Science Focus Student Book Answers

Answers to Science Focus 1 second edition Student Book questions
9.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Inner core 1400 km
Outer core 2300 km
Mantle 2800 km
Crust 8–64 km
Understanding
2 The layer of the Earth upon which all living things are found. It contains the land and seas.
3 The crust is brittle and has cracked into 12 major pieces called tectonic plates. These plates ‘float’
on the semi- molten rock of the asthenosphere. The energy released as these plates push causes
earthquakes.
4 a The inner core of the Earth is kept solid by the high pressure from the weight of the layers
above.
b The movement of iron and nickel in the core give the Earth its magnetic field.
c The crust is extremely thin compared to the volume of the Earth.
d No mines have been created deep enough to go into the mantle.
5 The magnetic field protects us by deflecting large doses of cosmic rays from the Sun, so we will
not burn to death due to the extreme temperature.
Applying
6 a Under continents
b Under oceans
7 a Mantle
b Inner core
c Core
d Outer core
e Crust, lower mantle, inner core
8 Earthquakes and volcanic activity
Analysing
9 100 km = 100 000 m = 10 000 000 cm
10 000 000 ÷ 5 = 2 000 000
It will take 2 million years.
Copyright © Pearson Australia 2010 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4425 1537 6
Evaluating
10 Advantages: Away from the plate boundaries, therefore safe from earthquake and volcanic
activity, and gives scientists the ability to study older rocks and possibly fossils.
Disadvantages: Away from plate boundaries, therefore cannot obtain a better understanding of
plate tectonics and its allotted activities.
11
12 a 55°C
b 185°C
c 350°C
d 685°C
13 a 1 km
b 2.4 km
c 5.4 km
d 8.4 km
Creating
14 100 km = 1 hour
Story will vary but the following information needs to be correct.
Crust takes 4.8 minutes (thinnest part) to 38.4 minutes (thickest part). Condition start with soil
and sand leading to solid rock, which will be brittle and crack easily. Temperature will start from
20°C and reach 500°C as they dig deeper.
Mantle takes 1680 minutes (28 hours). Conditions initially will be similar to the lower crust then
they will hit a narrow semi-molten (soft liquid) layer with extreme heat and pressure.
Outer core takes 1380 minutes (23 hours). Continually moving liquid metal with extreme heat.
Inner core takes 840 minutes (14 hours). This is a solid environment with extreme heat and
pressure.
15
9.1 Practical activity

Prac 1: The crust is like an eggshell
Common mistakes
Instruct students to squeeze the egg gently, as too much pressure will destroy the egg.
Possible results
The cracked shell of the hard-boiled egg models the movement of the tectonic plates on Earth.
Suggested answers
1 Only the shell is cracked (not the whole egg). The shell is still attached to the white of the egg
and the pieces of shell move against each other.
2 The pieces of shell were crumbled more at the edges, and some plates slid over or under others.
3 The shell will move, with one part of the crack going over another piece, giving the effect of the
tectonic plates floating and colliding.
4 Something very much like an earthquake.
9.2 Answers
Remembering
1 a Haematite, kaolin, limonite, charcoal, quartz, mica
b Crystal structure, colour and streak and hardness
c Granite, limestone, sandstone
2 Talc, calcite, apatite, quartz, diamond
Understanding
3 a Studies the Earth, its rocks, ores and minerals.
b Collects rock samples to study their properties and what minerals it contains.
4 a Natural substance in which particles are arranged in patterns and make up rocks, for example
quartz.
b Rocks are substances of Earth made from one or more minerals, for example granite.
c Ores are rocks or minerals that contain elements that can be extracted for profit such as
aluminium.
5 One of the properties used to identify a mineral.
6 Native minerals are made up of only one element whereas other minerals are made up of two or
more elements.
7 Ochres are powdered minerals used by native tribes for decorations and paintings.
8 The mineral is crushed to a powder using a grindstone. The powder is then mixed with egg, juice
or blood to make a paste.
9 a A mineral is any substance found in rocks.
b The two most common elements that make up the Earth are oxygen and silicon.
c Gold and silver are elements, not minerals.
d Mineralogy is the study of the structure and properties of minerals.
Applying
10 a Quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende
b Gneiss
11 a Haematite
b Bauxite
12 Azurite and chalcopyrite both contain copper.
13 a Yes
b No
c Yes
d Yes
14 a Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Orthoclase, Quartz, Topaz, Ruby, Sapphire, Diamond
b Diamond
Analysing
15 An ore can be both because rocks can be made of one mineral, like a native mineral, and this
mineral can be mined or extracted for profit.
Evaluating
16 When compared against Mohs’ scale of hardness, certain pastes could contain substances harder
than silver therefore scratching it.
Creating
17
18 Student responses will vary.
9.2 Practical activities

