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    API-1610WB-Fundamentals of Fluid Behavior

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    ali meziane

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    Programs In Learning Operating Techniques Fundamentals of Fluid Behavior 1610WB Program developed for NGPA by: Programmers: Editor: Validation Editor: Production Editor: Artists: Content Specialist for API: Content Consultant for API: ‘Content Consultant for NGPA: Chairman, NGPA Training Committee: Chairman, NGPA Sub-Committee ‘on Program Learning: Original validation provided through the cooperation of: Howell Training Company 19831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 Donald Andersen, Ph.D. Lyn Sandow Shirley Ball John Ball, Ph.D. Paul Stadtherr Jacquey O'Malley Robert Culp James D. Carraway Hans Peter Jorgensen EJ. Rollins Atlantic Richfield Company S.B. Snyder Atlantic Richfield Company Everett Pace Sheli Oil Company John Payne Shell Oil Company Everett Smith Cities Service Oil Company Imperial Oil Enterprises Limited | ‘Standard Oil Company of California Exxon Company, U.S.A. This program is 2 condensation of PILOT: The Mechanics of Fluids, as sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute. Special acknowledgement is given to Shell Oi! Company for Support in this condensed version. PLANT PBs © Resources Development Corporation 1873 Reprised Jenaary 1995 Duplication or modification of this copyrighted material, or eny part thereof, is 2 Violation of Federal Law. Violation of this copyright law may resut in severe ‘oil penalties and eriminal corwetion. ‘The Federal Bureau of Investigation ‘vestigates all alagatione of criminal copyright infringement Fundamentals of FLUID BEHAVIOR Section 1 The Nature of Fluids SECTION ONE. THE NATURE OF FLUIDS is about the types of fluids ang their chemical and physica! nature You will learn the nature of phase, how phase change is used, and how it can be controlled In SECTION TWO UNITS OF MEASURE- MENT. you will leasn the instruments and units for measuring fluid pressure, tem- perature, density, and viscosity; the nature of absolute measurements: and how to convert measurements from one unit to another. SECTION THREE, THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES will teach you how to predict the pressure, temperature, and volume changes that occur in the compression and storing of gases. You will also learn to recognize hazards in gas handling and the precautions used to avoid these hazards SECTION FOUR, STATICS, is about the nature, calculation, and uses of static Pressure including: how to calculate Pressure from liquid level and liquid level from bottom gage pressure; the instruments that operate on the principle of static pressure; the nature and haz- ards of vacuum: and the uses of static Pressure in handling and transporting fluids. INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it Here is how it works, First, cover the response column at the right with a mask Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank, ‘A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in ‘thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is 2 good tool for measuring very. differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL THIMBLE i SPINDLE 4 RATCHET CAP FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the. and the_____contact the object to be measured. small anvil, spindle The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or-underline the ep- propriate word, Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (ar spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done, Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice, Move the mask down and check the response column, Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. ‘The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand ages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other Pages. spindle FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID BEHAVIOR Section One — THE NATURE OF FLUIDS INTRODUCTION Exhibits 1 to 3 are placed in the center of the book so that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so ‘that you will have them available when needed. 1. Petroleum processing involves many types of fluids. Any substance that can flow is a—___ fluid 2. Fluids have no definite shape, The oil in a storage tank assumes the of shape the tank. 3. Oil (is/is not ja tluid. is 4. Water and gasoline are also fluids 5. Oil, water, and gasoline can all be made to flow 6. Substances exist as liquids, solids, gases, or as mixtures of liquids, solids, or gases. Crude oil is a ( liquid / solid / gas ). liquid 7. Gasoline is usually a. liquid 8 Airis also a fluid. ‘The hydrogen, oxygen, and other substances in the air are usually, gases 9. Natural gas is made up largely of methane, Methane is a substance that exists normally as a ges, 10. Liquids flow and have no definite shape. Gases, such as methane and air, also flow and ( have / do not have ) a definite shape. do not have 11. Any substance that can flow is a fluid, Liquids and _____are fluids gases 12. Air(is/is not) a fluid. is 18. Water and steam are also fluids 14. A fluid is any substance that can flow 15. Which of these are usually handled as fluids? water SaseeSESsSsEESanE water steam eee steam catalyst pellets eee kerosine pSRESSESESESISES kerosine crude oil ae crude oil methane —___ methane lump coke psseSESRiSEzEass air Reet air ice eee sulfuric acid ——_____ sulfuric acid dry ice sssnannasneentanay carbon dioxide gas eee carbon dioxide gas rust pSLSeSSBeSSrasaasy ash passcanasnnasanl 16 Wherever you see a pipe, a steam line, a tank, a pump, @ compressor, a tower, an instrument, or even a filled sample container, it almost certainly contains a fluid 17. Whenever a problem occurs in any part of the process, it (is / is not ) likely to be related to the laws and is properties of fluids, 18. Does the way fluids behave determine: YES NO whether oil enters a tower by gravity or must be pumped? yes whether a fractionating tower floods or not? seis ESESESEESESEEEES: yes whether a pump will lose suction or not? I sssssESsessEbbessozees yes whether a storage tank will cave in or not? pease SSHSSCSPESsGEES yes whether a pump or compressor has adequate capacity ornot?. yes whether a sewer system will be ‘overloaded or not? ee yes 19 Solving operating problems, increasing operating efti- ciency, and avoiding operating hazards nearly always require an understanding of how. behave. fluids ‘THE THREE STATES OF MATTER 20. at 22. 23, 24. 2. 28. 30. 31 32. All substances are made up of atoms, which combine to form molecules A molecule of oxygen (Q2) is made up of two. of oxygen in water (H20), two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of ‘oxygen combine to form one _____of water. A molecule is a combination of The chemical symbol for a substance indicates the kind and number of in each molecule of the substance. For instance, the chemical symbol for methane is CH. This means that one molecule of methane contains one of carbon and ______ atoms of hydrogen. Sulfuric acid is HeSO. One molecule of sulfuric acid contains — atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulfur, and atoms of oxygen. Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon molecule contains only atoms of {C) and atoms of —_____(H) There are many different kinds of hydrocarbon molecules, ‘each containing a different combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms Different hydrocarbon molecules contain ( the same num- ber / different numbers ) of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The molecules of ali substances are never still The molecules of all substances stantly in all directions con- Molecules and their motion cannot be seen, but without molecular motion there would be no heat. Heat is the motion of Heating a substance is the same as ( increasing / de- creasing ) the motion of its molecules ‘A metal bar expands when it is heated. Heating a substance tends to move its molecules ( closer together | farther apart ) ‘Thermal expansion is the expansion of a substance caused by. atoms molecule atoms atoms atom; four four carbon; hydrogen different numbers: move molecules increasing farther apart heat 36. 37. Because of thermal expansion, oil drums are not filled to the top, Some space is left in the drums for the thermal. of liquid. ‘Thermal expansion occurs because heat ( increases / decreases } molecular motion and causes molecules to move ( closer together / farther apart ). Cooling a substance is the same as removing heat, or thermal energy. Cooling ( speeds up / stows down ) molecular motion. A substance ( expands / contracts ) when it is cooled. This is because the loss of heat energy ( increases / decreases ) the distance between molecules. Besides heat energy, molecules are affected by internal, attractive forces. These attractive forces tend to hold the molecules of a substance ( together / apart ) Molecular attractions act against the energy of heat. So, when a substance is heated, expansion works ( with / against ) molecular attraction This diagram represents the molecules of a liquid, solid, and gas. Liquip @ e ° e - o © as ° The molecules of a_____ are held together in @ ciose, patterned arrangement. expansion increases farther apart slows down contracts decreases together against solid 4 42. 