Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Concrete Pipe Handbook
Concrete Pipe Handbook
Concrete Pipe Handbook
AND
PORTAL CULVERT
HANDBOOK
PIPES, INFRASTRUCTURAL
PRODUCTS AND ENGINEERING
SOLUTIONS DIVISION
PREFACE TO 2006 REVISION
Concrete pipes and portal culverts are the most frequently used and
accepted products for stormwater drainage, culverts, outfall sewers and
many other applications. To meet these needs South Africa’s concrete pipe
industry has grown tremendously over the past eighty years.
Modern technology and the acceptance of SANS (SABS) standards ensure
that products with consistently high quality are produced. Provided sound
design and installation methods are followed, these products will give the
desired hydraulic and structural performance over a long service life.
This handbook is intended to cover all aspects of concrete pipe and portal
culvert selection, specification, and testing. As a handbook it does not
attempt to replace textbooks or codes, but rather to complement them by
providing the information needed for quick site decisions and guidance for
designers to ensure that all aspects of product use are considered. A
companion publication ‘The Concrete Pipe and Portal Culvert Installation
Manual‘ deals with product installation.
Publications by the American Concrete Pipe Association have been used
freely and acknowledgement is hereby made to this organisation.
The Concrete Pipe, Infrastructural Products and Engineering Solutions
(PIPES) Division of the Concrete Manufacturers Association has had this
handbook prepared for the guidance of specifying bodies, consultants and
contracting organisations using concrete pipes and portal culverts
manufactured in accordance with the relevant SANS (SABS) standards. The
Division expresses appreciation to A.R. Dutton & Partners for the
preparation of the original Concrete Pipe Handbook to which additions and
amendments have been made to produce this publication.
P roduced by:
P IP E S cc
P O B ox 12519
C lubview
0014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PV PS
Ph
P hl
Datum
FIG 4: CONDUIT FLOWING PARTLY FULL
As there is no pres s ure in s uch a conduit, the fluid can only flow downhill and the s ys tem
is clas sified as a gravity pipeline.
F igures 3 and 4 s how s ys tems where the pipe invert, hydraulic grade line or water s urface
and the total energy line are all parallel. T his is called uniform flow and the only energy
los s es are due to friction. However if there are any transitions s uch as changes in vertical
or horizontal alignment, or the cros s ectional s hape of the conduit then thes e will also
caus e energy los s es due to the liquid expanding or contracting.
T he means of determining the hydraulic properties of conduits flowing under pres s ure and
thos e flowing partly full, as open channels are unders tandably different. A further factor
that needs to be considered is the hydraulic length of the conduit.
3.2. HYDRAULIC LENGTH
T he hydraulic length of a conduit is determined by the relations hip between the energy
los s es due to friction and those due to transitions . W hen the energy los s es due to friction
exceed thos e due to transitions then the conduit is clas sified as hydraulically long. W hen
thos e due to transitions exceed thos e due to friction then the conduit is clas sified as
hydraulically s hort. In general a pipeline is hydraulically long whereas a culvert cros sing is
hydraulically s hort.
T he energy los s es due to friction are determined us ing one of the friction formulae, s uch
as Manning, to calculate the velocity through the conduit. Manning’s equation is given
below:
v = 1/n(R ) 2/3S 1/2
where v - velocity n m/s
n - Manning’s roughnes s coefficient
R - hydraulic radius
S - gradient of conduit
T he energy los s es due to transitions in a conduit can be determined theoretically by
comparing flow areas before and after the trans ition. F or mos t applications the us e of a
coefficient as shown in the formula below, is adequate:
H L = k(v2/2g)
where H L - head los s in metres (m)
k - a coefficient, usually between 0.0 and 1.0 dependent upon trans ition details
v - velocity in metres per second (m/s )
g - the gravitational constant in metres per s econd per s econd (m/s /s )
C ommonly us ed energy los s coefficients are given in T able 6 below.
T AB LE 6:E NE R G Y LOS S C O E F F IC IE NT S F OR P IP E LINE F LOW
Entrance or outlet detail Entrance Outlet
P rotruding 0.80 1.00
S harp 0.50 1.00
B evelled 0.25 0.50
R ounded 0.05 0.20
T he friction slope of a pipeline that has no transitions is the energy difference between
inlet and outlet, divided by the pipeline length. If there are any trans itions in the pipeline,
the energy los ses due to the transitions will reduce the amount of energy available to
overcome friction.
3.3. PRESSURE PIPELINES
T he hydraulic performance (velocity and dis charge) of a pres s ure pipeline is determined
by using one of the friction formulas s uch as Manning, in combination with the continuity
equation and energy los ses at transitions .
