The Principles of Level Measurement

October 1, 2000 By: Gabor Vass, Princo Instruments, Inc.

With the wide variety of approaches to level measurement and as many as 163 suppliers
offering one or more types of level-measuring instrument, identifying the right one for your
application can be very difficult. In recent years, technologies that capitalized on microprocessor
developments have stood out from the pack. For example, the tried-and-true technique of
measuring the head of a liquid has gained new life thanks to “smart” differential pressure (DP)
transmitters. Today’s local level-measuring instruments can include diagnostics as well as
configuration and process data that can be communicated over a network to remote monitoring
and control instrumentation. One model even provides local PID control. Some of the most
commonly used liquid-level measurement methods are:
• RF capacitance

• Conductance (conductivity)

• Hydrostatic head/tank gauging

• Radar

• Ultrasonic

Before you can decide which one is right for your

application, however, you need to understand how each
works and the theory behind it. (Each method has its
own abbreviations, so you may find the sidebar,
“Abbreviations for Common Flow Sensing
Terminology,”, a useful reference during the discussions
that follow.)

RF Capacitance

RF (radio frequency) technology uses the electrical

characteristics of a capacitor, in several different
configurations, for level measurement. Commonly
referred to as RF capacitance or simply RF, the method
is suited for detecting the level of liquids, slurries, Photo 1. This view of a typical RF
granulars, or interfaces contained in a vessel. Designs are capacitance probe shows the
available for measuring process level at a specific point, electronic chassis enlarged to twice
at multiple points, or continuously over the entire vessel the size of its housing.
height. Radio frequencies for all types range from 30
kHz to 1 MHz.

Capacitance Measurement Theory. All RF level systems make use of enhancements of the same
capacitance-measuring technique, and the same basic theory underlies them all. An electrical
capacitance (the ability to store an electrical charge) exists between two conductors separated by
a distance, d, as shown in Figure 1. The first conductor can be the vessel wall (plate 1), and the
second can be a measurement probe or electrode (plate 2). The two conductors have an effective
area, A, normal to each other. Between the conductors is an insulating medium—the
nonconducting material involved in the level measurement.

The amount of capacitance here is determined not only by the spacing and area of the
conductors, but also by the electrical characteristic (relative dielectric constant, K) of the
insulating material. The value of K affects the charge storage capacity of the system: The higher
the K, the more charge it can build up. Dry air has a K of 1.0. Liquids and solids have
considerably higher values, as shown in Table 1.

Abbreviations for Common Flow Sensing Terminology

Abbreviation
Term Related Technology
s
RF capacitance
Admittance
Radar or microwave
A Amplitude modulated
RF capacitance
AM Capacitance
Radar or microwave
C Frequency-modulated
Radar or microwave
FMCW continuous wave
Radar or microwave
FM Frequency modulated
Hydrostatic head
gauging
GWR Guided wave radar
Hydrostatic head
H Head or hydrostatic head
gauging
HTG Hydrostatic tank gauging
capacitance
I RF Impedance
capacitance
K RF Relative dielectric
Hydrostatic head
constant
gauging
LT
Level transmitter
Hydrostatic head
P
gauging
Pressure
DP
Hydrostatic head
Differential pressure
gauging
PT
Pressure transmitter
Hydrostatic head
R RF
gauging
Resistance
RF RF
capacitance
Radio frequency
TT
capacitance
Temperature transmitter
TDR
Hydrostatic head
Time-domain
gauging
reflectometer
Radar or microwave
The capacitance for the basic capacitor arrangement shown in Figure 1 can be computed from
the equation:

C = E (K A/d) (1)

where:

C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)

