collector, and then converges the solar radiation to heat water. It has

become a commercialized product with economical value and mature technology. The

common component are ones, including solar thermal collector, water storage tank,

pump, connection pipe, holder, control system, and the ancillary energy needed on

occasion. Based on the method of heating cycle, this system could be catalogued into

three types: SWH with natural recycling, SWH with forced recycling, and SWH with

storage.

While the type and complexity of a solar water heating system is mostly

determined by:

 The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.

 Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between summer and

winter.

 The temperature of the water required from the system.

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 The minimum efficiency of the system is determined by the amount or

temperature of hot water required during winter (when the largest amount of hot water

is often required). The maximum efficiency of the system is determined by the need to

prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot (to boil, in an extreme case).

There are two main categories of solar water heating systems. Passive systems rely on

convection or heat pipes to circulate water or heating fluid in the system, while active

systems use a pump. In addition, there are a number of other characteristics that

distinguish different designs:

 The type of collector used

 The location of the collector - roof mount, ground mount, wall mount

 The location of the storage tank in relation to the collector

 The method of heat transfer - open-loop or closed-loop

 Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors can be designed to produce both

hot water and electricity.

An integrated collector storage (ICS) system

A special type of passive system is the Integrated Collector Storage (ICS or

Batch Heater) where the tank acts as both storage and solar collector. Batch heaters

are basically thin rectilinear tanks enclosed by glass, generally mounted in or on

house wall or roof. They are seldom over-pressured and usually depend on gravity for

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flowing to deliver their water. They are simple, efficient and less costly than plate and

tube collectors but they are only suitable in moderate climates with good sunshine.

A step up from the ICS is the Convection Heat Storage unit (CHS or

thermosiphon). These are often plate type or evacuated tube collectors with built-in

insulated tanks. The unit uses convection (movement of hot water upward) to move

the water from collector to tank. Neither pumps nor electricity are used to enforce

circulation. It is more efficient than an ICS as the collector to heat a small(er) amount

of water that constantly rises back to the tank. It can be used in areas with less

sunshine than the ICS. An CHS which is also known as a compact system or

monopoly, has a tank for the heated water and a solar collector mounted on the same

chassis. Typically these systems will function by natural convection or heat pipes to

transfer the heat energy from the collector to the tank.

Active systems

Active solar hot water systems employ a pump to circulate water or HTF

between the collector and the storage tank. Like their passive counterparts, active

solar water heating systems come as two types: direct active systems pump water

directly to the collector and back to the storage tank (direct collectors can contain

conventional freeze-vulnerable metal pipes or low pressure freeze-tolerant silicone

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rubber pipes); indirect active systems which are usually made of metals, pump heat

transfer fluid (HTF), the heat of which is transferred to the water in the storage tank.

Because the pump should only operate when the fluid in the collector is hotter than

the water in the storage tank, a controller is required to turn the pump on and off. The

use of an electronically controlled pump (EUP) could achieve a economic effect. The

reason lies in that on the basis of traditional inline pump, when the ECU is applied to

replace the traditional inline pump, ,the ECU will capture the various external input

signals in real-time, and then the internal Engine Management System( EMS) will

work out the optimal time and amount for oil injection.

3.2 Solar Lighting Systems

Daylighting is the practice of placing windows or other openings and reflective

surfaces so that during the day natural light provides effective internal lighting.

Particular attention is given to daylighting while designing a building when the aim is

to maximize visual comfort or to reduce energy use. Energy savings can be achieved

either from the reduced use of artificial (electric) lighting or from passive solar

heating or cooling. Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing

fewer electric lights because daylight is present, or by dimming/switching electric

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lights automatically in response to the presence of daylight, a process known as

daylight harvesting.

Daylighting is a technical term given to a common centuries-old, geography and

culture independent design basic when "rediscovered" by 20th century architects.

Heliostats

Heliostat and caerostat function alike, while the former places the plane mirror

into a equator-like device which can move along with the direction of declination.

When the surface of the mirror gives a tracking motion, the light from the Sun or

other stars will be reflected into the axis direction, then directly reflect back to the

fixed telescope through the auxiliary flat mirror.

The use of heliostats, mirrors which are moved automatically to reflect sunlight

in a constant direction as the sun moves across the sky, is gaining popularity as an

energy-efficient method of lighting. A heliostat can be used to shine sunlight directly

through a window or skylight, or into any arrangement of optical elements, for

example light tubes, that distribute the light where it is needed.

Light shelves

Light shelves are an effective way to enhance the lighting from windows on the

equator-facing side of a structure, this effect being obtained by placing a white or

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reflective metal light shelf outside the window. Usually the window will be protected

from direct summer season sun by a projecting eave. The light shelf projects beyond

the shadow created by the eave and reflects sunlight upward to illuminate the ceiling.

This reflected light can contain little heat content and the reflective illumination from

the ceiling will typically reduce deep shadows, reducing the need for general

illumination.

In the cold winter, a natural light shelf is created when there is snow on the

ground. As the outside temperature drops below freezing, moisture in the atmosphere

precipitates out, often in the form of snow (or freezing rain). This makes the ground

highly reflective. Low winter sun (see Sun path) reflects off the snow and increases

solar gain through equator-facing glass by one-to-two thirds which brightly lights the

ceiling of these rooms. Glare control (drapes) may be required.

Skylight

Skylight is widely applied in the modern architectures with various types. It can

be divided into three types: top skylight, protruded skylight, and the humiliated

skylight. It is used for daylighting. That is to say that the s kylight is any horizontal

window, or roof lantern placed at the roof of the building, often used for daylighting. White

translucent acrylic is a "Lambertian Diffuser", which means the transmitted light is perfectly

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diffused and distributed evenly over affected areas. This means, among other advantages, that

light source quality standards are measured relative to white acrylic transmission. White

acrylic domes provide even light distribution throughout the day. Skylights admit more light

per unit area than windows, and distribute it more evenly over a space.

Light tubes

Solar street lamp is a kind of lamp that uses the solar energy as its source. It

enjoys a great popularity, because it will not affected by the power supply, and the

consumption of conventional electrical power. It is regarded as the clean energy. The

sort of light can be installed in the places where they are lacking in conventional

energy with less population and inconvenient transportation but sufficient sunlight,

and then the household lighting problems could be solved.