T he continuity equation is
Q = Av
W here Q - dis charge in cubic metres per s econd (m3/s )
A - cros s -s ectional area in square metres (m2 )
v - velocity in metres per second (m/s )
Mos t low-pres s ure pipelines flow under gravity and have no additional energy inputs, i.e.
no us e is made of additional energy to lift the water. If pres s ure is added to the pipeline by
a pump, the energy is increas ed.
An alternative approach to determining the hydraulic properties of a pipeline is to us e a
chart for a pipe flowing full as given in F igure 5 and to add any energy inputs or subtract
any energy los s es at transitions . If the pipeline is flowing under pres sure the friction s lope
s hould be us ed, as this will probably be different from the pipeline gradient that could vary
along the length of the pipeline.
Example 1:Given a 600 mm internal diameter (D) concrete pipeline at a slope of 1 in 1 000 and
a discharge of 120 litres per second (Vs), determine velocity and flow depth. Use n = 0.011.
F rom the flow chart intersecting the co-ordinates of diameter (600) and s lope (1 in 1 000) we
obtain: Q =240 I/s and V =0,82 m/s
T hen Q/Q full = 120/240=0.5 and F igure 6 gives d/D=0.5x600=300 mm and v/vfull =1.0x 0.82 =
0.82 m/s
Example 2: Given a flow of 200 l/s and a slope of 1 m in 2 000 m, determine the diameter of a
concrete pipe to flow half full. Use n = 0,011
F rom F igure 6 for d/D = 0.5 ; Q full = Q/0.5 = 200/0.5 = 400 l/s and from F igure 5 for Q = 400 l/s
and a s lope of 1 m in 2 000 m, D = 900 mm.
3.5. HYDRAULICS OF STORMWATER CULVERTS
T he capacity of hydraulically s hort conduits , such as s tormwater culverts is predominantly
dependent upon the inlet and outlet conditions . T hes e conduits s eldom flow full and the
energy los s es at inlets and outlets due to s udden transitions far exceed any los s es due to
friction. Under these circums tances , the charts for pipes flowing full s hould not be us ed.
F or s tormwater culverts the mos t important hydraulic considerations are:
v Headwater level at the entrance that will determine ups tream flooding.
v R oadway overtopping neces sitating road closure.
v Outlet velocity that could caus e downs tream eros ion.
T he various factors that will influence the flow through a hydraulically s hort conduit, s uch
as a culvert under a road are illus trated in F igure 7 below.
H
HW
INLE T D TW
B AR R E L S 0, S LOP E OUT LE T
L
FIGURE 7: FACTORS INFLUENCING FLOW THROUGH CULVERTS
W here HW - headwater or energy level at inlet in m
T W - tailwater or energy level at outlet in m
H - total energy los s between inlet and outlet in m
D - internal diameter or height of conduit in m
L - length of conduit in m
S0 - culvert gradient in m/m
T here are s everal different types of culvert flow, depending on whether the control is
located at the inlet, along the barrel or at the outlet.
Inlet control occurs when the inlet s ize, s hape and configuration controls the volume of
water that can enter the culvert. In other words when the capacity of the inlet is les s than
the capacity of the barrel and there is a free dis charge downs tream of the culvert.
HW HW
TW TW
H HW H
HW
TW TW
H
H HW
HW TW
TW
H H H
x BC
H R eduction in R eduction in
load due to load due to
friction friction and
between the cohes ion
columns of between
backfill and columns of
x
compres s ible original
material material
C ompres s ible G rout
material in between pipe
s ub-trench and tunnel
1.0
r1.8
1.0
r0.9
1.0
r1.8 r1.2
2.0 6.0 to26.0 2.0
(a) 40kN wheel loads – legal limit (b) NB 36 loading – 90kN wheel loads
FIGURE 18: TRAFFIC LOADING ON ROADS
F or the NB loading, 1 unit = 2.5 kN per wheel = 10 kN per axle and = 40 kN per vehicle.
F or the NB 36 vehicle = 90 kN per wheel = 360 kN per axle.
W hen the effect of thes e loads is considered on buried conduits an allowance for impact
for impact s hould be made. F or the typical highway vehicle this is us ually taken as 1.15.
W here greater impact is expected due to a combination of high speed, rough s urface and
hard s us pension, an impact factor up to 1.4 could be applied. T he effective contact area
for thes e wheels is taken as 0.2 m x 0.5 m in direction of and trans vers e to direction of
travel respectively.
T he loads on pipes due to 40 kN wheel loads with the configuration s hown in F igure 16(a)
are given in T able 15. T he table can be used for any wheel load (P ) provided that the
wheel arrangement is the s ame and the load multiplied by P /4.