E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free

space

K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material

A = effective area of the conductors Figure 1. Basic capacitors all share

the same principle of operation.
d = distance between the conductors

To apply this formula to a level-measuring system, you must assume that the process material is
insulating, which, of course, is not always true. A bare, conductive, sensing electrode (probe) is
inserted down into a tank (see Figure 2,) to act as one conductor of the capacitor. The metal wall
of the tank acts as the other. If the tank is nonmetallic, a conductive ground reference must be
inserted into the tank to act as the other capacitor conductor.
TABLE 1
With the tank empty, the insulating medium between the
two conductors is air. With the tank full, the insulating
material is the process liquid or solid. As the level rises Dielectric Constants of Sample
in the tank to start covering the probe, some of the Substances
insulating effect from air changes into that from the
Substance Value
process material, producing a change in capacitance
between the sensing probe and ground. This capacitance
Isopropyl alcohol 18.3
is meas ured to provide a direct, linear meas urement of
tank level.
Kerosene 1.8
As shown in Figure 2, the electrode sensor, or probe,
Kynar 8.0
connects directly to an RF level transmitter, which is
mounted outside the tank. In one design, with the probe
Mineral oil 2.1
mounted vertically, the system can be used for both
continuous level measurement and simultaneous
Pure water 80
multipoint level control. Alternatively, for point level
measurement, one or more probes can be installed
horizontally through the side of the tank; Figure 2 shows Sand 4.0
this type being used as a high-level alarm. Photo 1 shows
a typical probe assembly with an enlarged view of the Sugar 3.0
microprocessor-based transmitter that fits in the housing;
in use, its digital indicator faces up. Trans mission of the Teflon 2.0
level-measurement signal can take several forms, as can the in strument that receives the signal
at either a local or a remote location.

Referring to Figure 2, the transmitter output is 4–20 mA

DC plus optional HART Protocol for remote diagnostics,
range change, dry calibration, and so on. The instrument
receiving the signal can be a distributed control system
(DCS), a programmable logic controller (PLC), a
Pentium III PC, or a strip or circular chart recorder.

When the process material is conductive, the sensing

probe is covered with an insulating sheath such as Teflon
or Kynar. The insulated probe acts as one plate of the
capacitor, and the conductive process material acts as the
other. The latter, being conductive, connects electrically
to the grounded metallic tank. The insulating medium or Figure 2. In the RF capacitance
dielectric for this application is the probe’s sheath. As method of liquid level measurement,
the level of conductive process material changes, a the electrode sensor connects directly
proportional change in capacitance occurs. Note that this to an RF transmitter outside the tank.
measurement is unaffected by changes in the temperature
or exact composition of the process material.

RF Impedance or RF Admittance. When another electrical characteristic, impe dance, enters the
picture, the result is further refinements in RF level measurement. Offering improved reliability
and a wider range of uses, these variations of the basic RF system are called RF admittance or
RF impedance. In RF or AC circuits, impe dance, Z, is defined as the total opposition to current
flow:

Z = R + 1/ j 2 p f C (2)

where:

R = resistance in ohms

j = square root of minus 1 (–1)

p = the constant 3.1416

f = measurement frequency (radio frequency for RF measurement)

C = capacitance in picofarads

An RF impedance level-sensing instrument measures this total impedance rather than just the
capacitance. Some level-meas uring systems are referred to as RF admittance types. Admittance,
A, is defined as a measure of how readily RF or AC current will flow in a circuit and is therefore
the reciprocal of impedance (A = 1/Z). Thus, there is no basic difference between the RF
impedance and RF admittance as a level-measurement technology.

In some cases, the process material tends to build up a coating on the level-sensing probe. In
such cases, which are not uncommon in level applications, a significant meas urement error can
occur because the instrument measures extra capacitance
and resistance from the coating buildup. As a result, the
sensor reports a higher, and incorrect, level instead of the
actual tank level.

Note that the equation for impedance includes resistance,

R. The RF impedance method can be provided with
specific circuitry capable of measuring the resistance and
capacitance components from the coating and the
capacitive component due to the actual process material
level. The circuitry is designed to solve a mathematical Figure 3. In the conductive type of
relationship electronically, thereby producing a 4–20 mA level measurement, two dual-tip
current output that is proportional only to the actual level probes detect the maximum and
of the proc ess material. It is virtually unaffected by any minimum levels in a tank.
buildup of coating on the sensing probe, enabling an RF
system to continue functioning reliably and accurately.