43. 48. The molecules of a—________ are farthest apart. Liquid molecules are attracted to each other, but they slide past each other. The molecules of a liquid move too tobe held in a fixed shape. Gases are made up of separate molecules in random and chaotic motion fe forces have almost no effect on the molecules Substances like methane (CH.) and hydrogen (Hz) are made up of small, light molecules. For a given amount of heat eneray, these molecules move (more / less ) than heavy molecules. In the open air at ordinary temperatures, substances with small, light molecules tend to be ( gases / liquids / solids ) Substances with large, heavy molecules or molecular attractions tend to be temperature and pressure. FLUIDS AND FORCE 47. 49 50. Heat is one form of energy Heat energy is caused by the ‘of molecules. Mechanical force is also a form of energy. If you push an object to make it move, you are expending Force is energy applied in a direction. Apiston could be used to apply. toa fluid The energy of a moving piston ( is / is not ) applied in 2 direction gas fast, or freely gas more gases solids motion, or movement energy force ‘The Compressibility of Gases 51. This cylinder contains gas. GAS Applying force to the gas. space. it into a smaller compresses, or forces 2, Because gas molecules are so far apart, a gas can be into a smaller volume compressed, or forced 53. When a gas is compressed, its. closer together. are forced molecules 54. Now the gas is replaced by a liquid. Because liquid molecules are already close together, they (can / cannot ) be compressed very much, cannot 55 Gases are compressible fluids. Liquids are ( compressible / practically incompressible ) practically incompressible fivids 56. Below its boiling point, butane is a liquid. Liquid butane (is/ is not ) compressible isnot 87. 59. 63, 67. Above its boiling point, butane is a gas. Butane gas is (compressible / practically incompressible ). Compressibility is @ characteristic of ( liquids / gases / ali fluids ) Gases are compressible because of the great amount of between gas molecules. Gas handling equipment can be built smaller because gases are. And the energy of compressed _______ can be used to do work. Since ges molecules are so active, a small amount of gas can fill even a large container. The gas molecules move ( together / apart } to fill the larger container. A gas always expands to fill a larger space. And a gas can be. into a smaller space. ‘The space a substance occupies is its volume. Gases ( have / do not have ) fixed volumes. The _________ of a gas changes to fit the available space. A gas always assumes the volume of its container. But when a given volume of liquid is poured into a larger container, it (lis / does not fill) the container. And a liquid cannot be —______ into a smaller volume. Both liquids and gases have indefinite shapes But only ____have indefinite volumes. Liquids have ( definite / indefinite ) volumes. compressible gases space, or distance compressible gas apart compressed, or forced do not have volume does not fill compressed gases definite 70. 71 72. 73, 7A, 7. 76. A fluid exerts pressure on everythi The oil in this tank exerts. the tank. on the bottom of The oil also exerts. on the sides of the tank And the the oil. exerts on the tank and on ‘The mechanical energy of a fluid is exerted on everything the ____ touches. Pressure is force per unit of area. 1 POUND This metal block weighs —_____ pound. The area at the base of the block is ‘square inch. ‘The pressure caused by the weight of the block is one EEE per eee eet Pounds per square inch, abbreviated PSI, is a measure of (force / pressure). pressure pressure pressure fluid one one pound; square inch Pressure 79 at 83, Pressure is force per unit of area Ten pounds is not a pressure measurement because it does not specify ( force / area ) Gas molecules move in all directions. ‘As gas molecules move, they repeatedly each other. When @ gas is trapped in a container, its molecules collide with the walis of the container A balloon remains inflated because of the continuing im- pact of gas. striking the inside of the balloon Gas pressure is caused by the of gas molecules. This gas is being compressed. As the gas is compressed, the molecules strike each other and the wall of the cylinder ( more / less ) often. The force acting on each square inch of the cylinder (increases / decreases ) Compressing 2 gas ( increases / decreases ) its pressure Compressing a gas: (inereases / decreases ) its volume, and (increases / decreases ) its pressure. area strike, or bump, or hit molecules impact, or motion more increases increases decreases increases The Incompressibility of Liquids 86. This cylinder contains liquid. A piston 8 applying force to the liquid. The piston (can / cannot ) compress the liquid. 87. Since the cylinder is closed, the piston ( can / cannot ) move the liquid, &8. The force applied by the piston is transmitted through the liquid. The liquid exerts ( more / less } pressure on everything it touches. 89. When a liquid is trapped, force applied to a liquid is transmitted equally through the liquid. This added force increases the of the liquid. 90. Since liquids are practically incompressible, applying force does not affect the ( pressure / volume } of the liquid 91. A piston cannot volume, liquid into a smaller 92. This drawing shows a hydraulic brake system. PEDAL BRAKE The hydraulic liquid is being used only to transmit from the pedal to the brake. 10 cannot cannot more pressure volume compress, or force force, or pressure 94, The hydraulic system transmits force but ( is / is not ) designed to move liquid from one location to another location. A piston pump is designed to move liquid A piston pump must operate into ( an open / 2 closed ) discharge line The discharge line at this piston pump is accidentally closed ‘The pump ( can / cannot) discharge liquid. The piston continues to apply force to the liquid. This force is immediately transferred through the liquid tothe closed. The accident of closing the valve has had the effect of changing the pumping system into a hydraulic system. The liquid becomes a direct means of transmitting to the valve However, the valves and piping in the pumping system are not designed to receive the direct force of the piston, In this situation, either the piping or some part of the pump will A positive displacement pump will stall or cause damage if the pump is started up with a—___ discharge line 1" isnot an open cannot valve force, or pressure fail, or break, or rupture closed, or blocked 100. The incompressibility of liquids leads to water hammer in 101 102. 103. 104. 105, 106, piping. This flowing water suddenly encounters a closed The valve the flow of water in the line. ‘The force of the flowing liquid is immediately transferred to the valve and piping. There is a loud noise or “hammer” as the hits the valve and the walls of the pipe ‘These “water hammers” are caused by the transmitting of through the liquid to the piping This pipe is protected against water hammer. A small pipe in front of the valve contains a pocket of The liquid in the pipe cannot be compressed But the _____ above the liquid can be compressed, Now instead of hammering, the liquid moves up into the Pipe The pressure of the liquid smaller volume. the air into 2 12 valve stops, or blocks water, or fiquid force, or pressure air air forces, or compresses 107. When the valve is opened again, the air expands against the liquid The air forces the back into the pipe. 108. Thus, the compression and expansion of air maintains a smooth flow of in the piping. 109. The air acts as a shock absorber to prevent from developing at closed valves PHASE CHANGES 110. A phase is a state of matter that can change with changes in heat and pressure Most matter exists in one of three phases: solid, eo 111. Most types of materials can exist in ( only one / more than one ) phase under different conditions of heat or pressure 112. Many materials can exist in any of the three. 113. One characteristic of fluids is that they can undergo changes in 114, When a fluid changes from one phase to another, its chemical nature does not change The chemical symbol for water is H.0. The chemical symbol for ice and steam is also. 115. Phase changes ( are / are not ) changes in the structure of molecules. 116. Phase changes are changes in the between molecules. Melting and Freezing 117. 