T AB LE 15: LOADS IN K N/M ON B UR IE D C ONDUIT F R OM G R OUP OF 40 K N W HE E LS
Pipe I/D Fill height over pipes in m
mm 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
300 8.1 4.78 2.8 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2
375 10.2 5.97 3.5 2.3 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2
456 12.2 7.16 4.2 2.8 2.0 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.3
525 14.2 8.36 4.9 3.3 2.3 1.7 13.3 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4
600 16.3 9.55 5.7 3.7 2.7 2.0 1.5 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.4
675 18.3 10.7 6.4 4.2 3.0 2.2 1.7 1.4 0.9 0.6 0.5
750 20.4 11.9 7.1 4.7 3.3 2.5 1.9 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.5
825 22.4 13.1 7.8 5.2 3.7 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.1 0.8 0.6
900 24.5 14.3 8.5 5.6 4.0 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.2 0.9 0.7
1 050 28.5 16.7 9.9 6.6 4.7 3.5 2.7 2.1 1.4 1.0 0.8
1 200 32.6 19.1 11.4 7.5 5.3 4.0 3.1 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9
1 350 38.3 22.4 13.3 8.8 6.3 4.7 3.6 2.9 1.9 1.4 1.0
1 500 42.6 24.9 14.8 9.8 7.0 5.2 4.0 3.2 2.2 1.6 1.2
1 650 46.8 27.4 16.3 10.8 7.7 5.7 4.4 3.5 2.4 1.7 1.6
1 800 51.1 29.9 17.8 11.8 8.4 6.3 4.9 3.9 2.6 1.9 1.4
Notes :
1. No impact factor has been included.
2. Impact s hould certainly be considered for low fills (<diameter of pipe).
3. T he tables do not apply to pipes on concrete bedding.
4. W here the cover over the pipe is les s than half the outside pipe diameter the
bedding factor for the live load mus t be reduced. S pecial precautions as concrete
encas ement may be neces s ary.
T he loads given in T MH7 for the design of s tructures under major roads are:
v Normal loading (NA)
v Abnormal loading (NB )
v S uper loading (NC )
As s tated above the NB 36 loading is us ually the critical one for buried conduits . T MH7
allows an equivalent point load to be us ed for NB loading that is dependant upon the
outs ide width and length of the conduit. F or the NB 36 loads this is expres s ed as :
Q b = 1.25(90 + 12L s 1.8 )
W here Q b - equivalent point load
L s - effective s pan of conduit in m
T AB LE 16: LOADS IN K N/M ON B UR IE D P IP E S F R OM NB 36 G R OUP OF W HE E LS
PIPE I/D PIPE OD FILL HEIGHT OVER PIPES IN M NB36 PT
mm mm 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 LOAD
300 0.345 26 12 7 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 114
375 0.431 31 15 8 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 0 115
456 0.518 35 17 10 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 116
525 0.604 39 19 11 7 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 117
600 0.690 43 22 12 8 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 118
675 0.776 46 24 14 9 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 120
750 0.863 49 25 15 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 121
825 0.949 52 27 17 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 1 123
900 1.035 55 29 18 11 8 6 4 3 2 2 1 125
1 050 1.208 60 33 21 13 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 129
1 200 1.380 64 36 24 15 10 8 6 5 3 2 2 133
1 350 1.620 67 40 28 18 12 9 7 5 4 3 2 138
1 500 1.800 67 43 31 20 14 10 8 6 4 3 2 144
1 650 1.980 68 46 34 22 15 11 9 7 5 3 3 149
1 800 2.160 69 49 37 24 17 13 10 8 5 4 3 156
Notes
1. T he NB 36 vehicle travels slowly and generally no impact needs to be considered.
2. Under certain conditions the NB 24 vehicle could be us ed for minor roads.
5. CONCRETE PIPE STRENGTHS
5.1. EXTERNAL LOADS
T he size of circular pipes is defined by one dimens ion only. T his simplifies the
relations hip between the load to be carried and the s trength required to do s o. F or rigid
pipes as concrete the s trength is us ually determined by using what is called the direct
method.
Us ing the information from the previous s ections the required concrete pipe s trength can
be determined by dividing the installed load by a bedding factor. F actory tes t loads and
reactions are concentrated. T he field loads and reactions have a parabolic or radial
dis tribution around a pipe. However it is as s umed that the loads are uniformly
dis tributed over the pipe and that the bedding reactions have either a parabolic or
uniform dis tribution dependant upon the bedding material us ed. A comparis on of these
loads and reactions is s hown in F igure 16
F ormation level
Main backfill
B edding blanket
B edding cradle
R eworked foundation
T rench bottom
FIGURE 20: TERMINOLOGY FOR PIPE BEDDING
Bedding Factor - Bf
Bedding Angle - è
FIGURE 21: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEDDING FACTOR AND BEDDING ANGLE
6.2. TRENCH AND NEGATIVE PROJECTION INSTALLATIONS
6.2.1.General
T he pipe weight and the loads on it are trans ferred to the foundation through the
bedding. T he amount the bedding yields under this load determines the pres s ure
dis tribution of the reaction between bedding and pipe. F or trench ins tallations no
allowance is made for lateral earth pres sure. P res s ures are as s umed to act on the pipe
in the vertical direction only.