Conductance

The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the electrical conductance of
the measured material, which is usually a liquid that can conduct a current with a low-voltage
source (normally <20 V). Hence the method is also referred to as a conductivity system.
Conductance is a relatively low-cost, simple method to detect and control level in a vessel.

One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip probe that eliminates the need
for grounding a metal tank. Such probes are generally used for point level detection, and the
detected point can be the interface between a conductive and nonconductive liquid.

Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes

that detect maximum and minimum levels. When the
level reaches the upper probe, a switch closes to start the
discharge pump; when the level reaches the lower probe,
the switch opens to stop the pump.

Hydrostatic Head

One of the oldest and most common methods of

measuring liquid level is to measure the pressure exerted
by a column (or head) of liquid in the vessel. The basic Figure 4. The hydrostatic head, or
relationships are: differential pressure, method can add
measurements (at left) for hydrostatic
tank gauging (HTG).
P = mHd

or:

H = mP/d (3)

where, in consistent units:

P = pressure

m = a constant

H = head

d = density

P is commonly expressed in pounds per square inch; H, in feet; and d, in pounds per cubic feet;
but any combination of units can be used, so long as the m factor is suitably adjusted.

The density of a liquid varies with temperature. For the highest precision in level measurement,
the density must therefore be compensated for or expressed with relation to the actual
temperature of the measured liquid. This is the case with hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG)
described below.

For decades, DP-type instruments—long before the DP cell—were used to measure liquid level.
Orifice meters, originally designed to measure differential pressure across an orifice in a
pipeline, readily adapted to level measurement. Today’s smart DP transmitters adapt equally well
to level measurements and use the same basic principles as their precursors. With open vessels
(those not under pressure or a vacuum), a pipe at or near the bottom of the vessel connects only
to the high-pressure side of the meter body and the low-pressure side is open to the atmosphere.
If the vessel is pressurized or under vacuum, the low side of the meter has a pipe connection near
the top of the vessel, so that the instrument responds only to changes in the head of liquid (see
Figure 4).

DP transmitters are used extensively in the process industries today. In fact, newer smart
transmitters and conventional 4– 20 mA signals for communications to remote DCSs, PLCs, or
other systems have actually resulted in a “revival” of this technology. Problems with dirty liquids
and the expense of piping on new installations, however, have opened the door for yet newer,
alternative methods.

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging. One growing, specialized application for systems that involve
hydrostatic measurements is hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG). It is an emerging standard way to
accurately gauge liquid inventory and to monitor transfers in tank farms and similar multiple-
tank storage facilities. HTG systems can provide accurate information on tank level, mass,
density, and volume of the contents in every tank. These values can also be networked digitally
for multiple remote access by computer from a safe area.
Figure 4 shows a simplified system that incorporates
only one pressure transmitter (PT) with a temperature
transmitter (TT) and makes novel use of a level
transmitter (LT) to detect accumulation of water at the
bottom of a tank. Mass (weight) of the tank’s contents
can be calculated from the hydrostatic head (measured
by PT) multiplied by the tank area (obtained from a
lookup table). The liquid’s temperature-density
relationship can be used to calculate the volume and
level, provided the tank is not under pressure. Data fed Figure 5. Radar (microwave) level
into a computer system make it possible for all measurement can use either of two
calculations to be automatic, with results continuously types of antenna construction at the
available for monitoring and accounting purposes. top of vessel.

The level transmitter, with its probe installed at an angle

into the bottom portion of the tank, is an innovative way to detect accumulation of water,
separated from oil, and to control withdrawal of product only. Moreover, by measuring the
water-oil interface level, the LT provides a means of correcting precisely for the water level,
which would incorrectly be measured as product.