Another type of device used is the light tube, also called a solar tube. It converts

the solar energy into the luminous energy and provide the light, and it is placed into a

roof and admits light to a focused area of the interior. These somewhat resemble

recessed ceiling light fixtures. They do not allow as much heat transfer as skylights

because they have less surface area.

Tubular Daylighting Devices (TDDs)

TDDs use modern technology to transmit visible light through opaque walls and

roofs. The tube is a passive component consisting of either a simple reflective interior

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coating or a light conducting fiber optic bundle. It is frequently capped with a

transparent, roof-mounted dome 'light collector' and terminated with a diffuser

assembly that admits the daylight into interior spaces and distributes the available

light energy evenly (or else efficiently if the use of the lit space is reasonably fixed,

and the user desired one or more 'bright-spots').

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 Chapter 4 – Study the Solar Power System on Housing

The simulation model includes the study detail of housing use. Assurned roof,

first floor and ground floor with background on housing in New Territories. And study

3 main features in this area of Solar Heat Water, Solar Lighting and Solar air-

conditioning system.

4.1 Location and Building Description

The housing is planned to be built in Sha Tin on New Territories. The housing

location and layout plan refers to Appendix B: Layout 1 - 4 and Fig. 4.1.1 – 4.1.5

Type of Building: Village House

Address: No.13, North Yeuk Siu Lek Yuen, Shatin, Hong Kong

Total Height: 10.5 m

Each Floor Hight: 3.5 m

GFA: 72.42 m2

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Fig. 4.1.1 The location of design village house at hong kong

Fig. 4.1.2 Layout plan of village house G/F

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Fig. 4.1.3 Layout plan of village house 1/F

Fig. 4.1.4 Layout plan of village house R/F

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Fig. 4.1.5 Schematic plan of village house

The usage of the building is summarized as follow :

Each Each floor

Floor Level Floor Description Floor Total size

Height
1 no. EL Room, 2 nos.

Bedroom, 1 no. Hall, 1 no.

G/F 3.5 m 72.42 m2
Kitchen, 1 no. Bathroom

and Background
2 nos. Bedroom, 1 no. Hall
1/F 7m 49.7 m2
and 1 no. Bathroom
R/F Roof Ground 10.5 m 49.7 m2

4.2 Study on PV Panel Installation

When installing solar array panel and solar thermal collectors, there are certain

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considerations that can help to assure better performance

4.2.1 Calculate Solar Array Size

We are follow the 5 steps to estimate what size solar system you might need.

Then calculate the array size and how much it might cost to install the solar system.

Step 1: Find electricity bills and average out the usage to find “Your kWh/year”.

kWh/year = Average Kilowatt Hours of electricity that use in a typical year.

The bill may tell kWh/month. At this project design the bill is ~$200/month

and be closer to 1,800 kWh/month

Step 2: Look at the Hong Kong Solar Map below to get the number of hours per day

the Sun shines on village house. Alternatively, the avg solar hours of the

closest in city by looking at chart and table detail refer to Appendix C: Table

3 & 4 and Fig. 4.2.1.1

Average
Average Sunlight Average Number of
Mouth
Hours/Day Temperature(Co) Fays with Frost

October 7.1 (Highest) 25 0

May 5.0 (Middle) 26 0
March 3.1 (Lowest) 18 0

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Fig. 4.2.1.1 This chart shows solar insolation in kilowatt-hours per square meter per

day in Hong Kong. For simplicity are call this figure "Sun Hours / Day."

To find the average sun hours per day in hong kong area look at the maps at

the bottom of Fig 4.2.1.1, we want year-round autonomy, so use the lowest

figure to calculate, on Fig 4.2.1.1 to shown the lowest sunglight hours/day on

march 3.1 is better.

Step 3: We will calculate percent of total electricity bill do to come from the Solar

system, at this project, we are budget with 50% to use on solar system for air

cond and solar heater.

Step 4: We are input the numbers in the calculator below. For those calculating

by hand, the formula is: Array Size in kW = (kWh/year) / (365 days/year) /

(Solar Hours/day) * (Percent you want to cover) / (75% efficiency constant),

Due to real world efficiency losses (irradiance, dust, temperature, and

wiring), you should expect your system power output (AC power) to be about

75% of the system (DC power) size. This is the0 .75 efficiency constant

included

The electricity bill is ~100/mo and I use about 900kWh/month. Location at

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 Hong Kong get about 3.1 solar hours/day and I want to cover 30% of my bill!

(10,800 kWh/year) / (365 days/year) / (3.1 kWh/day) * (30%) / (0.75%) =

3.82 kW Array. Refer to solar array size calculator on Appendix C: Table 5

Step 6: Calculate the cost of installing a solar PV system estimated cost of that size

with the Solar Cost Calculator on Appendix C: Table 6. The Cost/W is

(900kWh/month)/(100/mo bill) = 9/W. The estimated system cost about

HK$ 34,380.

Step 7: Select the appropriate the solar panels and need decide installation Qty.

According to the information, we appropriate – LG LG235M1C are rated at

235 DC Watts. Refer to Appendix F: Table 1 and Fig. 4.2.1.2

Fig. 4.2.1.2 The table shown that the solar panel watt (235Watt) and price (US$380 x

7)= HK$2660.

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 Innovative application for photovoltaic are being developed all the time. For

example, a high concentration type photovoltaic system is being developed which

uses plastic lenses to focus sunlight onto small photovoltaic cells so as to increase the

cell efficiency.

However, I will types the Mono-cystalline silicon and photovoltaic Array on this

report. Because it is higher efficiencies than Poly-cystalline and Amorphous silcon.

Refer to Appendix C: Table 7 show the common types of photovoltaic Array are

below

Formula: Number of Panels = (Array Size in kW * 1,000 W/kW) / Solar Panel

DC Watt rating on Appendix C: Table 8

Now we know need use 17 nos of solar panel to design the solar system. Well need

over 400 sqft of unobstructed (mostly South-facing) background space.

4.2.2 Location of Installation

Location for installation of solar array panel and thermal collectors should have

abundant solar resource for capture by the panel, At the planned area are consort at

surfaces facing south direction and clear from shading of surrounding objects such as

trees or high buildings. More preferable for 17 nos. solar panel installation on

background. The array panel install location refers on Appendix B: Layout 1 & 4

and Fig. 4.2.2.1 & 4.2.2.2

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Fig. 4.2.2.1 This layout shown the 17 nos. of solar array panel installation location,

and shown that all panel are tilting angle equal at south to the latitude of geographic

location , therefore in Hong Kong was produces the best year round energy yield from

the array.