Loos e granular beddings are flexible and will yield more than a pipe deforms under load.
T he pres sure dis tribution of the reaction from this type of bedding is parabolic. A rigid
bedding with the s ame flexural s tiffnes s as the pipe will deform the s ame amount as the
pipe under load and the pres sure dis tribution of reaction between pipe and bedding will
be rectangular and uniform. F igure 21 gives the relations hip between the bedding factor
and the angle of bedding s upport for uniform and parabolic reactions . T he maximum
bending moment occurs at the invert of the pipe under thes e loading conditions .
In negative projection ins tallations, where the limits are the trench condition and the zero
friction condition, the development of lateral soil pres s ures is ignored, as it is difficult to
obtain adequate compaction of the backfill in confined s paces .
W here the design corres ponds to one of the bedding clas s es given below, the bedding
factor for that clas s s hould be us ed. T he key to the materials used is given in T able 19
below. Alternatively, F igure 21 may us e to obtain an appropriate bedding factor.
T AB LE 19: K E Y T O MAT E R IALS US E D
6.2.2.Class A beddings
T he concrete beddings commonly us ed are given in F igure 22. T he bedding width s hall
not be les s than B c + 200 mm but may extend the full width of the trench. S teel
reinforcement if us ed mus t not be les s than 0.4 % of the concrete cros s -s ection and
mus t be placed trans versely beneath the pipe and as clos e to it as pos sible allowing for
the minimum cover required for reinforced concrete. T he concrete shall have a 28-day
cube s trength of not les s than 20 MP a.
r300 r300
Bc Bc Bc
B c /4 B c /4
v v
B c /4 B c /4
B c+200 min B c+200 min
Bc Bc B cB c
B c /4 B c /4
0,7 Bc
Bc Bc Bc
B c /8 B c /8
0,5 Bc
Bc Bc
Bc mB c Bc mB c Bc
mB c
v r0.3B c vB c/4
B c/4 B c/4
B c/8
Bc Bc
mB c mB c
B c/8
(a) C las s D granular (b ) C las s D natural material
S oilcrete
(a) B utt (b) Interlocking (c) S pigot and s ocket (d) In-the-wall
FIGURE 31: JOINT TYPES FOR CONCRETE PIPE
7.2. BUTT AND INTERLOCKING JOINT PIPES
B utt ended and interlocking pipe joints are not intended to prevent infiltration and
exfiltration of water hence they are only us ed for s tormwater drainage and culvert pipe.
B utt ended pipes are s eldom us ed as they do not have any means of s elf-centering when
being jointed.
If there is a potential problem with the los s of bedding material into the drainage s ys tem
the joints s hould be s ealed either with mortar or s ealing tape. W hen s tormwater drains
are placed on s teep slopes and the flow velocity exceeds 4 or 5 m/s it is advis able to us e
one of the joints that can be s ealed with a rubber ring to prevent the high velocity water
going through the joints and s couring cavities in the s oil around the pipes.
P ipes for s ewers or pres sure pipelines s hould have s pigot and s ocket or in-the-wall joints
that include seal in the form of either a rolling ring or confined ring.
7.3. SPIGOT AND SOCKET JOINTS
P ipes with this joint type are the mos t commonly used for sewers . T hey are designed to
s eal as well as tolerate movements in three directions , namely:
v Draw or longitudinal movement.
v Deflection or radial movement.
v R elative s ettlement or dis placement of a pipe relative to the adjacent ones .
In addition to this thes e joints take into cons ideration tolerances on concrete s urfaces ,
laying procedures and s eal dimens ions . T he rubber ring enables this type of joint to be
deflected as s hown in F igure 32 s o that pipes can be laid around curves and s till remain
watertight.
A
H 2S O 4 F OR MAT ION
H 2S R E LE AS E
H 2S G E NE R AT ION
R einforcement
C1 C2
t q
C
r P ipe
inside
F ormation level
Main backfill
C ompacted
s elected
C rown Unit
material
B as e s lab
B linding layer
T rench bottom
FIGURE 29: TERMONOLOGY FOR PORTAL CULVERTS
As portal culverts are rectangular two dimens ions determine their s ize. Hence, the
relations hip between the load to be carried and the required s trength cannot be
s implified as it can with pipes . Hence, the s trength required is determined by us ing a
direct approach. T he procedure adopted is :
v Determine the s tructural properties of the portal
v C alculate loads and load combinations
v C alculate the bending moments and s hear forces generated in the portal by the
various load combinations
v Determine the bending moment and s hear force envelopes that cover all the
loading cas es
v Determine combinations of tes t loads to model the ins talled bending moment and
s hear force envelopes .
