LESSON: The Skeletal System
- It is present in developing bones of the fetus
 Skeletal system
 has four components: bones, cartilage,
tendons, and ligaments.
 “framework of the body”
Bone
- is an organ made up of several different
tissues working together: bone (osseous)
tissue, cartilage, dense connective tissue,
epithelium, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue.
Osteology
- The study of bone structure and the treatment
of bone disorders
- osteo- = bone; -logy = study of
I. Functions
1. Support.
- The skeleton serves as the structural
framework for the body by supporting soft
tissues and providing attachment points for the
tendons of most skeletal muscles.
2. Protection.
- The skeleton protects the most important
internal organs from injury. For example,
cranial bones protect the brain, and the rib
cage protects the heart and lungs.
3. Assistance in movement. Most skeletal
muscles attach to bones; when they contract,
they pull on bones to produce movement
4. Mineral homeostasis (storage and
release). - Bone tissue makes up about 18% of
the weight of the human body.
- It stores several minerals, especially calcium
and phosphorus, which contribute to the
strength of bone.
- Bone tissue stores about 99% of the body’s
calcium. On demand, bone releases minerals
into the blood to maintain critical mineral
balances (homeostasis) and to distribute the
minerals to other parts of the body.
5. Blood cell production
- Within certain bones, a connective tissue
called red bone marrow produces red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process
called hemopoiesis (hemo- = blood; -poiesis =
making).
- Red bone marrow consists of developing
blood cells, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and
macrophages
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within a network of reticular fibers.
and in some adult bones, such as the hip
(pelvic) bones, ribs, sternum (breastbone),
vertebrae (backbones), skull, and ends of the
bones of the humerus (arm bone) and femur
(thigh bone).
- In a newborn, all bone marrow is red and is
involved in hemopoiesis.
- With increasing age, much of the bone
marrow changes from red to yellow.
6. Triglyceride storage.
- Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of
adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
- The stored triglycerides are a potential
chemical energy reserve.
II. Structure of Bone
1. Diaphysis
- growing between
- is the bone’s shaft or body—the long,
cylindrical, main portion of the bone.
2. epiphyses
- growing over; singular is epiphysis
- proximal and distal ends of the bone.
3. metaphyses
- (me-TAF-i-sēz; meta- = between; singular is
metaphysis)
- are the regions between the diaphysis and
the epiphyses.
- In a growing bone, each metaphysis contains
an epiphyseal (growth) plate, a layer of hyaline
cartilage that allows the diaphysis of the bone
to grow in length.
- When a bone ceases to grow in length at
about
ages 14–24, the cartilage in the epiphyseal
plate is replaced by bone; the resulting bony
structure is known as the epiphyseal line.
4. Articular cartilage
- is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the
part of the epiphysis where the bone forms an
articulation (joint) with another bone.
- Articular cartilage reduces friction and
absorbs
shock at freely movable joints. Because
articular cartilage lacks a perichondrium and
lacks blood vessels, repair of damage is
limited.
5. Periosteum
- peri - around
- is a tough connective tissue sheath and its
associated blood supply that surrounds the
bone surface wherever it is not covered by
articular cartilage.
6. Medullary cavity
- medulla- = marrow, pith or marrow cavity
- is a hollow, cylindrical space within the
diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone
marrow and numerous blood vessels in
adults.
- This cavity minimizes the weight of the bone
by reducing the dense bony material where it is
least needed.
- The long bones’ tubular design provides
maximum strength with minimum weight.
- Long bone is covered by articular cartilage at
the articular surfaces of its proximal and distal
epiphyses and by periosteum around all other
parts of the bone.
7. Endosteum
- endo - within
- is a thin membrane that lines the medullary
cavity.
- It contains a single layer of bone-forming cells
and a small amount of connective tissue.
Functions of Bone Tissue
1. Supports soft tissue and provides
attachment for skeletal muscles.
2. Protects internal organs.
3. Assists in movement, along with
skeletal muscles.
4. Stores and releases minerals.
5. Contains red bone marrow, which
produces blood cells.
6. Contains yellow bone marrow, which
stores triglycerides (fats).