118, 119, 120. ‘Suppose you drop some ice into a glass of water. The water is hotter than the ‘That is, the molecules are moving faster in the ( water / ice ). When the ice reaches the water, heat energy is trans- ferred from the —_____ to the : The ice molecules move ( faster / slower ), and the ice begins to melt. 13 liquid, or water liquid, or water water hammer liquid, gas more than one phases phase H.0 are not distance, or space ice water water; ice faster 121. At the same time, the water grows colder. This is because the loss of thermal energy has the speed of the water molecules. 122, When the ice and water reach the same temperature, the system is in thermal equilibrium. When a system reaches equilibrium, there ( is / is not ) any further transter of heat energy 123. in an open container, ice and water can reach equilibrium at 32°F At atmospheric pressure, 32°F is the melting point of or the freezing point of 124. An equilibrium point for a two-phase system of water and ice is 82°F and atmospheric 125. You can change the energy balance in the glass by adding or removing thermal energy, or heat. You can also change the energy balance by changing the on the fluid 126. Any change in the eneray balance will move the system away from equilibrium Either water will freeze or ice will ______ when the energy balance is changed. 127. If you add heat or if you increase the pressure on the system, the ice will melt When a substance is at its melting point, adding energy causes: 128. Withdrawing energy from a substance that is at its melting point causes 129. Ata given pressure, @ chemically pure substance freezes at a certain temperature. You can test 2 product for purity by finding the at which it freezes. 130. A liquid that freezes over a range of temperatures ( is / is not ) chemically pure. 131. Petroleum and its products are ( mixtures / chemically pure substances ) Evaporation and Condensation 182. The words gas and vapor mean the same thing Another word for gas is. 14 decreased, or slowed isnot ice; water pressure pressure melt melting freezing temperature, or point isnot mixtures vapor 133, 134, 135. 136. 137, 198. 139. 140, 141 142, ‘Some molecules are always escaping from the surface of a liquid. When molecules escape the liquid surface; they are in the phase. vapor, or gas ‘Suppose an empty container is partially filied with liquid. Escaping molecules form a_______ above the liquid vapor These vapor molecules move rapidly in all directions. They strike each other and the walll of the —___ container Molecules that strike the liquid surface are absorbed back into the liquid ‘Thus, molecules are always passing between the liquid and. phase vapor Equilibrium is reached when equal numbers of —_____ molecules are exchanged between the liquid and vapor phase. {In equilibrium, the number of molecules escaping from the liquid -______ the number of molecules absorbed ‘equals, or balances back into the liquid. When the system reaches equilibrium, the level of liquid in the container ( rises / falls / remains the same }. remains the same Evaporation occurs when more molecules are leaving the liquid phase. Condensation occurs when more molecules are leaving the liquid f vapor ) phase. vapor The vapor pressure of a liquid is measured by heating liquid in a closed container and allowing the liquid and its vapors to reach equilibrium. ‘Then the pressure of the vapors in the liquid is measured and this is the of the vapor pressure liquid at that temperature. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a liquid’s vapors when the liquid and its vapors are in a state of eee equilibrium, or balance 15 143. 144, 148, 146, 147. 148, 149, 150, 151 152, 158, For a given temperature of any liquid, there is a corres- ponding vapor pressure. This vapor pressure represents the energy available for molecules to escape into the phase As temperature inereases, the molecules exert more pres- sure as they reach a state of equilibrium. Heating a liquid ( increases / decreases ) its vapor pressure, All liquids have higher vapor pressures at higher At the same temperature, different liquids have different vapor pressures Propane (CsHe) molecules are ( heavier / lighter ) than butane (C1Hro) molecules. For the same amount of heat, ( propane / butane ) mole- ‘cules move more rapidly. At the same temperature, propane has a ( higher / lower } vapor pressure than butane. Liquids with tow boiling points have high vapor pressures. Gasoline has a ( higher / lower ) vapor pressure than water, A trapped liquid is subject to many other sources of pressure along with vapor pressure. Mechanical force increases the trapped liquid. ofa Heat also increases liquid ______ by increasing the speed of liquid molecules. The total pressure of the fiuid in a closed system may be reater or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid. Hf mechanical force is applied to the system, the pressure of the fluid is than the liquid’s vapor Pressure, It a pump or other means is used to draw off liquid or vapors, a partial vacuum may form in a closed system. Then the total pressure of the fluid may be less than the pasisseecsasesing of the liquids at the existing temperature, 16 vapor increases temperatures lighter propane higher higher pressure pressure greater, or more vapor pressure 184 Suppose you use a piston to apply mechanical force to a liquid and vapor that are in equilibrium Molecules are forced into the ( liquid / vapor ) phase. liquid 155. As the pressure increases, the molecules require ( more / less ) energy to escape the liquid phase. ‘more 156. The number of molecules escaping the liquid surtace (increases / decreases ) as pressure increases. decreases 157 And, as pressure increases, more and more vapor mole- cules are forced into the. phase. liquid 158. Therefore, increasing the pressure on a liquid-vapor system tends to cause ( evaporation / condensation ). condensation 159 Suppose the pressure on a liquid drops below the vapor Pressure of the liquid. Molecules require ( more / less ) energy to escape the less liquid phase. 7 160, 161 162 163. 164, 165, 166, 167, 168. 169. 170. in 172, 173, Fewer molecules are forced back into the. phase as pressure decreases. Decreasing the pressure on a liquid tends to cause (evaporation / condensation } In an open container, water boils at 212°F At 212°F, the vapor pressure of water is equal to the of the atmosphere. After a liquid reaches its boiling point, adding more heat does not change the liquid temperature, but only produces additional ‘Suppose you heat water in a vacuum cylinder. The molecules require ( more / less ) energy to escape from the liquid phase. In a vacuum cylinder, water boils at ( more / tess ) than 212F. Decreasing the pressure on a liquid has the effect of (raising | iowering ) its boiling point temperature. Suppose the water is in a pressurized cylinder If evaporation is to occur, the vapor pressure of the water must overcome the. ‘on the water. Vapor pressure is increased by ( heating / cooling ) the water, The water requires more heat to vaporize as the on the water increases. In @ pressurized cylinder, the boiling point of water is (greater/ less ) than 212°F Increasing the pressure on a liquid has the effect of (raising J lowering ) its boiling point temperature. In changes between the liquid and solid phase, heat and pressure tend to act with each other. But, in changes between the liquid and the vapor or gas phase, heat and pressure tend to act against each other. ‘You can evaporate a liquid by heating it or by ( increasing / decreasing } the pressure on the liquid, Heat tends to cause evaporation Mechanical force or pressure tends to cause ( evaporation {condensation ) 18 liquid evaporation Pressure ‘evaporation, or vaporization less lowering Pressure heating pressure greater raising decreasing condensation 174. 178. 176. 17. 178, 179. 180. 181 182, 183. 184, The general effect of heat is to melt a solid or vaporize aliquid ‘The general effect of pressure is to maintain a substance inthe ____ phase. ‘Sometimes liquids evaporate at the suction of a pump. ‘The low pressure at a pump's suction can cause liqui Liquid evaporates when suction pressure is ( greater / less ) than the vapor pressure of the liquid at pumping temperature. You can prevent evaporation of liquid by cooling the liquid Cooling ( increases | decreases ) the liquid's vapor Pressure, You can also prevent evaporation by increasing the suction Pressure at the pump. A liquid will not vaporize as long as the pressure of the liquid is than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the existing temperature Petroleum gases are often liquefied for ease in storage and handling Liquefied petroleum gas, abbreviated LPG, is gas that has, been forced into the _____ phase by a combina- tion of cooling and high pressure. At atmospheric pressure and temperature, the hydro- carbons in LPG would be ( liquids / gases ). These gases are forced into the liquid phase primarily by increasing the. on the fluid. When gas is compressed into the liquid phase, the pres- sure on the gas must be ( as great as / less than ) the vapor pressure of the fraction in its liquid phase Suppose a pressurized cylinder of LPG is heated The vapor pressure of the LPG ( increases / decreases ) As the vapor pressure of the liquid increases, the LPG begins to 19 liquid ‘evaporate, or vaporize less decreases more, or greater liquid gases pressure as great as increases evaporate, or vaporize 185. Total pressure in the cylinder increases, and the cylinder could rupture. To prevent overpressuring, storage cylinders of methane, Propane, butane, and other LPG are often. in the summer. 