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Fig. 4.2.2.2 The schematic diagram shown the 17 solar array panel installation on

background and the table shown the array size.

4.2.3 Tilting Angle

In Hong Kong, a tilting angle equal to the latitude of geographic location

produces the best year round energy yield from the array panel, therefore, installing

array panel and collectors tilting at an angle 22o 15’ to the horizontal captures the

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highest year round solar energy is better. However , it does not mean that other tilting

angles are not suitable, because if the solar thermal energy demand is on seasonal

base(e.g the system is only used to assist winter heating), the tilting angle can be

adjusted to capture the maximum solar energy for the season. For example. One can

install solar panel at a tilting angle larger than 22o 15’ to capture more solar thermal

energy during the winter season. On the other hand, it is found that evacuated tube

solar panel is more flexible in tilting angles. We can find the better tilting angle and

solar panel angle on the monthly averaged radiation incident table and solar angle

calculator refers at Appendix C: Table 9

4.2.4 Row Separation

For installation with a large number of solar collectors connected in multiple

rows, the row should have sufficient separation in order not to cast shadows to the

rows behind.

From the Appendix B: Layout 5 and Fig. 4.2.4.1, it below shows the end view

of two rows of collector with collector height a and row separation b. In order to avoid

significant reduction in amount of energy that can be captured by the row behind, it is

suggested to have the (a)1600mm, (b) 2200mm distance ratio be kept at about 0.6 for

solar panel mounting at a tilting angle about 22o 15’ If area available for installing the

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panels is limited, such ratio should still be kept as far as possible so as not to exceed

0.8

Fig. 4.2.4.1 Figures shown the solar thermal calculate the recommended of panel

The preferable is (1600mm)/(2200mm) = 0.72. The ratlo is over 0.6 and not

exceed to 0.8, so the distance are commended at installation solar panel.

4.2.5 Costs, Energy savings and Earning on install PV panel

The more electricity the system can generate, the more it costs but the more it

could save arger systems are usually more cost-effective than smaller systems (up to 4

kWp) V panels are all around the same price per kWp, but PV tiles cost much more

than a typical system made up of panels anels built into a roof are more expensive

than those that sit on top.

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Energy Savings

A system can generate up to about 2,500 kilowatt hours of electricity a year -

that's around three quarters of a typical household's electricity needs - and will save

over a tonne of carbon dioxide every year, If your system is eligible for the Feed-In

Tariff scheme it could generate savings and income of nearly $14400 per year - you

will get paid for both the electricity you generate and use, and what you don't use and

export to the grid.

Maintenance

Solar PV needs little maintenance - you'll just need to keep the panels relatively

clean and make sure trees don't begin to overshadow them. The panels should last 25

years or more, but the inverter is likely to need replacing some time during this

period, at a current cost of around $10000 in Hong Kong.

4.3 Study the Solar Water Heating System Installation

The solar collectors absorb the heat in solar radiation and transfer the heat energy

to the water either directly or indirectly. The hot water so produced is stored in a well

insulated storage tank to hold the solar headed water for subsequent use. Usually a

solar water heating system is designed to fulfill a major part of the hot water

requirements of the premises, with the rest being made up by other heating sources

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such as an electric heater.

4.3.1 Energy Calculations and Units

We have to be able to measure and compare energy and other quantities to be

able to estimate the size of solar water-heating and solar electric systems. We,

therefore, need to gain an understanding of the energy calculations and energy units

we use to make these estimates.

Heat

British Thermal Unit (Btu): the amount of energy to raise 1 pound of water 1

degree Fahrenheit

Therm: 100,000 Btu

DekaTherm (DKT): 1,000,000 Btu

Natural gas contains about 1 DKT of energy in 1000 cubic feet of gas.

Electric Power and Energy (Appendix C: Table 10 )

1 Watt = 1 Volt*1 Amp in purely resistant circuits

1000 Watts = 1 Kilowatt (KW) (this is Power)

1 KW* 1 Hour = 1 Kilowatt-Hour (this is energy)

4.3.2 Solar Collector Performance

The characteristic curve equation of a solar collector can be a first-order

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equation or a second-order equation. (Appendix C: Table 11 )

Evacuated-tube collectors are usually more expensive than flat-plate collectors.

However, as the k-value is lower, evacuated-tube collector can achieve a high

efficiency even with large temperature difference between absorber and surrounding.

4.3.3 Select a Solar Water Heating Collector

To properly size a solar water-heating system, you’ll need to determine the total

collector area and the storage volume needed to meet 90 to 100 percent of the

household's hot water needs during the summer, and we will use it to verify our “Rule

of Thumb” calculation example below

Step 1: A good rule of thumb for sizing collector area in Hong Kong is to allow 20

square feet (2 square meters) of collector area for each of the first two family

members, and 12 to 14 square feet for each additional person. We are propose

4 person for this housing, the using of total collector are (20 square feet + 14 x

2 each additional person/square feet = 48 square meters) for design housing

Step 2: To Sizing Storage Volume, Aasmall (50- to 60-gallon) storage tank is usually

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 sufficient for one to two people. A medium (80-gallon) storage tank works

well for three to four people. A large tank (120-gallon) is appropriate for four

to six people, so we proposed use a medium storage tanks is better for solar

heater.

Step 3: Now, we need select the Appropriate Solar Thermal Collectors. The majority

of solar thermal collectors for low temperature water heating fall in two types,

flat plate solar thermal collector and evacuated tube solar thermal collector.

And in this report I will select the glass evacuated tube solar thermal collector

to install. Solar tube solar collectors are tubular in shape and make use of

vacuum for thermal insulation to minimize heat loss to the surrounding due to

conduction and convection while the clear glass surface allows good

transmission of solar radiation. Each module of solar thermal collector panel is

made up of 20 ~ 30 numbers of tubes thermally coupled to a header pipe. The

detail shown in Appendix B: Layout 6 & Fig. 4.3.3.1 and Appendix C:

Table 12 shown the approximate theoretical thermal output of two types of

collectors based on application conditions of local weather conditions.