III. Histology of Bone Tissue
- Bone, or osseous tissue contains an
abundant extracellular matrix that surrounds
widely separated cells.
-The extracellular matrix is about 15% water,
30% collagen fibers, and 55% crystallized
mineral salts.
- Most abundant mineral salt is calcium
phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2].
- It combines with another mineral salt, calcium
hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], to form crystals of
hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]
- calcification
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Four types of cells are present in bone
tissue:
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
-genic = producing
are unspecialized bone stem cells derived from
mesenchyme, the tissue from which almost all
connective tissues are formed.
2. Osteoblasts
- bone-building cells.
- They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers
and other organic components needed to build
the extracellular matrix of bone tissue, and they
initiate calcification.
3. Osteocytes
- cytes = cells
- mature bone cells, are the main cells in bone
tissue and maintain its daily metabolism, such
as the exchange of nutrients and wastes with
the blood.
- Like osteoblasts, osteocytes do not undergo
cell division.
4. Osteoclasts
- clast = break
- are huge cells derived from the fusion of as
many as 50 monocytes (a type of white blood
cell) and are concentrated in the endosteum.
Compact Bone Tissue
- contains few spaces and is the strongest form
of bone tissue.
- It is found beneath the periosteum of all
bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphyses
of long bones.
- Compact bone tissue provides protection and
support and resists the stresses produced by
weight and movement.
Spongy Bone Tissue
- Spongy bone tissue, also referred to as
trabecular or cancellous bone tissue, does not
contain osteons.
- Spongy bone tissue is always located in the
interior of a bone, protected by a covering of
compact bone.
- It consists of lamellae that are arranged in an
irregular pattern of thin columns called
trabeculae (little beams; singular is trabecula).
- Spongy bone tissue makes up most of the
interior bone tissue of short, flat, sesamoid, and
irregularly shaped bones.
Spongy Bone vs Compact Bone
1. Spongy bone tissue is light, which reduces
the overall weight of a bone. This reduction in
weight allows the bone to move more readily
when pulled by a skeletal muscle.
2. The trabeculae of spongy bone tissue
support and protect the red bone marrow.
Spongy bone in the hip bones, ribs, sternum
(breastbone), vertebrae, and the proximal ends
of the humerus and femur is the only site
where red bone marrow is stored and, thus, the
site where hemopoiesis (blood cell production)
occurs in adults.
IV. Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone
 Periosteal arteries
- small arteries accompanied by nerves, enter
the diaphysis through many interosteonic
(Volkmann’s or perforating) canals and supply
the periosteum and outer part of the compact
bone.
nutrient foramen - hole in compact bone
 metaphyseal arteries
- enter the metaphyses of a long bone and,
together with the nutrient artery, supply the red
bone marrow and bone tissue of the
metaphyses.
 Epiphyseal arteries
- enter the epiphyses of a long bone and
supply the red bone marrow and bone tissue
of the epiphyses.
Veins that carry blood away from long
bones:
1. One or two nutrient veins accompany the
nutrient artery and exit through the diaphysis;
2. Numerous epiphyseal veins and
metaphyseal veins accompany their respective
arteries and exit through the epiphyses and
metaphyses, respectively;
3. Small periosteal veins accompany their
respective arteries and exit through the
periosteum.
V. Bone Formation
Ossification
- or osteogenesis
- The process by which bone forms
- ossi- = bone; -fication = making
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Four principal situations:
1. Initial formation of bones in an embryo and
fetus
2. the growth of bones during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence until their adult
sizes are reached
3. the remodeling of bone (replacement of old
bone by new bone tissue throughout life)
4. The repair of fractures (breaks in bones)
throughout life.
Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and
Fetus
1. Intramembranous ossification
- bone forms directly within mesenchyme,
which is arranged in sheetlike layers that
resemble membranes.
2. Endochondral ossification
- bone forms within hyaline cartilage that
develops from mesenchyme.
Intramembranous ossification
- is the simpler of the two methods of bone
formation.
- The flat bones of the skull, most of the facial
bones, mandible (lower jawbone), and the
medial part of the clavicle (collar bone) are
formed in this way.