186. Heat from the sun can be great enough to. these liquids and cause a cylinder to overpressure. Heat Effects of Phase Change 187. The temperature of a substance is not the same as its heat content, ‘These two metal balls have the same 188. If you touch them both: —— the large ball wiil fee! hotter. —— the small bal! will fee! hotter. — both will feel equally hot 189. However, suppose you wanted to raise the temperature of each ball to 15°F You would need to add more thermal energy to the (larger ‘smaller ) ball 190. This is because there is more in the larger ball 191. Temperature does not measure the amount of heat in a substance. ‘Temperature measures only the ( amount / intensity } of heat 182, The amount of heat in a substance depends on both its temperature and its mass. At the same temperature, there is more heat in ( one pound / five pounds ) of iron. 20 shaded, or cooled, or removed vaporize, or evaporate temperature both will feel equally hot larger material, or metal, or mass intensity five pounds 198. Amount of heat is measured in British thermal units, abbreviated BTU, Pes ‘One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of —____ by 1°F water 194. Two BTU will raise the temperature of @ pound of water by SF. 2 195. To heat three pounds of water from 40°F to 41°F requires BTU of heat, 3 196. The heat content of a substance is measured in (°F / BTU). BTU 197. One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the tem- perature of one —___ of water by one —_____ pound; degree FE 198. Most metals heat up more easily than water. One BTU of heat will cause a greater temperature increase in @ pound of ( water/ iron }. iron 199. In other words, it requires less heat for a pound of ( water / iron ) to reach a temperature of 100°F. iron 200, Since it takes less heat to bring a pound of iron to @ certain temperature than a pound of water, a pound of iron at 100°F contains heat than @ pound of less water at the same temperature. 201. One BTU will raise the temperature of a pound of water 1°F. But, one BTU will raise the temperature of a pound of crude oil 2. Oil heats up ( more less ) easily than water. more 2 202. 208. 204. 208. 206. 207. At 100°F, the heat content is twice as great in a pound of ( water / crude oif ) The specific heat of a substance is the number of BTU Fequired to raise the temperature of one pound of the substance by 1"F The specific heat of water is It requires only 1/2 or 0.5 BTU to raise the temperature of crude oil 1°F. The specific heat of crude oil is — If the specific heat of a substance is less than one, it takes ( more / less ) heat than water to reach a certain temperature. A substance heats up less easily than water if its specific heatis. than one. ‘Substances that heat up easily have ( high / low ) specific heats. Substances have higher heat contents per pound per degree F if their specific heat is ( high / low ). For the same heat content, a substance has a higher temperature it its specific heat is ‘TYPES OF FLUIDS 210. an 212 213. Many substances can be fluids, A substance is a fluid if it can be made to. Both pressure and temperature affect the physica! state of a substance. ‘Whether or not a substance is a fluid depends on both its temperature and its Pressure and temperature also help to define a physical system A substance or mixture is a system if it is under a certain condition of pressure and. if the mixture flows under these conditions, the system is a fluid system. A fluid system may contain more than one kind of sub- stance under the same conditions of temperature and 22 water more, or greater tow high flow Pressure temperature pressure 214. 218 216. 217, 218. 219. 221 222 228. 224. 225 207 228. 229 Fluid systems may contain substances in more than one phase. In @ gas scrubber, gas bubbles up through liquid. This is an example of a liquid. fluid system ‘One part of the fluid in @ separator is in the liquid phase; the other part is in the phase. Since it contains two phases, a liquid-gas fluid system is also called a -phase fluid system. A boi fluid system. 1g mixture is a liquid: ‘Steam that is condensing to water is also a—__- fluid system. Many fluids are mixtures. For example, crude oil is @ of different petroleum liquids. Liquids that mix readily with each other are miscible. Gasoline is a blend of ( miscible / immiscible ) liquids. ‘The different liquids in crude oil ( are / are not ) miscible. All gases are miscible. Gases __________ readily with each other. Some liquids are immiscible. il and water do not usually. But when oil and water are shaken together rapidly, an emulsion is formed. ‘An emulsion is a fluid made up of two. that do not ordinarily mix In an emulsion, one liquid is suspended in another liquid, ‘An emulsion may be made up of droplets of oil suspended in Useful products are formed from ______of asphalt, lubricating oil, or waxes suspended in water. of oll Improper operations can also cause. and water to form. Once an emulsion is formed, it requires chemical or heat treatment to break the emulsion. When the emulsion is broken, the liquids separate and are again ( miscible immiscible ). ‘An emulsion is a liquid fluid system gas gas, or gaseous two gas liquid gas mixture miscible are mix mix liquids water emulsions ‘emulsions immiscible liquid EXHIBIT 1 POUNDS PER POUNDS PER INCHES OF SQUARE INCH SQUARE INCH MERCURY GAGE ABSOLUTE 530 30 FE POSITIVE PRESSURE {ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE) ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 0 ~---------~[-9 --~--~--~--- 147 VACUUM PRESSURE (BELOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE) N Il t ° 3 : : 8 3 3 T TTT TTT Tea Ee TTT Teg EXHIBIT 2 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT °F 400 300 '200 [100 WATER ER =100 -200 300 400 — 460 a in c _WATER BOILS _ DEGREES ENTIGRADE °C -50 100 -150 200 -250 273 EXHIBIT 3 REDUCTION OF OBSERVED API GRAVITY TO API AT 60°F iy Ohaereed Fempertare we l*l=l"]"1"]» ‘eveeeponding APE Gravity at 60 I Cervenponding APL Gravty 06 F. RaaR S2RR3 if RSGKS SHEE HAGE SHE Baked S8a88 Sse meee 2g: EEa32 32522 35883 2 Gangs quase casas saaga aieae eegne sage atase 2s a Gade daean Gasca dddan aadae saeda aaane saaae 2! ad dad added Saeed adadd ida asda e885 aasas Gaede sass id Saaee daaae 32an2 SaR88 GH822 32255 e suaee ay: 9353 33383 33 gaa seas 1S GaG22 SEEE2 28883 Boss ie me at ar a a ‘Abridged and coprinted by permission of the Ametican Society for Testing Mater als 230. In each of these drawings, name the type of fluid and tell whether it is a single- or two-phase fluid system. (Example: 98s, single-phase) BEAKER FULL OF WATER ;—_____—phase liquid: single OXYGEN BOTTLE B —_____;__-phase. gas; single BOTTLE OF ‘SODA POP -phase. liquid-gas; two REVIEW AND SUMMARY 231 232 235. 236 237. Fluids are substances that ______ and that have no definite (Liquids / Gases ) are compressible fluids. ( Liquids / Gases ) are practically incompressible fluids Look at this air leg Its purpose is to prevent —_____. Compressing a gas increases its —_________ and decreases its. Increasing pressure _____ the boiling point of a liquid The specific heat of @ substance is the number of required to raise its temperature 1°F. flow shape Gases Liguids water hammer pressure volume increases, or raises BTU Section 2 Units of Measurement FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID BEHAVIOR Section Two — UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 1. Pressure and temperature are two fluid variabies. Pressure and temperature ______ as a fluid is, vary, or change transported and handled. 2. These variables must be ______ to be known, measured 3. Temperature and pressure do not effect the volume of liquids very much But temperature and pressure are important variables affecting the volume of. geses 4. Gas volume, like gas pressure and temperature, must be to be known. measured 5. Fluids have properties that affect their behavior. For example, mercury is ( heavier / lighter ) than water. heavier 6. Heaviness, or density, is a ( variable / property ) of fluids. property 7. The properties of chemically pure substances, such as mercury or water, are always the same at the same pressure and temperature. But the properties of chemically complex mixtures, such as crude oil and its products, differ. For example, the heaviness or density of crude oil is { the same / different ) for different conditions. different 8. Inthe petroleum industry, many tests have been developed for the measurement of fluid properties, ‘These tests are used to ___ the properties of measure petroleum and its products as these fluids are processed and transported. PRESSURE Pounds per Square Inch (PSI) 9. Pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch, abbreviated —____ Psi 40. Pressure in units of PS! can be represented as pressure equals forge area ‘This block of lead weighs. pounds. 