Though the DP transmitter is most commonly used to measure hydrostatic pressure for level
measurement, other methods should be mentioned. One newer system uses a pressure transmitter
in the form of a stainless steel probe that looks much like a thermometer bulb. The probe is
simply lowered into the tank toward the bottom, supported by plastic tubing or cable that carries
wiring to a meter mounted externally on or near the tank. The meter displays the level data and
can transmit the information to another receiver for remote monitoring, recording, and control.

Another newer hydrostatic measuring device is a dry-cell transducer that is said to prevent the
pressure cell oils from contaminating the process fluid. It incorporates special ceramic and
stainless steel diaphragms and is apparently used in much the same way as a DP transmitter.

Radar or Microwave

Radar methods of level measurement are sometimes referred to as microwave types. Both use
electromagnetic waves, typically in the microwave X-band (10 GHz) range. This technology is
being adapted and refined for level measurement, so you should check out the latest offerings.
Most applications have been designed for continuous level measurement.

Basically, all types operate on the principle of beaming microwaves downward from a sensor
located on top of the vessel. The sensor receives back a portion of the energy that is reflected off
the surface of the measured medium. Travel time for the signal (called the time of flight) is used
to determine level. For continuous level meas urement, there are two main types of noninvasive
systems, as well as one invasive type that uses a cable or rod as a wave guide and extends down
into the tank’s contents to near its bottom.
One type of noninvasive system uses a technology called
frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW). From
an electronic module on top of the tank, a sensor
oscillator sends down a linear frequency sweep, at a
fixed bandwidth and sweep time. The reflected radar
signal is delayed in proportion to the distance to the level
surface. Its frequency is different from that of the
transmitted signal, and the two signals blend into a new
frequency proportional to distance. That new frequency
is converted into a very accurate measure of liquid level.

The sensor outputs a frequency-modulated (FM) signal

that varies from 0 to ~200 Hz as the distance ranges from
0 to 200 ft (60 m). An advantage of this technique is that
the level-measurement signals are FM rather than AM,
affording the same advantages that radio waves offer.
Most tank noise is in the AM range and does not affect
the FM signals.
Figure 6. In continuous ultrasonic
level measurement, a transducer
mounted at the top of the tank sends
bursts of waves downward onto a
material to determine its level.

The second noninvasive technology, pulsed radar or pulsed time-of-flight, operates on a principle
very similar to that of the ultrasonic pulse meth od. The radar pulse is aimed at the liquid’s
surface and the transit time of the pulse’s re turn is used to calculate level. Because pulse radar is
lower power than FMCW, its performance can be
affected by obstructions in the tank as well as foam and
low-dielectric materials (K < 2).

Antennas for the noninvasive methods come in two

designs: parabolic dish and cone. Sche matically, Figure
5 shows that the parabolic dish antenna tends to direct
the signals over a wider area while the cone tends to
confine the signals in a narrower downward path. The
choice of one or the other, and its diameter, depends on Figure 7. Not every level
application factors such as tank obstructions that may measurement technique is suitable
serve as reflectors, the presence of foam, and turbulence for a given application.
of the measured fluid.

Guided-wave radar (GWR) is an invasive method that

uses a rod or cable to guide the micro wave as it passes
down from the sensor into the material being measured
and all the way to the bottom of the vessel. The basis for
GWR is time-domain reflectometry (TDR), which has
been used for years to locate breaks in long lengths of
cable that are underground or in building walls. A TDR
generator develops more than 200,000 pulses of
electromagnetic energy that travel down the waveguide
Figure 8. The initial cost for five
and back. The dielectric of the measured fluid causes a
continuous and point level-
measurement technologies varies.
change in impedance that in turn develops a wave reflection. Transit time of pulses down and
back is used as a measure of level.

The waveguide affords a highly efficient path for pulse travel so that degradation of the signal is
minimized. Thus, extremely low dielectric materials (K < 1.7 vs. K = 80 for water) can be
effectively measured. Further, because the pulse signals are channeled by the guide, turbulence,
foams, or tank obstructions should not affect the meas urement. GWR can handle varying
specific gravity and media buildup or coatings. It is an invasive method, though, and the probe or
guide may be damaged by the blade of an agitator or the corrosiveness of the material being
measured.