1 Development of the ossification center.
- At the site where the bone will develop,
specific chemical messages cause the cells of
the mesenchyme to cluster together and
differentiate, first into osteoprogenitor cells and
then into osteoblasts. The site of such a cluster
is called an ossification center. Osteoblasts
secrete the organic extracellular matrix of bone
until they are surrounded by it.
2 Calcification.
- Next, the secretion of extracellular matrix
stops, and the cells, now called osteocytes, lie
in lacunae and extend their narrow cytoplasmic
processes into canaliculi that radiate in all
directions. Within a few days, calcium and
other mineral salts are deposited and the
extracellular matrix hardens or calcifies
(calcification).
3 Formation of trabeculae.
- As the bone extracellular matrix forms, it
develops into trabeculae that fuse with one
another to form spongy bone around the
network of blood vessels in the tissue.
Connective tissue associated with the blood
vessels in the trabeculae differentiates into red
bone marrow.
4 Development of the periosteum.
- In conjunction with the formation of
trabeculae, the mesenchyme condenses at the
periphery of
the bone and develops into the periosteum.
Eventually, a thin layer of compact bone
replaces the surface layers of the spongy bone,
but spongy bone remains in the center. Much
of the newly formed bone is remodeled
(destroyed and reformed) as the bone is
transformed into its adult size and shape.
Endochondral Ossification
-The replacement of cartilage by bone is called
endochondral ossification. Although most
bones of the body are formed in this way, the
process is best observed in a long bone.
1. Development of the cartilage model.
- At the site where the bone is going to form,
specific chemical messages cause the cells in
mesenchyme to crowd together in the general
shape of the future bone, and then develop into
chondroblasts. The chondroblasts secrete
cartilage extracellular matrix, producing a
cartilage model (future diaphysis) consisting of
hyaline cartilage. A covering called the
perichondrium develops around the cartilage
model.
2. Growth of the cartilage model
- Once chondroblasts become deeply buried in
the cartilage extracellular matrix, they are
called chondrocytes.
- The cartilage model grows in length by
continual cell division of chondrocytes,
accompanied by further secretion of the
cartilage extracellular matrix. This type of
cartilaginous growth, called interstitial
(endogenous) growth (growth from within),
results in an increase in length.
- Growth of the cartilage in thickness is due
mainly to the deposition of extracellular matrix
material on the cartilage surface of the model
by new chondroblasts that develop from the
perichondrium. This process is called
appositional (exogenous) growth, meaning
growth at the outer surface.
3. Development of the primary ossification
center.
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- Primary ossification proceeds inward from the
external surface of the bone. A nutrient artery
penetrates the perichondrium and the calcifying
cartilage model through a nutrient foramen in
the midregion of the cartilage model,
stimulating osteoprogenitor cells in the
perichondrium to differentiate into osteoblasts.
4. Development of the medullary (marrow)
cavity.
- As the primary ossification center grows
toward the ends of the bone, osteoclasts break
down some of the newly formed spongy bone
trabeculae. This activity leaves a cavity, the
medullary (marrow) cavity, in the diaphysis
(shaft). Eventually, most of the wall of the
diaphysis is replaced by compact bone.
5. Development of the secondary ossification
centers.
- When branches of the epiphyseal artery enter
the epiphyses, secondary ossification centers
develop, usually around the time of birth.
6. Formation of articular cartilage and the
epiphyseal (growth) plate.
- The hyaline cartilage that covers the
epiphyses becomes the articular cartilage.
Prior to adulthood, hyaline cartilage remains
between the diaphysis and epiphysis as the
epiphyseal (growth) plate, the region
responsible for the lengthwise growth of long
bones that you will learn about next.
Bone Growth during Infancy, Childhood,
and Adolescence
Growth in Length
- The growth in length of long bones involves
the following two major events:
(1) interstitial growth of cartilage on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate and;
(2) replacement of cartilage on the diaphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate with bone by
endochondral ossification.
Growth in Thickness
- Like cartilage, bone can grow in
thickness (diameter) only by appositional
growth
1 At the bone surface, periosteal cells
differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete the
collagen fibers and other organic molecules
that form bone extracellular matrix. The
osteoblasts become surrounded by
extracellular matrix and develop into
osteocytes. This process forms bone ridges on
either side of a periosteal blood vessel. The
ridges slowly enlarge and create a groove for
the periosteal blood vessel.