11. The area at the base of the block is 100 square inches. The PSI at the base of the biock is PSI 12, Each of these blocks has the same weight. But this force is concentrated on the smaliest area under block (A/B/C). | 13. Block C has the ( greatest / smallest ) PSI at its base ar greatest rnin 14. This piston is applying force to liquid. 15, 16 17. nt et oa pe gs Nou | eee a The pressure of the liquid is. PSI 5 The piston is applying 20 pounds of force; the area of the piston face is 5 square inches ‘The pressure applied by the piston is PSI 4 Piston pressure is ( greater / less ) than liquid pressure. tess This piston ( can / cannot ) overcome the pressure of the cannot liquid in the container Suppose we change the area of the inches, n face to 2 square With 20 pounds of force, the piston applies a pressure of PSI to the liquid, 10 28 18 19. 20. 23. } i | j | | 1 i 24 25, Now the is exerting more pressure than the —____ exerts. This piston (can / cannot ) pump the lig You can increase the PS! available at a piston or other pump or compressor part: by the amount of force applied; or by —_______ the area of surface used to transmit the force. Pounds per square inch is a useful unit of pressure when dealing with pumps and compressors Mechanical force ( can / cannot ) be measured in units of pounds Force can be converted to PSI by dividing the force in pounds by the number of of surface applied to a fluid. The gas in this compressor is returning work or energy to the piston. ‘The area of the piston face is. square inches PSI The pressure of the gas is. A pressure of 200 PS! means that for every square inch of the piston face, the gas returns. pounds of force to the piston. 29 piston liquid can increasing decreasing, or reducing can ‘square inches 200 26. a7. 28. 29. ‘You can convert PSI to pounds of force by multiplying the PSI times the number of ere that the fluid is acting on. The total force of the gas at this piston is. pounds. ‘Suppose pressure inside a pipeline is 20 PSI. If the area inside the piping is 1000 square inches, the total force of the fluid in the pipe is pounds In other words, the fluid in the piping has a total force of about 10 tons. Asmall pressure reading ( means / does not mean ) a small amount of force in the fluid. Pressure in PSI is the amount of force a fluid exerts on each ________ of surface it touches. Mechanical Gages 31 32. Pressure in a vessel, piping, or at a pump is usually measured with a mechanical gage. Most gages have a flexible metal part thet. when fluid pressure changes. This hollow piece of flexible metal is called a bourdon tube CLOSED The bourdon tube expands when it is filled pressurized —___ ‘square inches 800 does not mean square inch expands, or moves, or changes. fluid 33, The more pressure the fluid exerts, the more the tube 34, The bourdon tube is a basic part of many mechanical gages POINTER In this gage, a mechanical linkage connects a bourdon tube toa 35. The pointer moves across the face of a 36. Gage pressure is measured by reading the position of the ‘on the face of the dial 37. The gage is calibrated to measure pressure in units of PSIG. Pressure measured in PSIG is pressure measured by a mechanical Manometers 38. A manometer is a U-shaped tube containing liquid MERCURY This manometer contains liquid. 31 expands, or moves pointer dial pointer gage mercury ti 99. Both legs of this manometer are open to the atmosphere. 4a ‘So the level of mercury in each leg of the manometer is (the same/ different ). In this manometer, the left leg is exposed to a pressurized gas line — ‘The right leg is open to the. ‘The pressurized gas forces the mercury level down in the left leg of the manometer. At the same time, the mercury level the right leg of the manometer. in The difference between the level in each leg indicates the pressure of the liquid in the gas line This difference in liquid level could be measured in (pounds / inches ) the same air, or atmosphere rises inches 45 46. 47. 48. 49. 31 52. Inches of mercury ( can / cannot ) be a unit of pressure measurement. ‘The chemical symbol for mercury is Hg ‘A manometer reading of 30 in. Hg. indicates a difference ‘of 20 inches in the level of ______ between two legs of a manometer. Which of these mercury manometer readings indicates the greatest pressure? 30 in, Hg. —__ 60 in. Ha When a pressure difference is 1 PSI, a mercury manometer reads the difference as 2.03 in. Hg (One PS! is equivalent to a mercury manometer reading of in, Hg. Suppose a mercury manometer reads 20.3 in. Ho This is equivalent to____ Ps You can convert in. Hg. to PSI by dividing the in. Hg. by. Which of these is the higher pressure difference? 5Psi Sin. Hg. PSI is a ( larger / smaller ) unit of pressure than in. Hg. Pressure can also be measured in millimeters of mercury, abbreviated mm. Hg. INCH 25.4 MILLIMETERS Arillimeter is ( larger / smatler ) than an inch, There are —______ millimeters in an inch. 3 mercury 60 in. Hg. 203 10 208 5 PSI larger smaller 254 53, 57. 88. 61 63. 2540 mm. Hg. is equivalent to. in. Hg 100 in. Hg. is equivalent to__ Psi Which of these is the largest unit of pressure? Ps! in. Hg, mm. Hg. Which is the smallest unit of pressure? Psi in. Hg mm. Hg. ‘Some mechanical gages are designed to measure pressure at a vacuum, These gages have a part that moves when pressure in @ cylinder or piping is than atmospheric pressure. A pressure of 5 PSI vacuum means a pressure that 5 PS| __________ than atmospheric pressure, as measured with a vacuum gage. Gage pressure is abbreviated PSIG. PSIG is an abbreviation for pounds per square inch It fluid pressure is 40 PSIG, the fluid is exerting a pressure of 40 PSI ( more / less ) than the pressure of the atmosphere at the gage If fluid pressure is 2 PS! vacuum, the fluid is exerting a pressure of 2 PS|______ than the pressure of the atmosphere at the gage. Mechanical gages do not measure the pressure of the atmosphere at the gage. ‘The gage measures pressure that is more or less than the pressure of the in the open air, a mechanical pressure gage reads PSIG. What the gage measures is the difference between in a vessel or piping and the — of the atmosphere 100 49.26 Psi mm. Hg. less, or lower less, or lower gage more atmosphere Pressure; pressure 65 Now look again at this mercury manometer, 67. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The right leg of the manometer is acted on by the pressure of the. Like the mechanical gage, the manometer measures the —________. between pressure in a vessel and the pressure of the atmosphere. ‘This manometer is measuring pressure in a vacuum tower. PARTIAL amb! VACUUM ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The pressure in the tower is ( more / less ) than atmospheric pressure. ‘This vacuum tower operates with a pressure of mm. Hg. vacuum atmosphere difference 69. A manometer, like a mechanical gage, can measure pres- sure that is less than atmospheric pressure. When a manometer is measuring vacuum, the level of mercury is higher in the leg that is exposed to ( the atmosphere / the vacuum ) Gage and Absolute Pressure 70. Pressure is the amount of ________ per unit area. 71. When force is expressed in pounds per square inch, it is called the ____ the gas exerts. 72. The weight of the atmosphere exerts force, too. Atsea level, it exerts a force of about 14,7. ‘on each square inch. 78. The atmosphere is thinner at the top of a mountain than itis at sea level ATHOSPHERIC PRESSURE As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure ( increases / decreases ) 74. The closer the altitude is to sea level, the ( higher / lower ) atmospheric pressure is likely to be. 75. High-pressure weather conditions are accompanied by (an increase / a decrease ) in atmospheric pressure. Low-pressure weather con ions are accompanied by a decrease _—_______ 76. So, atmospheric pressure varies with the weather and with the ‘above sea level 368 the vacuum force pressure pounds decreases. higher an increase atmospheric pressure height 77. 78. 79. 80. 8 82. 83. 84, Normally, the pressure of the atmosphere is about PSI This drawing shows a tank of water open to the atmosphere. 