T his procedure can be followed by using ultimate values for both the ins talled and
tes t loading conditions or by factoring the ins talled parameters and determining the
proof load parameters that match them.
10.2. DETERMINING PORTAL CULVERT STRENGTHS
As mentioned at the beginning of this handbook, there is no National S tandard for
determining the loads on or S trengths of P ortal C ulverts. In T MH7, the C ode of
P ractice for the Design of Highway B ridges and C ulverts in S outh Africa, C laus e
2.3.3.1, provision has been made for three s olution levels , namely:
“General: With due recognition of the complexity of the problem of determining
loading on culverts, but also of the need for simple procedures which can be used
routinely, provision is made for the three-fold approach, viz:
The application of simple design rules that can be applied to rigid and flexible
culverts but that require the use of increased partial safety factors which allow
for the approximate nature of the formulae used.
The application of more sophisticated design theories to rigid and flexible
culverts that take into account the type of culvert, the properties of the
undisturbed ground and the fill materials as well as the effects of the actual
width of excavation, and the positive or negative projection. These theories also
allow for the use of reduced partial safety factors. (In positive and negative
projecting culverts, the tops of the structures are above and below undisturbed
ground level respectively.)
The application of sophisticated design theories or the design techniques based
on the phenomenological approach to flexible and special types of culvert that
required more accurate assessments of soil-structure interaction.
This Code covers the first approach only, which is an extension of the AASHO1 and
CPA2 formulae. The designer shall use his discretion in deciding on the best
applicable method for any particular case and is referred to publications on the
subject.”
In the simplified approach the earth loading has been reduced to four combinations of
foundation and installation conditions , namely:
C ondition 1: C ulverts in trench on unyielding foundation with no projection.
C ondition 2: C ulverts untrenched on yielding foundation.
C ondition 3: C ulverts untrenched on unyielding foundation for H>1.7B
C ondition 4: C ulverts untrenched on unyielding foundation for H<1.7B
W here H - fill height in metres
B - if trenched overall trench width, or if untrenched overall culvert width, in
metres .
C onditions 1 and 2 corres pond to the geos tatic loading condition and 3 and 4 to the
pos itive projection ins tallation condition with an rs d p ratio of 1.
Approximate methods for determining the effects of traffic loading on rigid conduits
are given in C laus e 2.6.6 of T MH7.
T his combination of the earth and traffic loading was applied to the s tandard portal
culvert dimens ions to determine the product s trengths required. T hese s trengths
were compared with thos e of the s tandard S -load culverts and the appropriate
clas s es selected.
T he relationship between s tandard portal culvert clas s es and maximum fill heights for
T MH7 loading conditions applied to the s tandard sizes is given in T able 29 below.
T he as s umptions , and claus es from T MH7 P arts 1 and 2 us ed to compile this table
are:
v T he table is applicable to rectangular portal culverts only
v W hen s izes other than given in this table the manufacturer s hould be contacted.
v A minimum fill height of 300 mm over the culvert units . W here this cannot be
achieved a 100 mm reinforced concrete slab mus t be us ed.
v S tandard traffic loading (S N A, B and C ) as des cribed in C lause 2.6.1.2
v F ill material unit weight 20 kN/m3 [C laus e 2.3.1]
v C oncrete unit weight 24 kN/m3 [C laus e 2.2.1]
v Horizontal earth pres s ure 7,8 kN/m2 per metre depth [C lause 2.4.2]
v Ultimate Limit S tate load factors T able 7.
If portal culverts are required where the fill over them is les s than 300 mm or more
than the amount s tated in this table the loads mus t be calculated using the
procedures in T MH7 and the s trength by following the procedure given at the end of
s ection 10.1 above.
T AB LE 29: MAXIMUM F ILLS : S -LOAD P OR T AL C ULV E R T S UNDE R T MH7 LOADING .