2 Eventually, the ridges fold together and fuse,
and the groove becomes a tunnel that encloses
the blood vessel. The former periosteum now
becomes the endosteum that lines the tunnel.
3. Osteoblasts in the endosteum deposit bone
extracellular matrix, forming new concentric
lamellae. The formation of additional concentric
lamellae proceeds inward toward the periosteal
blood vessel. In this way, the tunnel fills in, and
a new osteon is created.
4. As an osteon is forming, osteoblasts under
the periosteum deposit new circumferential
lamellae, further increasing the thickness of the
bone. As additional periosteal blood vessels
become enclosed as in step 1, the growth
process continues.
Remodeling of Bone
Bone remodeling
- is the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue
by new bone tissue. It involves bone
resorption, the removal of minerals and
collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts, and
bone deposition, the addition of minerals and
collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts.
- Thus, bone resorption results in the
destruction of bone extracellular matrix, while
bone deposition results in the formation of
bone extracellular matrix.
Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Bone
Remodeling
1. Minerals. Large amounts of calcium and
phosphorus are needed while bones are
growing, as are smaller amounts of
magnesium,
fluoride, and manganese. These minerals are
also necessary during bone remodeling.
2. Vitamins. Vitamin A stimulates activity of
osteoblasts. Vitamin C is needed for synthesis
of collagen, the main bone protein. As you will
soon learn, vitamin D helps build bone by
increasing the absorption of calcium from foods
in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood.
Vitamins K and B12 are also needed for
synthesis of bone proteins.
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3. Hormones. During childhood, the hormones
most important to bone growth are the insulin-
like growth factors (IGFs), which are produced
by the liver and bone tissue.
VI. Fracture and Repair of Bone
Fracture
- is any break in a bone.
- Fractures are named according to their
severity, the shape or position of the fracture
line, or even the physician who first described
them.
Stress fracture
- is a series of microscopic fissures in bone that
forms without any evidence of injury to other
tissues.
The repair of a bone fracture involves the
following phases:
1. Reactive phase.
- This phase is an early inflammatory phase.
Blood vessels crossing the fracture line are
broken.
- Fracture hematoma - a mass of blood (usually
clotted) forms around the site of the fracture.
2a. Reparative phase: Fibrocartilaginous
callus formation.
- The reparative phase is characterized by two
events: the formation of a fibrocartilaginous
callus, and a bony callus to bridge the gap
between the broken ends of the bones.
2b. Reparative phase: Bony callus
formation.
- In areas closer to well-vascularized healthy
bone tissue, osteoprogenitor cells develop into
osteoblasts, which begin to produce spongy
bone trabeculae
3. Bone remodeling phase.
- The final phase of fracture repair is bone
remodeling of the callus. Dead portions of the
original fragments of broken bone are gradually
resorbed by osteoclasts. Compact bone
replaces spongy bone around the periphery of
the fracture.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
Bone scan
- is a diagnostic procedure that takes
advantage of the fact that bone is living tissue.
A small amount of a radioactive tracer
compound that is readily absorbed by bone is
injected intravenously. The degree of uptake of
the tracer is related to the amount of blood flow
to the bone.
Osteoporosis
- literally a condition of porous bones
- In addition, 18 million people have low bone
mass (osteopenia), which puts them at risk for
osteoporosis.
- The basic problem is that bone resorption
(breakdown) outpaces bone deposition
(formation). In large part this is due to depletion
of calcium from the body—more calcium is lost
in urine, feces, and sweat than is absorbed
from the diet.
- Bone mass becomes so depleted that bones
fracture, often spontaneously, under the
mechanical stresses of everyday living.
Rickets and Osteomalacia
- Rickets and osteomalacia are two forms of
the same disease that result from inadequate
calcification of the extracellular bone matrix,
usually caused by a vitamin D deficiency. -
Rickets is a disease of children in which the
growing bones become “soft” or rubbery and
are easily deformed.
- Because new bone formed at the epiphyseal
(growth) plates fails to ossify, bowed legs and
deformities of the skull, rib cage, and pelvis are
common.

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