147 PSI ‘The pressure of the atmosphere on the water is about PSL Suppose the pressure of the water on the bottom of the tank is 20 PSI The total, or absolute, pressure at the bottom of the tank is: the pressure of the —_________in the tank; plus, the pressure of the —____ on the water. The total, or absolute, pressure at the bottom of the tank is 14.7 PSI plus 20 PSI, or ___ PSIA. Most gages are calibrated to measure only the pressure within a system Most gages ( include / do not include ) atmospheric pressure. A pressure reading that does not include atmospheric pressure is called gage pressure. Gage pressure is expressed as pounds per square inch gage, abbreviated ( PSIG / PSIA ). Absolute pressure is total pressure including both: ‘the pressure within the system, or pressure; and the pressure of the. Absolute pressure is expressed as pounds per square inch absolute, abbreviated Gage pressure, PSIG, ( includes | does not include ) atmospheric pressure. 37 147 147 water atmosphere 347 do not include PSIG gage atmosphere PSIA does not include 86. Absolute pressure, PSIA, is __________ pressure plus —_ pressure. 87. Atmospheric pressure can also be measured in inches of mercury, Normally, at sea level, atmospheric pressure can raise a column of mercury 29.9 inches high. So, the average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is. in. Hg. 88. There are 25 4 millimeters in an inch 29.9x 25.4= 760 The standard pressure of the atmosphere at sea level measured in millimeters of mercury (mm. Hg.) is Now look at Exhibit 1, which compares three pressure scales. 89. The absolute pressure scale in Exhibit 1 shows pressure in units of 90. The scales for inches of mercury (manometer) and PSIG ‘show atmospheric pressure at. 91. The PSIA scale shows atmospheric pressure at, PSIA 92, You can convert manometer readings in inches of mercury and gage readings to PSIA by reading across the exhibit A pressure of 10 PSI vacuum is equivalent to a pressure of about, PSIA. 93. Thisis also equivalent to a pressure of 20.3. vacuum. 94. A mercury manometer reading of 12 in. Hg. is equivalent to approximately PSIA. 95. A manometer reading of 9 in. Hg. vacuum is equivalent to PSIA. gage atmospheric 299 760 PSIA 147 az inches Hg., or inches mercury 20.6 10 100, 101 102 103. 104 105, Instead of converting to PSIA, manometer readings can be converted to barometric pressure for absolute measures. You can convert in. Hg. manometer to barometric pressure by adding in. Hg. to the manometer reading. A manometer reading of 10 in. Hg. is equivalent to in, Hg. barometric. Or, 9 in. Hg. vacuum is equivalent to Hg. barometric To convert mm. Hg. manometer to absolute units, add mm. Hg. to the manometer reading A vacuum tower operating at a pressure of 700 mm. Hg vacuum has an absolute pressure of — mm. Hg. In each of these conversions, we are assuming an atmo- spheric pressure of 29.9 in. Hg. barometric or its ‘equivalent. ‘As elevation increases, atmospheric pressure ( increases / decreases ) and in. Hg. barometric is somewhat ( more / tess ) than 299 in. Hg. ‘As atmospheric pressure decreases, you need to add (more / less ) than 147 PSI to convert gage readings to absolute pressure. You need to add more than 14.7 PSI or 29.9 in. Hg. if you are ( above / below ) sea level or if the weatherman says the barometer is (rising / falling ). At any elevation or weather condition, the precise absolute pressure in a vessel or piping is always gage or manometer Pressure plus the existing pressure of the For most purposes, the standard atmospheric pressure of PSIA is assumed to be sufficiently accurate. ‘TEMPERATURE SCALES 106 When heat is applied to a liquid, molecular activity increases. Alliquid ( expands / contracts ) when it is heated, 39 299 39.8 20.9 760 decreases less below rising atmosphere 147 expands. 107, Industrial thermometers work on a thermal expansion principle. MERCURY This thermometer is filled with 108. When the thermometer is placed in @ hot substance, the mercury expands. The level of mercury —________in the tube. 109. Instead of liquid mercury, industrial thermometers may use metal strips that bend as they are heated. Metal strips ( expand / do not expand ) when they are heated 110. Industrial thermometers, then, work on a principle of thermal 111. The degree of expansion of the mercury or metal in the thermometer reflects the _____ of the substance being measured. Fahrenheit 112, Temperature scales are based on several known freezing and melting points. In the United States, temperature is usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit, abbreviated. 118. At atmospheric pressure, water freezes at. °F and boils at —____"F. 40 mercury, or Hg expand expansion temperature F 32 212 114. Ona Fahrenheit scale there are degrees between the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water. 115. One Fahrenheit degree, then, is 1/180th of the distance ‘that the meroury or metal expands as it moves from melting ice to boiling 116. OF is Fahrenheit degrees below the freezing point of water Centigrade Now look at Exhibit 2. WwW 118, 119. 120, In many countries, and in scientific laboratories, temper- ature is measured on a centigrade scale Water freezes at 0°C and boils at. °C. There are centigrade degrees between the freezing point and the boiling point of water. There are 32°F and 212°F Fahrenheit degrees between A centigrade degree is a ( larger / smaller ) unit of temperature than a Fahrenheit degree. DENSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND API GRAVITY Density 121 122, 128. 124, 125, ‘The trees in a dense forest are close together. When a fluid has a high density, its molecules are ( close together | far apart ) Liquids have ( higher / tower ) densities than gases. Gas density is higher when the gas ( is / is not ) compressed Density is a measure of the heaviness of fluids, The weight of molecules and the closeness of molecules determine the ____ of the fluid. Since heat moves molecules apart, density decreases as temperature ( increases / decreases } 4 180 water 400 100 180 larger close together higher is density, or heaviness increases 126 127, 128 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 134, Lubricating oil has a higher density at ( 60°F / 100°F ) Even though oil molecules are usually heavier than water molecules, oi! that is not emulsified usually floats on water In a crude receiving tank, the water separates out ( above / below) the oil Oil is ( heavier / lighter ) than water. This must mean that molecules are packed closer together in the ( water / oil) Density is measured by weighing unit volumes of fluid. Gallons is a unit of liquid ( weight / volume ) Pounds is a unit of weight. Liquid density can be measured in units of. per gallon This drawing shows some liquid densities in units of pounds per gallon. “ASPHALT WATER 8.58 LBS. 8.33 LBS, 32° API CRUDE OIL KEROSINE GASOLINE 7.20 LBS. 6.69 LBS. 6.15 LBS. ‘The density of water is pounds per gallon. ‘The density of this kerosine is ________ pounds per gallon Kerosine has a ( higher / lower ) density than water. Liquid volume can also be measured in barrels. In the measuring system used in the petroleum industry, there are 42 gallons in a______of oll below lighter water volume pounds 833 669 lower barrel 135, 136, 187. 138, 139, 140. 141 142, 143. 144, 145, 146. 147, 148. ‘A 1000-barre! storage tank has @ capacity of. gallons, There are gallons in a barrel, in a large storage tank, liquid volume is usually indicated by a tank gage. The gage measures the —_________ of liquid in the tank. As temperature increases, the liquid level. in the tank ‘The gage indicates that the volume of liquid has increased But the actual number of liquid molecules has not changed. ‘The level rises because thermal expansion has caused the same weight of oil to occupy a larger ‘At the same time that the level of the oil is rising, the density of the oil in the tank ( increases / decreases }. Thermal expansion increases the volume of a liquid and decreases its Suppose you wanted to measure the density of the oil in a barrel or tank, of You would need to weigh an exact the oil You would also need to weigh the oil at @ standard temperature At different temperatures, the same volume of the same liquid will measure at a different In most companies, the standard temperature for the ‘measurement of liquid volume and density is 60°F. {f a liquid is measured at 40°F, its measured volume is ‘somewhat than a standard gallon or barrel. ‘The measured density of a liquid at 40°F is somewhat than the density of the liquid at 60°F. ‘The standard temperature for the measurement of liquid volume or density is ______*F. Tables are used to convert quantities observed at existing temperatures into quantities at ‘temperature Suppose you find that a barrel of liquid at 60°F weighs 336 pounds. ‘The density of the liquid is 336 pounds per—__ 43 42,000 level, or height, or depth rises, or increases volume, or space decreases Gensity volume density, or weight lower, or less higher, or greater, or more 60 standard barrel 149, 150, 151. 152 158. 154, 155. 156, 157, ‘The barrel holds 42 gallons. 