Ultrasonic and Sonic

Both ultrasonic and sonic level instruments operate on the basic principle of using sound waves
to determine fluid level. The frequency range for ultrasonic methods is ~20–200 kHz, and sonic
types use a frequency of 10 kHz. As shown in Figure 6, a top-of-tank mounted transducer
directs waves downward in bursts onto the surface of the material whose level is to be measured.
Echoes of these waves return to the transducer, which performs calculations to convert the
distance of wave travel into a measure of level in the tank. A piezoelectric crystal inside the
transducer converts electrical pulses into sound energy that travels in the form of a wave at the
established frequency and at a constant speed in a given medium. The medium is normally air
over the material’s surface but it could be a blanket of nitrogen or some other vapor. The sound
waves are emitted in bursts and received back at the transducer as echoes. The instrument
measures the time for the bursts to travel down to the reflecting surface and return. This time will
be proportional to the distance from the transducer to the surface and can be used to determine
the level of fluid in the tank. For practical applications of this method, you must consider a
number of factors. A few key points are:

• The speed of sound through the medium (usually air) varies with the medium’s temperature.
The transducer may contain a temperature sensor to compensate for changes in operating
temperature that would alter the speed of sound and hence the distance calculation that
determines an accurate level measurement.

• The presence of heavy foam on the surface of the material can act as a sound absorbent. In
some cases, the absorption may be sufficient to preclude use of the ultrasonic technique.

• Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause fluctuating readings. Use of a damping adjustment
in the instrument or a response delay may help overcome this problem.

To enhance performance where foam or other factors affect the wave travel to and from the
liquid surface, some models can have a beam guide attached to the transducer.

Ultrasonic or sonic methods can also be used for point level measurement, although it is a
relatively expensive solution. An ultrasonic gap technique is an alternative way to measure point
level with low-viscosity liquids. A transmit crystal is activated on one side of a “measurement
gap” and a receive crystal listens on the opposite side. The signal from the receive crystal is
analyzed for the presence or absence of tank contents in the meas urement gap. These noncontact
devices are available in models that can convert readings into 4–20 mA outputs to DCSs, PLCs,
or other remote controls.

Selecting the Best Method

Figures 7 and 8 summarize some guidelines that will help you select the right level measurement
method for your application. Remember, however, that initial cost is only one consideration—a
low initial cost may be far outweighed by high maintenance costs or loss of accuracy over time.

Suppliers often provide recommendations if you specify your needs, usually by filling out a
form. Five types of information commonly define the level-measuring instrument or system
needed:

• Process material. Give the generic name of the material, such as a 5% sodium hydroxide
solution.

• Material characteristics. Specify whether you need to measure a liquid, slurry, solid, interface,
granular, or powder. Give values of the material’s dielectric constant, K, conductivity in
microsiemens per centimeter (mS/cm), viscosity in centipoise (cP), and density in pounds per
cubit foot (lb./ft.3). Also describe consistency in such terms as “watery,” “oily,” “like a batter,”
or “like molasses.” If this information is not available, send the supplier a sample for evaluation.

• Process information. Give values of the normal temperature and pressure, as well as the
minimum and maximum. If turbulence is present, indicate its degree as light, medium, or heavy.
Describe vessel material: Is it metallic, nonmetallic, or lined? Give materials of construction of
wetted materials, for example 316 stainless, Kynar, Teflon, or other. Describe area classification:
nonhazardous, hazardous (list them), or corrosive (list them too).

• Vessel function. Describe the main function of the vessel, such as sump, reactor, storage, water
separation at bottom, and so on. Provide a schematic diagram showing the vessel size and shape,
the probe mounting and location, 0% and 100% of level, and the presence of an agitator or other
internal obstruction.

• Power requirements. Specify from the following: 115 VAC, 230 VAC, 24 VAC, or loop-

powered (24 VAC, two-wire type).

With a firm grasp of the principles underlying the methods, you should be able to intelligently
choose among the options the supplier offers you.