Installation conditions Installation conditions
Culvert span x height in mm
1&2 3&4
600 X 300 10.2 5.6
600 X 450 200 S 11.0 200 S 6.0
600 X 600 12.0 6.4
750 X 300 8.7 4.9
750 X 450 9.2 5.2
175 S 175 S
750 X 600 10.0 5.5
750 X 750 10.5 5.8
900 X 300 8.6 4.8
900 X 450 9.0 5.1
900 X 600 175 S 9.5 175 S 5.3
900 X 750 10.0 5.6
900 X 900 10.2 5.8
1200 X 300 7.1 4.1
1200 X 450 7.4 4.3
1200 X 600 150 S 7.7 150 S 4.4
1200 X 900 8.2 4.7
1200 X 1200 8.8 5.0
1500 X 450 4.7 3.0
1500 X 600 4.9 3.1
1500 X 900 100 S 5.3 100 S 3.3
1500 X 1200 5.6 3.5
1500 X 1500 6.0 3.7
1800 X 600 3.3 2.4
1800 X 900 3.6 2.5
1800 X 1200 75 S 3.8 75 S 2.7
1800 X 1500 4.0 2.8
1800 X 1800 4.3 2.9
2100 X 600 3.3 2.4
2100 X 900 3.5 2.6
2100 X 1200 3.7 2.7
75 S 75 S
2100 X 1500 3.9 2.8
2100 X 1800 4.1 2.9
2100 X 2100 4.3 3.0
2400 X 600 3.2 2.4
2400 X 900 3.4 2.5
2400 X 1200 3.5 3.5
75 S 75 S
2400 X 1500 3.7 3.7
2400 X 1800 3.8 3.8
2400 X 2400 4.0 4.1
3000 X 900 3.2 2.5
3000 X 1200 3.3 2.6
3000 X 1500 3.4 2.7
75 S 75 S
3000 X 1800 3.5 2.7
3000 X 2400 3.7 2.9
3000 X 3000 3.1 2.7
3600 X 900 3.1 2.5
3600 X 1200 3.2 2.6
3600 X 1500 3.3 2.6
75 S 75 S
3600 X 1800 3.3 2.7
3600 X 2400 3.5 2.8
3600 X 3000 3.5 2.7
10.3. PORTAL BASE SLABS
Mos t pre-cas t portal culverts are placed on cas t in place bas e s labs . T hese s hould be
des igned to take the actual loads that will be applied to them.
It is important to realise that the moments and s hears generated by the ins talled loads on
bas e s labs are different from thos e generated on the portal unit. T he total load on the
portal unit will be trans ferred down the legs to the bas e s lab. T he moments and s hears
will then be trans ferred through the bas e slab to the founding material. If this material is
unyielding the load will be trans ferred directly through the slab generating s hear but no
bending moments . If however, the material under the s lab is yielding, both s hear forces
and bending moments will be generated.
T he ins talled loads on the portal crown are as s umed to be dis tributed over the whole
width of the portal, except for the very low fill heights where there are concentrated loads
from the traffic. T he tes t loads on the portal crown are concentrated live loads . If there
were no factoring of installed loads , the tes t loads would be about half the ins talled ones .
Hence, the tes t loads model the ins talled loads on the portal crown, but do not model the
ins talled loads on the bas e slab.
If pre-cas t bas es are to be us ed under crown units, a check s hould be done to ens ure that
they are sufficiently s trong to take the impos ed loads .
11. FIELD TESTING
11.1. WATER TEST
P ipelines consis t of pipes and joints . C oncrete pipes used for s ewers and low-pres sure
pipelines are load and hydros tatically tested at the factory before delivery to s ite to ens ure
that they will meet the s tructural requirements s pecified. As the pipes are jointed on site
they need to be tested on site to ensure that the pipeline will meet its operating
requirements . Apart from a vis ual ins pection the only field-testing needed on a concrete
pipeline is one for leakage. T his gives the as s urance that the ins talled pipeline will meet
the water tightnes s requirements .
T he water tes t is carried out as follows :
v C los e the s ection of pipeline to be tes ted with bulkheads or plugs . As thes e will be
s ubject to considerable forces they should be designed and ins talled to ens ure that
they can withs tand thes e with an adequate s afety factor.
v Open the air valves and s lowly fill the test s ection with water to ens ure that all the air
es capes .
v K eep the tes t s ection under a slight pres s ure for 3 to 5 days to allow the pipes to
abs orb water
v If pipes were expos ed for more than a month additional time may be needed for this .
v During this period check the s ealed ends and joints for leaks and the rate at which
water has to be added to maintain the pres sure.
v W hen the rate of adding water s tabilis es increas e the pres s ure to the required value.
S AB S 1200-LD pres cribes that s ewers s hould be tes ted with a water head of not les s than
1.2 m and not more than 6.0m. T he los s allowance pres cribed is not more than 6
litres/100mm of diameter/100m/hour.
P res s ure pipelines are tes ted in the s ame way but the requirements are more s tringent. A
tes ting s chedule that gives the pres s ure for each s ection s hould be compiled to ens ure
that the lower clas s pres s ure pipes are not overs tres s ed.