336 = g 42 ‘The density of the liquid is _________ pounds per gallon. ‘The density of water is 8.33 pounds per gallon ‘The measured liquid is ( heavier / lighter ) than water. To compare the densities of liquids, you must compare equal of liquid weighed at a standard ‘Since pressure does not affect liquid volume, liquid den- sity does not need to be measured at a standard pressure. But gas volume and density are affected by changes in Pressure. To measure the volume and density of a gas, you need to specify _____ as well as temperature. In most companies, the standard pressure for gas mea- surement is atmospheric pressure Gas measurement is usually standardized at 60°F and pressure. Gas volume is usually measured in cubic feet. 7.48 GALLONS 1 CUBIC FOOT There are gallons of liquid in a cubic foot 748 gallons is equivalent to cubic feet. Liquid volume is usually measured in barrels or Gas volume is usually measured in 44 lighter volumes temperature pressure atmospheric, or 14.7 PSIA 7.48 100 gallons cubic feet 158. 159, 160. 161 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds at 60°F. The density of water is 8.33 pounds per —____or 62.4 pounds per acne You can convert pounds per gallon to pounds per cubic foot by multiplying the pounds per gallon times Density can be measured in pounds per gallon, pounds per barrel, or pounds per Liquid density is usually measured in pounds per Gas density is usually measured in pounds per. This drawing shows the densities of four gases, at standard temperature and atmospheric pressure BUTANE AIR ETHANE METHANE sT6LBS. OB LBS. .OBLBS. —.04 LBS. The density of air is ______ pounds per cubic foot The density of ethane is. foot pounds per cubic Ethane and______ have the same density ‘The density of butane is 0.16 pounds per cubic foot. Butane is approximately ( twice / half ) as heavy as air. Methane, at 0.04 pounds per cubic foot, is. as heavy as air. ‘Specific Gravity 168. Specific gravity is another way of indicating the heaviness of a fluid The specific gravity of a ii to the density of water. ‘The density of water is. is the ratio of its density pounds per gallon. gallon cubic foot 7.48 cubic foot gation cubic foot air twice halt 8.33 169 170. 171. 172, 173, 174, 175; 176. 177. 178. 179, 180 181 182 The specific gravity of water is #32, or 1.0 A liquid with a specific gravity of 1.0 has the same Gensity as. ‘The density of a gasoline is 6 15 pounds per gailon The specific gravity of the gasoline is 6.15 divided by 8.33, or Gasoline is ( heavier / lighter ) than water. If a liquid is lighter than water, its specific gravity is (more / less } than 4 than 1 The specific gravity of most oils is. A liquid has a specific gravity of 1.03 This liquid is ( heavier | lighter ) than an equal volume of water, If @ liquid is heavier than water, its specific gravity is than 1 Youcan calculate the specific gravity ofa liquid by dividing its density by the density of or ‘The density of water is 8.33 pounds per. 62.4 pounds per The density of a kerosine is 50 pounds per cubic foot. The specitic gravity of the kerosine is! The specific gravity of @ gas is the ratio of its density to the density of air. The specific gré ethane is also ; the specific gravity of ity of air is 1 The specific gravity of butane is 2-18 or. 008 Butane is ( heavier / lighter ) than air. The specific gravity of methane is 294 or os. 008 Methane is. than air. 46 water 738 lighter heavier more, or greater water gallon cubic foot 08 10 20 heavier lighter 183. 184, 185, 186. 187. 188. 189. 190, 191 192. 193, 194, 195, 196, ‘Suppose methane gas is vented to the atmosphere. The methane will tend to ( rise / settle near the ground ). Gases that are lighter than air tend to ______ in the atmosphere. Gases that are heavier than air tend to. near the ground, (Butane / Methane ) is heavier than air. If butane is vented, it will tend to settle near the Gases settle near the ground if their specific gravity is than 1. A gas like ethane diffuses slowly in the air. Ethane has about the same density as A gas diffuses slowly if its specific gravity is about Gases rise quickly if their specific gravities are. than 1 This table shows the specific gravities of some petroleum gases. SPECIFIC GAS GRAVITY Methane os Ethane 10 Ethylene 10 Propane 15 Butane 20 Pentane 25 Gasoline vapors 35 Of these gases, only _______ is lighter than air. Ethane and ____ have about the same density as air. Propane, butane, and pentane are often handled as LPG than air. These gases are. Gasoline vapors are. times as heavy as air. Petroleum vapors that settle near the ground can be hazards. Most petroleum vapors will burn if they are ignited. Flammable waste gases are discarded by. them in flares high off the ground ar tise rise settle, or stay Butane ground more, or greater air methane ethylene heavier 35 burning 197. The flares prevent the accumulation of high density flam- mable of toxic near furnaces and men. gases API Gravity 198, 199, 201 ‘The heaviness of petroteum liquids is usually measured in units of API gravity. “API is used to measure the heaviness of hydrocarbon (liquids / gases ) liquids API gravity ( is / is not ) used in measuring gases. is not This measuring instrument is called a hydrometer. The stem of the hydrometer is scaled in units of “API The hydrometer is placed in the liquid being measured A heavy liquid will tend to support or “buoy up” the pe hydrometer If the hydrometer is placed in a light, low density liquid, it will tend to. sink, or settle 203. The hydrometer settles deeper in liquids with ( high / tow ) densities, low 204. API gravity is read from the stem of a hydrometer. 40° API WATER 40° API CRUDE OIL | 1 a liquid is dense or heavy, its API gravity reading is (high / tow ). low | 205. A high API gravity reading indicates a liquid that is light / heavy ) light 206. Water has a higher density than 40°AP! crude oil. But the oil has @ higher API gravity than the water 207. As the heaviness of @ liquid increases, its AP! gravity (increases / decreases ). decreases 208, In calibrating API gravity, 10°API has been made equal to water, or a specific gravity of 1.0. {f 2 liquid is heavier than water, its API gravity is ( more / ess ) than 10°API. less. 208. If the API gravity of a liquid is more than 10°AP!: the liquid is ( heavier / lighter ) than water; fighter fic gravity of the liquid is ( more / less } less 210. As API gravity increases, density and specific gravity (increase / decrease ) decrease 211. 20°API crude oil is ( heavier heavier Now tum the page, turn the book over, ond go 49 22. 213. 214, 216. 216. Kerosine has a higher density than gasoline; it has a (higher / lower ) API gravity than gasoline. The API gravity of kerosine is approximately 42°API. Kerosine is ( heavier / lighter ) than 30° API crude ol. Like other measures of liquid heaviness, hydrometer read- ings must be corrected to a standard temperature. Ifthe liquid is hot, density will be lower and the hydrometer reading will be ( higher / lower } The standard temperature for API gravity measures is 60°F. If the oil is at 40°F, its hydrometer reading will read too This lower reading will indicate an oil that is ( heavier / lighter ) than the same oil at 60°F. Now look at Exhibit 3, which shows a typical table for the correction of API gravity readings to 60°F. 217. 218. 219, 221 2238 If the liquid being measured is not at 60°F, its hydrometer reading ( can / cannot ) be corrected for differences in temperature. A liquid is measured at 70°F. Its observed API gravity is 25°API. Read the chart across from 70°F and down from 25°API. The corrected gravity reading for 60°F is “APL The corrected reading is. ‘Suppose the reading at 72°F is 24.5°API This ( can/ cannot ) be read directly from the chart. If the reading were 24°API, the corrected reading would SAPI, 1g were 25°API, the corrected reading would SAI. ‘Thus, the corrected reading for 24.5°API at 72°F must be half way between _____ ‘API and ___*aP. lighter higher low heavier can 24.4 26.3 cannot 23.3 24.3 224. Half the difference between 233 and 24.3 is 0.5. The corrected API gravity for an observed gravity of 24.5°API at 72°F is _____API 238 225. Sometimes it is necessary to convert API gravity to specific gravity or density API GRAVITY AT 60°F TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY 60°/60°F AND TO DENSITY AT 15°C SPECIFIC API GRAVITY GRAVITY DENSITY 6orF 60/60°F 15°C 62.0 0.7313 0.7310 621 7309 7303 622 7305 7303 623 7301 7298 62.4 7298 7295 Abvidged and reprinted by permesion of te Amariean Society for Testing Matte This is a table for converting API gravity to_____ specific or density. gravity 226. An oil has an API gravity of 62°API Its specific gravity is —______ 0.7313 227. Suppose you want to find density in pounds per gallon or pounds per cubic foot If you know the specific gravity of an oil, you can find its, density by multiplying specific gravity times the density ef water 228. Multiplying specific gravity times 8.33 gives density in units of pounds per _—_____ gation 228. Specific gravity times 624 equals density in ___ pounds per eee Ete cubic foot 230. Specific gravity times 8.33 equals density in pounds per gallon 0.7313 x 8.33 = 6.09 ‘The density of an oil with a specific gravity of 0.7313 and an AP! gravity of 62°API is _________ pounds per 6.09 gallon. 