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Fig. 4.3.3.1 The construction and components of the collector

Step 4: In Hong Kong, the household-scale solar water heating system nominal size

of one or more solar collectors would have a range of dimensions and weight

not exceeding around 2.5m(L) x 3.5m(W) and total gross weight not

exceeding 700kg for a family dwelling (Refer to regulations table Appendix

D: Table 2 and Appendix C: Table 13)

Step 5: Refer to step 1 – 4 data, now to select the solar thermal collectors and need

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 decide installation Qty. According to the information, we appropriate –

APRICUS AP-30 are rated at 1850 Watts / 6312 Btu. Refer to Appendix F:

Table 2. and Fig. 4.3.3.2

Fig. 4.3.3.2 Shown the APRICUS AP-30 to proposed to this dissertation.

Now we know need use 1 no of solar thermal collectors can cover the housing

amount.

4.3.4 Heating System Configuration Location Siting

A Solar water-heating systems use both direct and diffuse solar radiation. A solar

water heating system should be installed on the roof-top of a housing or village house

which should be a structures sound area and this area should be unshaded from

adjacent structures, high buildings and trees. The solar collector panel should be tilted

at a suitable angle and properly oriented in accordance with the manufacturer

recommendations so as to maximize the year – round efficiency, if the installation site

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is un-shaded from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. and faces south, it's a good candidate for a solar

water-heating system. At Appendix B: Layout 3 & 4 and Fig. 4.3.4.1 & Fig. 4.3.4.2

layout plan shown the installation arrangement of a household – scale solar water

heating system on the roof-top of the village house. The roof- top area of a village

house is able to support the solar water heating system up to the above largest

dimensions and weight as prescribed in Fig. 4.3.4.2. The system mounted on the

supporting frame supplied with the system shall be installed on the roof top area of a

village house. (Refer to regulations table Appendix D: Table 1 to know the

terminology in Hong Kong).

Fig. 4.3.4.1 This layout shown the 1 no. of solar water heater panel installation

location, and shown that panel are tilting angle equal at south to the latitude of

geographic location , therefore in Hong Kong was produces the best year round

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energy yield from the array.

Fig. 4.3.4.2 The schematic diagram shown the 1no solar water heater panel

installation on background and shown the array size.

4.3.5 Plumbing Requirements of Heating System

Installation the plumbing of solar heating system should employ a licensed

plumber to carry out installation or modification of water supply system for solar

heating system, In case of Hong Kong, the piping design and installation for a

household- scale solar water heating system is shown in Appendix B: Layout 7 and

Fig. 4.3.5.1

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 Fig. 4.3.5.1 The schematic diagram shown the solar water heater pump system

conduit installation

4.3.6 Costs, Energy savings and Earning on solar heating system

The cost of installing solar water heating system is around $HK 50,000. Savings

are moderate - the system could provide most of your hot water in the summer, but

much less during colder weather.

Maintenance

Maintenance costs are very low. Most solar water heating systems come with a

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five-year or ten-year warranty and require little maintenance. You should take a look

at your panels every year and have them checked more thoroughly by an accredited

installer every 3-5 years, or as specified by your installer.

Energy Savings

Solar water heating systems can achieve savings on your energy bills. Based on

the results of our recent field trial, typical savings from a well-installed and properly

used system are $660 per year when replacing gas heating and $960 per year when

replacing electric immersion heating; however, savings will vary from user to user.

Typical carbon savings are around 230kgCO2/year when replacing gas and

510kgCO2/year when replacing electric immersion heating.

Earnings

You may be able to receive payments for the heat you generate from a solar

water heating system through the government’s Renewable Heat Incentive . you may

be able to get help with the installation costs of a new solar water heating system

through the Renewable Heat Premium Payment scheme.

4.4 Solar Lighting System Installation

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 In this project, I will use modern technology solar lighting system - Tubular

Daylighting Devices (TDDs) and daylighting shelves, it transmit visible light through

opaque walls and roofs. The tube itself is a passive component consisting of either a

simple reflective interior coating or a light conducting fiber optic bundle. It is

frequently capped with a transparent, roof-mounted dome 'light collector' and

terminated with a diffuser assembly that admits the daylight into interior spaces and

distributes the available light energy saving evenly (or else efficiently if the use of the

lit space is reasonably fixed, and the user desired one or more 'bright-spots'). (TDDs),

sun tubes look similar to recessed light fixtures in your ceiling. While they don't

transmit as much light as a skylight or window, the light they do provide is a big

improvement over electrical lighting. Sun tubes include a transport device to collect

light on the roof with either a reflective coating or bundle of fiber optics to conduct

the light. The light is directed through a tube, which can bend or turn as needed, that

extends from the roof to the ceiling of a space. A diffuser is mounted on the ceiling to

distribute the light evenly throughout the room. Even if the sun isn't burning brightly,

the sun tube will still transmit plenty of natural light into a room without transmitting

heat. Sun tubes offer considerable cost savings over installing a skylight or window.

They're available in several sizes, ranging from a ten inch diameter up to 20 or more

inches, and cost between $1400 and $2800.

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 4.4.1 TDDS and DS Installation Location

Tubular daylighting devices (TDDs) and daylighting shelves (DS) are two methods

for bringing natural exterior daylight into the hard-to-reach, interior spaces of a

building. Recently two models to simulate these devices were added to the

EnergyPlus whole-building energy analysis program. In addition to modeling their

daylighting effects, solar gains and conductive/ convective heat transfer are also

integrated into the zone heat balance. The location shown in (Appendix B: Layout 1

- 3& 8 and Fig. 4.4.1.1 – 4.4.1.4)

Fig. 4.4.1.1 At the G/F have 8 nos, of daylighting shelves install at each room.

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Fig. 4.4.1.2 At the 1/F have 6 nos, of daylighting shelves install at each room.

Fig. 4. 4.1.3 At the R/F have 6 nos, of tubular daylighting devices install on

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floor.

Fig. 4.4.1.4 The schematic diagram shown that the TDDs and DS datial.

4.4.2 Costs, Energy savings on Tubular daylighting devices

(TDDs)

This is a cost-effective because it can significantly reduce electricity costs.

Tubular daylighting devices cost significantly less than other lighting options, so

only need to purchase the product and installation costs. Increase the user to save

energy and associated benefits.

Energy Savings

Reduce fossil fuel consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions is

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essential to address global warming, this can be done, some of the buildings use

natural light to provide illumination. Availability of daylight and artificial lighting

needs tend to correspond, so you can save significantly.