T he full-s cale water tes ting of large diameter s ewers and pipelines is a difficult and cos tly
exercis e. W hen available, s pecial joint tes ting equipment that applies water pres sure to
one joint at a time is us ed. T his equipment has to be us ed with care and it s hould be
appreciated that it is not tes ting the joint that has already been factory tes ted, but the
jointing that has been done on site. Hence the pres s ures us ed are not the s ame as thos e
for which the pipeline is rated. In mos t cas es when a s ewer is man entry ( 900 mm in
diameter) and below the water table as frequently occurs with this size, it can be
phys ically inspected to check for leaks .
C oncrete has the property of autogenous healing and hair cracks or damp s pots s hould
not be caus e for rejection, as this type of leakage will be s top within days of the pipe
s urface being expos ed to a mois t environment.
11.2. AIR TESTING
T he water tes ting of s ewers is s eldom practical es pecially in a country as S outh Africa
where water is s carce and may not be available for the tes ting of s ewers . Air testing of
concrete s ewers is an effective way for identifying isolated s ections that are leaking as
poor joints or damaged pipes . As air and water have different properties this test is not an
indicator of the water tightnes s of the pipe wall. T his tes ting can therefore be us ed as an
acceptance tes t but not as jus tification for rejection. If there is a dispute the final
acceptance or rejection of a s ewer s hould be bas ed on a water tes t.
T his tes t is conducted in a similar way to the water tes t. However as the intention of this
is to find is olated problems the air pres sure inside the s ection being tes ted is only jus t
above atmos pheric. T he procedure followed is :
v S eal the ends of the s ection to be tes ted with bulkheads or plugs ; making s ure that the
s afety factor of blow out to tes t pres s ure is at leas t 2.
v One of the bulkheads is fitted with connections to an air s ource, a pres s ure releas e
valve and a pres s ure gauge or monometer.
v Air is added to the tes t s ection to increase the internal pres s ure to a pres cribed
amount above atmos pheric. T his mus t allow s ufficient time for this to s tabilis e, as
there may be differences between the air and pipe wall temperatures .
v Once the air pres s ure within the tes t s ection has s tabilis ed the air s upply is s topped
and the time in s econds that it takes for a given pres sure drop is meas ured. T he rate
of air los s is then calculated.
T he s ewer is then inspected to determine whether there are any joints or damaged
s ections that are leaking. T hes e leaks can us ually be identified by the sound of es caping
air. If no localis ed leaks are identified and the rate of pres sure drop is unacceptable the
expos ed s ewer is s prayed with s oapy water to help find any problem areas . Leaking
joints or damaged s ections of pipe mus t be repaired us ing means that are approved by
the project engineer.
S ection 7 of S AB S 1200-LD pres cribes the pres s ures and procedures that s hould be us ed
for the air tes ting of s ewers namely:
v An initial pres s ure of 3.75kP a(375mm of water)
v Once the pres s ure s tabilis es , reduce it to 2.5kP a(250mm of water)
v S witch off the machine and meas ure how long it takes for the pres s ure to drop to
1.25kP a(125mm of water)
v T he minimum acceptable time for this drop to take place is 2 minutes /100mm diameter
W henever pos sible defects s hould be repaired with the pipes in place. Only when pipes
have been incorrectly ins talled or there has been damage due to s oil movements s hould
the replacement of pipes be cons idered. If this is neces s ary it mus t be done from
manhole to manhole s o that the whole ins tallation is redone and the pos sibility of relative
s ettlement between s ections of s ewer is eliminated.
S hould this s paying of s oapy water on the expos ed pipe s how s ections of pipe were
bubbles form this will probably be due the pipes having dried out as a res ult of being
expos ed for prolonged period (in exces s of 6 weeks ). W hen thes e pipes are expos ed to
the mois t s ewer atmos phere the concrete will take up mois ture and the micros tructure will
s eal.
11.3. SOIL DENSITY TEST
T his needs to be checked
W here s pecifications call for minimum dens ities of backfill or bedding material, thes e are
normally given as a percentage of the Modified P roctor Density. T he tes t is carried out in
the following way:
v S amples of the various materials to us ed are obtained
v E ach s ample is dried and then prepared at various mois ture contents .
v F or each of the mois ture contents five layers are compacted in a 0.95 litre mould.
v E ach layer receives 25 blows from a 4.54 kg hammer falling from 457 mm
v T he optimum mois ture content is the mois ture content corresponding to maximum dry
dens ity. T his maximum s oil density is referred to as the Modified P roctor Density.
Dens ity tes ts are done on the compacted backfill or bedding material on the site and then
compared to the Modified P roctor Density to check that thes e materials have been placed
to the required densities.
M
A
T
E
R
I
A
L
D
E
N
S
I
T
Y
P E R C E NT AG E MOIS T UR E C ONT E NT
FIG 35: MOISTURE CONTENT AND DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation: Concrete Pipe Handbook, Virginia USA, 1981.