51 viscosiTy 231, 232. 233. 234, 236. 237, 238. 239, 240, 2a 242, 243, 244. 246, A fluid is defined as a substance that flows, A theoretically perfect or “ideal” fluid is one that offers no resistance to. In fact, ( all fluids / not all fluids ) flow as easily as others, A fluid that resists flow is said to be viscous. ‘The more viscous a fluid is, the ( more/ tess ) easily it flows, Viscosity is the tendency of a fiuid ( to flow/ to resist flow ). All real fluids have viscosity. Liquids ( have / do not have ) viscosity. A liquid offers more resistance to flow if it is ( thick / thin ). Gases also have viscosity, Friction between gas molecules causes 2 gas to flow Gases resist flow more if they have ( high / low ) densities. Oil has a ( higher / lower ) viscosity than water. Compressed gas has a ( higher / lower ) viscosity than noncompressed gas. When a liquid is heated, the liquid becomes ( thicker / thinner ). ‘As temperature increases, liquid viscosity ( increases / decreases ). Lubricating oil has a higher viscosity at ( 100°F / 60°F ). Liquid viscosity increases as temperature ( increases / decreases ). In the laboratory, viscosity usually is measured by record- ing the _______ it takes for a volume of liquid to flow through a restriction. flow not all fluids less to resist flow have thick resist high higher higher thinner decreases 6orF decreases time 246. 247. Liquid viscosity is measured by a viscometer. The longer it takes for the liquid to flow through the viscometer restriction, the ( higher / lower ) the liquid’s viscosity. Since liquid viscosity varies with heat, viscometer readings are taken at a specified liquid REVIEW AND SUMMARY 248. 249, 250, 251 252. 253. 254. This unit has described the basic units of fluid mea- surement Fluid pressure can be measured in units of : of of mercury, or of _____ of mercury. Absolute pressure is measured in units of inches Hg. baro- metric, —_______ Hg. barometric, or The average pressure of the atmosphere is: mm. Hg. barometric; \. Hg. barometric; or PSIA Gage pressure is converted to pressure by adding the existing pressure of the atmosphere. The three basic measures of fluid heaviness are: sand To calculate liquid specific gravity, divide density i pounds per gallon by ____: or in pounds per cubic foot by. The specific gravity of a gas is its density divided by the density of —____ When heaviness is measured in “API, larger numbers indicate liquids with _______ densities. 53 higher temperature Psic inches, millimeters millimeters; PSIA 760 29.9 147 absolute density specific gravity CAP 8.33 62.4 air Section 3 The Behavior of Gases — Section Three — THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES BASIC PRINCIPLES ‘The motion of molecules depends upon temperature. At very low temperatures, most substances are solid because their molecular motion is ( fast / slow ). When enough heat or pressure is added, increased molec- ular motion causes solids to. into the liquid state. When still more heat is added, or when pressure is reduced enough, molecules leave the liquid surface and become. 4. The motion of molecules, then, is greatest when a sub- stance is in the. phase, 5. Inagas: the heat motion of molecules is ( great / small ); the distance between molecules is ( great / small) Pressure and Volume 6. Because of the distance between molecules, a gas can be into a smaller volume 7. gas is compressed by forcing its closer 8 together. Compression requires energy. GAS Energy is being ( added to / removed from ) this gas. 54 slow melt, or change gases, or vapor gaseous, or gas, or vapor great great compressed molecules added to _ 10. " 12. 13, 14 15, 16. 17. 18. 19. 2 Gas pressure is caused by the impact of gas molecules with the walls of the container. When a gas is compressed, its molecules are forced to ‘occupy a smaiier ‘This means that the impact of the gas molecules is con- centrated on a ( larger / smaller ) area, In other words, forcing a gas to occupy a smaller volume increases the of the gas. If gas is expanded into a larger container, the distance between gas molecules will increase, and the energy of the molecules will be distributed over a larger area as the ‘This means that gas pressure will gas expands into the larger volume Expanding a gas ( increases / decreases ) its volume and (increases / decreases ) its pressure. Another way of saying this is that as the volume of the gas increases, the pressure of the gas. ‘Compression increases the ___ of a gas and decreases gas Gas pressure increases as volume Gas pressure decreases as volume This relationship between gas pressure and gas volume is called an inverse relationship. When one of these two gas variables changes one way, the other variable changes in ( the same / the opposite } way. In an inverse relationship, when one variable goes up, the other variable goes ( up/ down ). ‘And when one variable goes down, the other variable goes ‘This inverse relationship is the relationship between gas. ‘and gas. 55 volume, or space smatler Pressure decrease, or drop increases decreases decreases pressure volume decreases increases ‘the opposite down up pressure, volume 22, 23. 24, ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Volume When you heat gas molecules, they move faster. ° 02%, ° ° o8Soe, ° ° ° ° Poe ° ° ° ° Ld . , If the gas is not restricted, it ( expands / contracts ) when expands itis heated This means simply that heat causes molecules to move outward. If the gas is free to expand, it will occupy a larger when heat is added. volume, or space A gas trapped in a sealed container is not able to expand. The gas in this cylinder ( can/ cannot ) expand, cannot 56 27. 28. 3 As the gas in the cylinder is heated, the molecules move faster. They strike each other and the cylinder wall ( more / less ) often and the pressure in the cylinder ( increases / decreases ) Heating gas in a closed container increases the of the gas. The pressure of a gas in an open container cannot be increased, since some of the ges will escape into the surrounding atmosphere. if gas is heated in an open container, the of the gas remains the same, but the gas expands into a larger ‘Suppose gas is in a container that can expand If the gas is heated and allowed to expand, pressure stays. the same, but the of the gas increases. If pressure is held constant, heating a gas increases its, But, if volume is held constant, heating a gas incre: its Combustion gas turbines use the principle of heating gas 10 expand its volume. The gas turbine first compresses air to increase its Then the air in the turbine the same time. The air is heated to expand its maintaining a constant pressure. expanded and heated at while 87 more increases pressure pressure volume volume volume pressure pressure volume 33. at. This means that the turbine has stored a larger amount of usable energy. Both heating and compression increase the of a gas. Ita gas is cooled, its molecules move slower. In a constant volume container, the pressure of a gas when heat is removed. But, if the gas is at a constant pressure, its. will decrease when heat is removed. In other words, when a gas is at a constant pressure, heat volume and cooling volume. When a gas has a constant volume, heat increases and cooling decreases In each of these cases, suppose you change one gas variable and hold one variable constant. What will happen to the third variable? PRESSURE = TEMPERATURE VOLUME hold constant increase hold constant decrease — increase hold constant decrease hold constant holdconstant —_— increase ——_———___holdconstant decrease You can see that pressure and volume are inversely related gas variables. ‘That is, when one of these variables increases, the other variable On the other hand, temperature and volume are directly related gas variables. When temperature changes, gas volume changes in ( the same / the opposite ) way, if pressure remains the same. Temperature and pressure are also directly related variables. When volume remains the same, gas temperature and Pressure change in ( the same / the opposite ) direction. 58 energy, or pressure decreases volume increases; decreases pressure; pressure increases decreases increases decreases decreases increases decreases the same. the same PROBLEMS IN GAS MEASUREMENT 42. This cube is filled with gas at atmospheric pressure and existing temperature GAS . co a . The volume of the gas in the cube is one cubic foot 43. If 1000 of these one foot cubes contained gas, the total volume of the gas would be cubic feet. 1000 44. One cubic toot is abbreviated 1 CF. 1000 CF is abbreviated 1 MCF. Mis an abbreviation for thousand, or 1000 45. MM is one thousand times one thousand, or one mi 1 MMCF of gas is one cubic feet of gas. million 48. MMis also written M2, or Mt 1 MECF gas is one million cubic feet 47. Write the abbreviations for these gas measurement units. NUMBER ABBREVIATION 500 cubic feet

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