4.5 Conclusion of use solar system in Household

Installation of solar equipment on the family study, I mainly focused on solar

panels, solar water heating and solar lighting of the three device, because the majority

of Hong Kong households have installed solar energy equipment are used to these

devices, so I focus on these three devices is generally concentrated in the social and

psychological factors influence the acceptability of energy-saving measures.

However, the acceptability of energy-saving measures the physical characteristics has

largely been ignored. In this study, energy-saving measures for different types of

preferences were examined by using the additive part of the value function of the joint

analysis. Energy conservation measures to save energy (energy conservation measures

at home and transport energy-saving measures purposes), energy-saving strategy

(technological improvements, the different changes in product use and consumption)

areas, different amount of energy savings (small and large energy savings). Energy

strategy seems to be the most important characteristics, influence the acceptability of

energy-saving measures. In general, technological improvements over the behavior of

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measures, especially consumer transfer. In addition, the family energy-saving

measures, energy-saving measures over the acceptability of traffic. The number of

energy conservation is the least important feature: In the small and large energy

saving measures the acceptability of almost no difference. In addition to the

respondents in the different environmental concerns, there is between the respondent

group, the average energy-saving measures acceptable to no difference.

Chapter 5 – Data Collection Methodology

For my dissertation exercise, we have one way for connection of usable data for

analysis in two methods and use the case study method to connect the energy saving

for solar system information.

5.1 Data Collection Procedure

At the Data using the study method for this project to make analysis, the case studies

case were searched from the web site , I have search about 13 case studies to make

analysis. The chosen case studies, most of the them using the solar system to energy

saving in commercial building and household located at Hong Kong and Oversea.

And all of case studies is located at cities.

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 5.1.1 Study Description in Hong Kong

(1) H.K (Slaughter - house in Sheung Shui)

Energy efficient and environmental friendly building services design is

adopted. In particular, hot water is one of the main consumable resources in the

slaughter operation, estimated at 630 m3 per day year round (equivalent to 8,000

households), solar hot water system is provided comprising 450 solar panels. Heat

pump system is installed which allows the provision of cooled air to the Slaughter

Hall and Meat Despatch Area on one hand while the rejected heat is used to heat up

the water for the hot water system making it an energy efficient design. Auto-

occupancy sensors and temperature controllers are provided for air-conditioning

control in non-operation areas. Effluent water from Shek Wu Hui Sewage Treatment

Plant is used for cooling the condenser of the air-conditioning plant. Energy efficient

discharge lighting and fluorescent fittings with electronic low loss ballast are

provided. Building management system is used to provide time scheduled lighting

control to save electricity consumption. Variable speed motors and fans are provided

to meet with different operating conditions in various areas to save energy. Emergency

generator power supply is provided to maintain two pig lines and one cattle line in

operation during power interruption from Supply Company.

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The following Solar Energy application could be found in the household:

 Active Solar Heater

(2) Hong Kong Science Park (Pak Shek Kok, New Territories, Hong kong)

BIPV panels have been fitted to the facade, the louvers and the roof canopy of

the Buildings in Phase 1. The BIPV is connected to the electricity grid and have an

approximately 200 kilo-Watt output. The installation of BIPV panels can pursue new

clean energy technologies, reduce consumption of natural resources and cut emissions

to the atmosphere. It can save approximately 250MWh of electricity consumption

annually.

Atrium ,Skylights and clerestories are located at the center under the metal roof

forms of Buildings in Phase 1, maximizing the amount of daylight entering the

buildings at various time of the day, thus reducing light energy consumption.

Sunshading structures are extensively incorporated onto the external facades of the

Buildings in Phase 1 to shield direct sunlight penetration, reducing heat gain to the

office so as to reduce electricity consumption for air conditioning.

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The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Active Solar Heating

 Daylighting

 BIPV (Building-integrated photovoltaic)

(3) H.K (Wet market in the estate)

This Wet Market, managed by the Housing Department, is the first public

market equipped with gas desiccant dehumidifiers for active humidity control. In a

traditional air-conditioned wet market, lower temperature is maintained without

humidity control. Indoor air condition is normally maintained at around 21oC and

above 70% RH, which is too cool and humid for shoppers. In order to provide a

pleasant indoor environment, the gas company introduced a gas desiccant cooling

system to keep the market in comfort level in which the RH is 65% and temperature is

at 24oC to 25oC. The moisture in the fresh air is taken out by a desiccant wheel inside

the dehumidifier before entering into the wet market. The dry condition enhances the

market to good indoor air quality (IAQ) and prevents sick building syndrome and its

associated problems of human allergies, musty odors, fungal and bacterial growth.

The system consists three units of gas desiccant dehumidifiers (each handles 17,000

CMH air), which are operated with independent temperature and humidity control.

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The dehumidifiers are installed on the top floor of the market and continuously supply

dry, fresh air to the market in ground floor via air duct. The system is monitored by

independent temperature and humidity sensors inside the market, and is actively

controlled by a SCADA system.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Solar Cooling System (Desiccant Cooling System)

(4) H.K (Academic buildings in the University of Hong Kong)

The installation of HKU BIPV on the west-facing facade of an existing building,

the CYC building, within the HKU campus. The supporting frame is 25m tall vertical

arrays by 4m wide, with a total panel area of 92m2. Two types of second-generation

amorphous Silicon technologies, namely the PST/ASE (from Germany) and EPV

(from USA) were installed on the frame simulating typical Hong Kong facade. The

array was constructed 10 degrees offset from the wall towards South to capture more

solar radiation. The array output after the inverter was constantly monitored through a

kWh meter. The meter readings indicate the REAL output from the PV system.

Although the two arrays are constructed of PV with the same technology and with

very close rated efficiency, their real performance is very different. PST is higher

output efficiency than the PST PV panel.

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The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Shading Devices with PV Panel

 BIPV (Building-integrated photovoltaic)

(5) H.K (Family household in New Territories)

solar system is two of the main consumable resources in the slaughter operation,

estimated at 75 m2 per day year round, solar hot water system is provided comprising

15 ~ 20 solar panels. Heat pump system is installed which allows used to heat up the

water for the hot water system making it an energy efficient design on housing.