2. C larke N W B . Buried Pipelines: a manual of structural design and installation. London,
Maclaren, 1968
3. P ortland C ement As s ociation: Handbook of Concrete Culvert Pipe Hydraulics. S kokie,
1964
4. S ANS 10102-2: Selection of pipes for buried pipelines Part 2: Rigid pipes
5. S ANS 1294: P recas t C oncrete Manhole s ections and slabs
6. S ANS 676: R einforced C oncrete P res s ure P ipes
7. S ANS 677: C oncrete non-pres s ure pipes
8. S ANS 986: P recas t reinforced concrete culverts
9. S ANS 10102: T he s election of pipes for buried pipelines . Part 1: General Provisions
10. S ANS 10102: T he s election of pipes for buried pipelines . Part 2: Rigid Pipes
11. S AB S 1200 DB : E arthworks (P ipe T renches )
12. S AB S 1200 L: Medium-pres s ure P ipelines
13. S AB S 1200 LB : B edding (P ipes )
14. S AB S 1200 LE : S tormwater Drainage
15. S AB S 1200 LD: S ewers
16. S AB S 1200 LG : P ipe J acking
17. Hart-Davis , Adam. What the Victorians did for us. Headline B ook P ublis hing,
London, 2001, pp.59–61.
18.Ibid, p142.
19.C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding T echnology.
Corrosion of concrete sewers. C S IR , P retoria. S eries DR 12. 1959.
20.B ealey, Mike, Duffy, J ohn J , P reuit, R us s ell B , S tuckey, R obert E . Concrete pipe
handbook. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1981, pp. 7-22 – 7-
34.
21.C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding T echnology.
Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia sewer experiment
and related research. C S IR , Division of B uilding T echnology, P retoria, 1996, p.40.
22.G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report no 1. A project being
undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S C C
C enturion, 2003, pp.12 – 14.
23.G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report no 2. A project being
undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S C C
C enturion, 2004.
24.K ienow, K K , P omeroy,R D. C orrosion resis tant des ign of sanitary sewer pipe. ASCE
Convention and exposition, C hicago, US A, 1978.
25.McLaren, F rederick R . Design manual: sulfide and corrosion prediction and
control. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1984.
26.Ibid, p.4-4.
27.B owker, R obert P G , S mith, J ohn M, W ebs ter, Neil A. Design manual: Odor and
corrosion control in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants. C entre
for E nvironmental R esearch Information, US E nvironmental P rotection Agency,
C incinnati, 1985, p.23.
28. McLaren, F rederick R . Design manual: sulfide and corrosion prediction and
control. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1984, p.4-4.
29. C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding
T echnology. Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia
sewer experiment and related research. C S IR , Divis ion of B uilding T echnology,
P retoria, 1996.
30. G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report no 1. A project being
undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S
C C C enturion, 2003, pp.9–14.
31. C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding
T echnology. Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia
sewer experiment and related research. C S IR , Divis ion of B uilding T echnology,
P retoria, 1996, p.6.
32. Ibid, p.46, p.102.
33. F ourie, C W . Biologically induced sulphuric acid attack on concrete samples
in the experimental sewer section at Virginia. Department of C ivil E ngineering,
Univers ity of C ape T own, 2002.
34. Dumas , T H. P rivate communication, Lyon, F rance, J une 1994.
35. S and, W . B ock, E . W hite, D.C . Biotest system for rapid evaluation of concrete
resistance to sulphur-oxidising bacteria. Materials P erformance, V ol26, No3,
March 1987, pp. 14-17.
36. G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report No 1. A project being
undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S
C C C enturion, 2003, pp.7–14.
37. F ourie, C .W . Biologically induced sulphuric acid attack on concrete samples
in the experimental sewer section at Virginia. Department of C ivil E ngineering,
Univers ity of C ape T own, 2002, p.1.
38. C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding
T echnology. Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia
sewer experiment and related research. C S IR , Divis ion of B uilding T echnology,
P retoria, 1996, p.93.
39. F ourie, C W . Biologically induced sulphuric acid attack on concrete samples
in the experimental sewer section at Virginia. Department of C ivil E ngineering,
Univers ity of C ape T own, 2002, p.9.
40. Ibid, p.2, p.6.
41. Ibid, p.11.
42. Ibid, p.8.
43. McLaren, F rederick R . Design manual: sulfide and corrosion prediction and
control. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1984, pp.5-2–5-4.
44. B owker, R obert P G , S mith, J ohn M, W ebs ter, Neil A. Design manual: Odor and
corrosion control in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants. C entre
for E nvironmental R esearch Information, US E nvironmental P rotection Agency,
C incinnati, 1985, p.25.
45. Ibid, p.25.
46. C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding
T echnology. Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia
sewer experiment and related research. C S IR , Divis ion of B uilding T echnology,
P retoria, 1996, p.58.