Energy efficient discharge lighting and fluorescent fittings with electronic low loss

ballast are provided. Building management system is used to provide time scheduled

lighting control to save electricity consumption. Variable speed motors and fans are

provided to meet with different operating conditions in various areas to save energy.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Solar Heater

 Shading Devices with PV Panel

5.1.2 Study Description in Oversea

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(1) Japan (Commercial building in Tokyo)

This is commercial building. It was reported in building magazines as Japan's

first case of total introduction of skylight in the building design. Many visitors flocked

to see this skylight in building, and it was used as the location for drama.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Daylight

(2) Japan (Commercial Buildings in Tokyo)

The lower part of this building was designed to relate to the 50m, or so, high

skyline formed by a number of adjacent buildings, above which stands the mid-level

part of the tower. This in turn supports the narrower top portion. It is these three

setbacks that give the building its

distinctive overall form. The opening between the lower and mid-level parts of

the building, 42m wide by 15m high serves as a large "wind vent" allowing strong

high-level winds deflected down the face of the tower to "escape" downwind, instead

of being diverted further down the facade, where they could have adverse effects on

the surrounding low buildings and pedestrians in the street. The opening also serves as

a large "window" through which daylight enters the atrium and entrance hall located

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centrally in the low-rise part of the tower.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Daylighting

(3) U.K (Commercial buildings in Whittle Hill Farm Buildings)

The Whittle Hill Buildings comprise 105m2 of obsolete farm building that have

been converted to offices by Professor Tony Marmont to accommodate MRETT

(Midlands Renewable Energy Technology Transfer) and Beacon Energy (a ”green

electricity” producer which supplies electricity to Leicester City Council). The

buildings have been designed to be as ecologically sound as possible, starting with the

decision to re-use existing building stock, therefore reducing the energy requirements

of construction. This ecological building theme is continued though the use of high

level of insulation, purifying rainwater for drinking, the use

of waterless urinals and the incorporation of a number of renewable energy projects

into the building fabric. One of the features of the MRETT building is a 27m-long

right-angled corridor, running along the south and west faces of the main building,

which connects up the individual offices. In addition to access, this corridor serves to

regulate the temperature of the whole building. The corridor is lined with 1.5m-high

double-glazed windows, with 12m facing south and 15m facing west. The sun heats

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the stone walls and floor of the passageway. Warm air is drawn from this area to feed

a pulse jet furnace which circulates warm air into each room via under-floor ducts.

The air exits each room via overhead outlets back into the solar passageway for re-

heating by the sun and return to the furnace.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Sidelight (TDDs & DS)

 Solar Heating

 Solar Cooling

(4) U.S. (Commercial building in San Francisco, CA)

This is commercial building in San Francisco, CA. The Photovoltaic System

size 287kW. The number of panels 1,606. Over its lifetime, British Motors' solar

installation is expected to offset an estimated 14 million pounds of carbon dioxide, the

equivalent of planting nearly seven thousand trees. As an additional benefit, the

structure provides ultraviolet and weather protection for the dealership's cars

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including Smart, Jaguar, Land Rover, Lamborghini, Bentley and Lotus models.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Photovoltics

(5) U.S (Household –North Carolina)

Most household on north Carolina install a solar water heating system,. The

system will supply clean, renewable energy that will primarily be used to heat water

in the building’s house, reducing natural gas used for water heating by 50 percent. The

solar collectors will also provide protection against future price volatility while

eliminating about 12 tons of carbon dioxide annually.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the household:

 Photovoltics

(6) U.S (Technology Company –North Carolina)

A Triangle-based company recently invested in a solar water heating system,

which includes 24 collectors installed on a six-story existing office building. The

system will supply clean, renewable energy that will primarily be used to heat water

in the building’s employee cafeteria, reducing natural gas used for water heating by 50

percent. The solar collectors will also provide protection against future price volatility

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while eliminating about 14.5 tons of carbon dioxide annually.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 Photovoltics

(7) U.S.A.(Times Square, New York)

This 48-story skyscraper at the corner of Broadway and 42nd Street is the first

major office building to be constructed in New York City in the 1990’s. To raise the

environmental standards of high-quality urban buildings, the Durst Corporation,

which owns this new skyscraper, is implementing a wide range of strategies that result

in healthy, energy-efficient buildings.

Because BIPV was incorporated into the design at the end of the construction

documents phase, the installation was made to harmonize with the established design

concept. The PV modules were built to the same size specifications as standard glass.

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This project demonstrates the flexibility of BIPV technology in accommodating

existing configurations.

PV modules were chosen which met the client’s standards for cost-efficiency,

and performed well at the high temperatures they would encounter in this installation.

They also were chosen to be shadow-resistant to minimize the effects of shading from

other parts of the façade.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 BIPV (Building-integrated photovoltaic)

(8) Australia (commercial Building in 40 Albert Road 40 Albert Road)

To use Building Integrated Photovoltaic panels (BIPV) to provide weather

protection for one of the first commercial fuel cell systems in Australia. Project

Features, Following the successful installation of the Solar Pergola at 40 Albert Road

the client decided to use BIPV in the roof section of the enclosure surrounding the

fuel cell. The Building Integrated PV panels generate electricity, provide rain

protection, provide shading but allow a degree of natural light. The generated

electricity is fed into the electrical grid via the inverter installed to service the solar

pergola. In spite of the previous shading issues– where the building contractors

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installed equipment (eg a parapet and a television aerial) – shading problems cropped

up again, this time with flashing over the silicon in the glass. This was done regardless

of written and verbal advice and the building contractors had to return to rectify the

problem.

The following Solar Energy application could be found in the commercial building:

 BIPV (Building-integrated photovoltaic)

5.2 Data Analysis

There were 13 case studies have search, 5 case studies in Hong Kong area, 2

case studies in Japan, 1 case studies in UK, 4 studies in U.S. and 1 case in Australia.,

there were total 19 solar energy system application apply in 13 case studies. There

were 4 case using Solar Daylight application, 4 case using BIPV application, 5 case

using PV application and 2 case Passive Solar cooling and 4 case Solar Heater . The

Solar Daylight , BIPV , PV Passive Solar cooling and Solar Hot water are the most

common apply in commercial building. But the above data is combining with Hong

Kong and oversea case studies.

Then I will compare the solar energy application between Hong Kong and

oversea.

5.2.1 Solar Heater System Analysis

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 Refer to the case study information (Appendix E: Table 1). We could only find

out the Solar Heater System

Have 4 cases because this system is quite common in the market. The case

studies of Hong Kong and oversea (Appendix E: Table 2), the system to be applied

in housing. There were 3 cases in Hong Kong , and 1 case in oversea. All the cases

use active solar hot-water heating systems for the hot water to canteen and pantry .

The solar contribution of these systems is better than that of active solar space-heating

systems, because the demand for hot water occurs over the whole year, so that the

long sunshine hours in the summer can be put to full use. Thin tubing from tank to

collectors, associated control wiring, and insulation are bundled together in a flexible

conduit to simplify installation. Hot-water heating is a mature technology, and in most

countries an industry exists that manufactures and installs reliable,

5.2.2 Solar Cooling System Analysis

Refer to the research, would like to collect some cases in Hong Kong and

Overseas. These cases we would summarize to tables and chart for researches the

cases and compare with those applications in foreign countries. In the solar cooling

system, we collected about in Hong Kong and Overseas by internet and reference

book but the some are not in detail and representative case (Appendix E: Table

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3).There were 1case in Euro and 1 case in Hong Kong (Appendix E: Table 4). It

show that respectively have 50% of case in Euro and Hong Kong. We collects case are

only smaller scale applied solar energy to the cooling system. We search the cases in

Hong Kong is not enough, only one case in wet market is a desiccant cooling system

consists by three units (each handles 17,000 CMH air) but not representative case

because heat source supplied by the gas not solar energy only. Absorption chillers in

Hong Kong are not commonly use. It seems the Active Solar Cooling is not

commonly applied in commercial building.

5.2.3 Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Analysis

From the information (Appendix E: Table 5) of the case, Hong Kong has 2 case

studies of commercial building using BIPV. They are also Government high rise

building. Refer to foreign country (Appendix E: Table 6), such as U.S. and Australia

it is 1 case and application respectively. The percentages ratio of Hong Kong and

foreign country is 50% and U.S. and Australia is 25% respectively. The private high

rise building always use with BIPV integrated. BIPV seem to use friendly in Hong

Kong commercial building. That BIPV is still under test at Hong Kong and the

development of BIPV at Hong Kong is slow. The direction of development BIPV in

Hong Kong is provides a wide range of application to apply different facilities. Most

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of commercial building adapts BIPV such as Building facade which integrated with

PV and Building shade system integrated with Glass. By the external wall are wide

and tall that provide large surface area for sun shine. Building façade value is added

through displaced tradition building material. The glass integrated the PV cells have

around 30% to 70% transparency ,that like a sun glass, let suitable sun shine enter to

indoor. Most of the public facilities adapt Building shade PV systems and Exterior

shade PV systems. By the building always isn’t high rise building. Which the purpose

of BIPV is adding comfort for people and increasing the energy efficiency to the

building. Sunshade louvers, eaves, car park, canopy are integrated with PV cells that

protect and add comfort to people.

5.2.4 Photovoltaic PV Analysis

From the information (Appendix E: Table 7) of the case studies, in Hong Kong

has 2 commercial building using PV. Refer to Hong Kong and foreign country

(Appendix E: Table 8), such as U.S, they have 3 case and application respectively.

The percentages ratio of Hong Kong and foreign country is 60% and U.K. and U.S is

20% respectively. The ratio of PV module install in the building and the quantity of

electricity at Hong Kong is fewer than other comparatively. From the information of

the case, there are over 1000m2 areas for PV modules the foreign high rise building.

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The building at Wan Chi is only total 761 m2 areas for PV modules. It seems that PV

have potential development in Hong Kong commercial building.

5.2.5 Daylight

According to the research of daylighting application (Appendix E: Table 9), it

has 1 cases in Hong Kong, 1 case in U.K. and 2 case in Japan. , The percentages ratio

of Hong Kong U.K are each 25% and Japan have 50% respectively in the chart

(Appendix E: Table 10). It seems that PV have high potential development in Hong

Kong and Japan

5.3 Data Analysis conclusion

The describe and introduce Case Studies of the Solar system energy saving

application for building and household. And also describe the Data Collection

Methodology and the Data Collection Procedure for this project. And I make analysis

for the collected case studies, find out the result for this project. For the next step, I

will concluding the full report for this project. (Appendix E: Table 11 - 12)

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 Chapter 6 – Conclusion

Because of population and economic growth, the global energy consumption is

gradually increasing, even confronting the big declines in energy intensity, at least 3

time in the mid-century compared with the present. Basically speaking, such kinds of

needs can be met by the fossil sources, such as coal, and oil. However, cumulative

CO2 emission, which is mainly produced by the burning of fossil fuels, has brought

great threat to the environment, for example the global warming. Thus demands that

CO2 levels should be controlled. On the basis of that, among the renewable energy

resources, solar energy is by far the largest exploitable resource, providing more

energy in 1 hour to the earth than all of the energy consumed by humans in an entire

year. Form the aspect of the intermittency of insolation, once the solar energy is to be

a major primary energy source, it must be stored and dispatched on demand to the end

user. While given the environmental issues, we bear the responsibility to save our

energy and reduce the cost for the alternative energies. Form an overall aspect, the

solar energy is inexhaustible, and it will be the dominant energy in the near future.

However, we are in the primary stage to directly make use of the solar energy. In

the present situation, the application of solar energy mainly lies in the solar energy

collection, solar water heating system, solar electric energy generation. With the

upgrading of the use-efficiency of solar energy, the global governments and public

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utilities (including Hong Kong) have improved their solar technology significantly.

And there are several types of new financial products of solar power systems, such as

the solar cell, solar light, etc.

The solar energy is generally originated from the sun. Just as what have

mentioned in this dissertation, the solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic wave

and corpuscular stream which are launched by the Sun to the space. The sun output is

known as the intensity of solar radiation. Because of the solar radiation, the electricity

is converted through the photovoltaic effect. And the solar cells play an significant

role in the course of conversion. Based on the knowledge we have commanded now,

the major restricted factors of the solar energy are the day Length and Altitude Angle

of Tilt and Orbit around the sun. We could not gather the solar radiation in the night or

cloudy days, but devices ensure the storage of the excessive energy on a clear day, and

then provide for the night-need.

Just as what has discussed that the aim of this project in this dissertation is to

examine how the natural energy of solar system can supplant other resources and

references for future use cost-effective solutions. We all know the burning of fossil

fuels has resulted in global pollution and ecological damage, which has threatened the

survival and development of human being. And what is urgent now is to take

necessary measures to improve the high use-efficiency of solar energy. With the rapid

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development of the science and technology, some solar products have come to our

daily life, from which we benefit a lot.

Solar thermal is one example, which essentially uses mirrors to heat water or

other liquids turn it into steam that cranks turbines to provide electricity. PV, by

contrast, takes the rays of the sun and converts it into electricity without water or a

turbine.

At the beginning of installing the solar energy, it does cost a lot. However, the

aim for installing the solar energy is to save energy and reduce the cost from a long-

time aspect. We know that the solar panel is a necessary part to convert the solar

energy into electricity or lighting. The author holds that the more electricity the

system can generate, the more it costs but the more it could save. Largert systems are

usually more cost-effective than smaller systems. And there is another advantage of

installing the solar energy, that is the solar PV needs little maintenance. What a person

needs to do is keep the panels relatively clean and make sure that trees will not

overshadow them. In that case, the panels should last 25 years or more, but the

inverter is likely to need replacing some time during this period. The project is carried

out to do research on the energy- saving, achieving the cost-effective.

While the author also considers that the solar power, in some aspect, is still not

cost effective with photovoltics (PV) costing in the neighborhood of 30 cents per

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kilowatt and 20-22 cents per kilowatt for solar thermal plants. In that case, taxpayers

subsidize the solar panels through a way that the government supporting the taxpayers

did incentive instead of waiting for the improvement of the advanced technology.

Throughout what we have now, the solar panels will be taken as another example

to have a close look at the cost-effective of solar energy.

The solar panels for PV use the same expensive silicon that computer chips do.

The shortage of the silicon is driving up prices. It is not clear at all that when or if

solar power can become cost competitive with oil, coal or nuclear power.

Solar panels, usually placed on the roof of house and connected to the heating

system, are devices that gather the sun light and convert it into energy suitable for use

in the homes. There exists two main applications of solar panels in the home: one is to

heat water, and the other to produce electricity. They are designed to heat water. They

are also known as thermal solar systems, while electricity-producing panels are

sometimes called photovoltaic systems. Solar Panels work in different ways

depending on what they're used for. If the householder has a solar water heating

system which usually contains a "collector" to absorb solar radiation and turn it into

heat. Then a heat-conducting liquid carries the heat from the collector to the hot water

tank.

In an electricity-producing system, a positively charged layer of silicon is placed

against a negatively charged layer of silicon, forming a field for electrical charges to

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pass through. Sunlight creates this electric charge when it shines on the panel. Then a

conductive metal concentrates the charge into an electric current which can power

household appliances.

During the researches, the author found that the factor of cost-effective is

frequently taken into consideration. Meanwhile, many of us are confronting with the

issues, such as the fuel bills and the environmental impact from our fuel consumption.

Since the Sun is a fantastic source for our solar energy with the features of being clean

and renewable, shining down on us all day. The Sun gives the earth enough energy to

meet the earth's power needs for a year just in a minute. According to the research, if

a solar panel is installed in a house, massive source of free energy will tapped in,

which slash the fuel bills. When we adapt the solar panels, both the environment and

our human beings will benefit a lot from it.

With regard with the cost that most people are concerning about, form a long-

time perspective of the solar energy, someone will save money, while the financial

interests of installing a solar panel are not immediate, for there are several factors that

affect the cost effective.

1．The amount of electricity of currently use;

2．The amount of sun radiation that can be gained where a person lives, is

measured in peak hours, i.e. the number of hours during the day that your solar panel

is working to full capacity;

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 3．The capacity and cost of the panels you purchase. For example, a new solar

panel producing 120 watts costs around $700. Used panels are cheaper, but usually

only about 90 per cent as efficient as new ones.

4．The price of other alternative forms of energy is regarded. If these alternative

forms of fuel are at a premium, then solar panels represent greater savings. For

example, during 20006-2007, average Americans spent 3.4 per cent of their income on

energy. However, such prices fluctuate depending on many factors, and it's impossible

to predict what will happen to fuel prices over the next few years.

Generally speaking, it will take at least six years or more to be affordable for the

solar panels, which represents a significant investment if a plan to stay in the home for

a long period is made. Of course, if someone is planning to move out of his home in

the next few years, he needs to consider that whether the solar panel will add a

sufficient amount to the value of your property. Some potential buyers find the

appearance of solar panels unattractive, but others will see dollar signs when they hear

the words "free electricity".

Some may also attach great importance to the grant that if they install the solar

panel. Concerning this, many states offer financial incentives for promoting the

installation in their homes. The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy

(DSIRE) gives information on its website (www.dsireusa.org). For example,

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Wyoming residents get $3000 or half the cost of the system, whichever is less.

Anyhow, all the solar products are introduced to serve for our daily use. In the

project, the author did research on the Solar Power System on housing. Concerning

the overall aspects of housing use, two main features are studied in this project: Solar

Heat Water and Solar Lighting.

In conclusion, as the rapid development of science and technology, more and

more solar products have come into our daily life, such as the solar water heater, solar

lighting, and solar air conditioning system. As for the new alternative energy

technology getting better and better, the costs are gradually reducing. Now, we can

truly develop this plan, in a building, we can save money by using solar energy to

electricity generation system, which is usually used in water heater, lights, and you're

not running out a large roof installation, all of which will bring great benefit to us.

Chapter 7 – References

 Butti, Ken; Perlin, John (1981). A Golden Thread (2500 Years of Solar

Architecture and Technology). Van Nostrand Reinhold.

 Carr, Donald E. (1976). Energy & the Earth Machine. W. W. Norton &

Company.

 Halacy, Daniel (1973). The Coming Age of Solar Energy. Harper and Row.

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 Martin, Christopher L.; Goswami, D. Yogi (2005). Solar Energy Pocket

Reference. International Solar Energy Society.

 Mills, David (2004). "Advances in solar thermal electricity technology". Solar

Energy

 Perlin, John (1999). From Space to Earth (The Story of Solar Electricity).

Harvard University Press.

 Yergin, Daniel (1991). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power.

Simon & Schuster.

 Mills, David (2004). "Advances in solar thermal electricity technology". Solar

Energy

 Perlin, John (1999). From Space to Earth (The Story of Solar Electricity).

Harvard University Press.

 Yergin, Daniel (1991). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power.

Simon & Schuster.

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