Prac 1: Making a crystal
Common mistakes
Allowing the copper sulfate solution to cool slowly will produce sufficient crystals for part B.
Possible results
Students grow a crystal and observe its structure.
Suggested answers
1 No more copper sulfate could be dissolved in it.
2 Student drawings.
3 Copper sulfate crystals should have obvious cleavage planes.
Prac 2: Observing rocks

Common mistakes
Some characteristics of rocks and minerals are too small to see. Hand lenses and stereo microscopes
will assist this exercise.
Possible results
Students examine the characteristics of various rocks and minerals.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on the samples available.
2 Student response.
9.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Igneous rocks form when molten material from the Earth cools and becomes solid. Sedimentary
rocks are made from sediments that have been compressed together. Metamorphic rocks are
igneous and sedimentary rocks that have been changed due to heat and/or pressure.
2 a Igneous (granite)
b Sedimentary (limestone)
c Metamorphic (slate)
3 20 000 years old
Understanding
4 Sediments build up in a layer, the pressure of material above squeezes the sediments, this
pressure reduces the air gaps and particles interlock. When water seeps through compressed
sediments it carries minerals to cement the particles together.
5 Labels: Magma (left-hand side), Sediments (right-hand side) and Metamorphic rocks (bottom
oval)
6 Granite boulders can be seen after layers of softer rock above it erode away.
7
8 a Small broken down bits of other rocks or remains of plants and animals.
b Compressing and cementing of sediments.
Applying
9 a Granite and basalt
b
Sedimentary rock Made from

Sandstone Sand
Mudstone Mud
Conglomerate Particles of different size
Limestone Remains of sea animals
Chalk Skeletons of tiny sea animals
Coal Compressed plant material
Metamorphic rock Parent rock

Marble Limestone
Gneiss Granite
Slate Shale
Schist Slate
Gneiss Schist
10 Lava cools more quickly than underground magma because it’s on the Earth’s surface and the
temperature is cooler. The slower the magma/lava cools, the larger the crystals because they have
more time to grow. The faster it cools, the smaller the crystals.
11 Weathering and melting.
Analysing
12 a Magma is molten rock below the Earth’s surface and lava is molten rock that reaches the
Earth’s surface.
b Intrusive rocks are igneous rocks that have squeezed (forced) themselves between other rock
layers, whereas extrusive rocks are those ‘pushed out’ onto the Earth’s surface.
13 a Igneous—basalt.
b Metamorphic—slate.
c Sedimentary—chalk.
d Metamorphic—gneiss.
e Sedimentary—mudstone.
f Igneous—granite.
g Igneous—greenstone.
14 Differences: palaeontologists study the history of the Earth in rocks, whereas geologists study
composition and structure of the Earth.
Similarities: work in laboratories and in the field. They find the age of substances and collect
specimens for analysis.
Evaluating
15 As the slightly acidic rainwater dissolves the calcium carbonate, the solution drips down from the
roof to the floor. So if it drips down along a stalactite the drops left on the floor will build up
directly beneath it into a stalagmite.
16 Coal is made from ancient plant material that has been compressed underground until it forms a
solid, so it is denser and contains more combustible material.
Creating

Prac 1: Crystals and cooling rates
Common mistakes
The cold water level in the 500 mL beaker may have to be adjusted to prevent the small beaker from
floating.
Possible results
The crystals were larger in the beaker that cooled slowly and smaller in the beaker that cooled quickly.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on the students’ results.
2 The size of the crystals should be different— larger in the beaker that cooled slowly, and smaller
in the beaker that cooled quickly.
3 Larger crystals are formed when more time is available for their formation.
Prac 2: Concrete evidence

Common mistakes
To avoid runny mixtures, instruct the students to add a little water at a time.
Possible results
Students make various types of concrete with two or more of the following combinations: cement,
sand, crushed rocks and water.
Suggested answers
1 To reduce the number of variables in the experiment and produce a fair test.
2 Depends on student results.
3 Concrete setting is a chemical change. Some components in the cement react to produce the glue
that holds the concrete together.
9.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Physical—rocks break into smaller pieces due to wind and water.
Chemical—chemical reactions cause rocks to dissolve or change their composition or properties
by substances such as acid rain.
Biological—animals scratching and breaking apart rocks.
2 a Physical
b Chemical
3 Wind, water from rain, creeks and rivers
Understanding
4 a Soil—rock that has been broken down into fine particles.
b Decomposition—breaking down of substances.
c Weathering—breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces.
d Sediments—the material that is formed during weathering and is transported during erosion.
5 Weathering is the process whereby rocks are broken down into sediments and erosion is the
process whereby these sediments are transported.
6 Water expands when it freezes.
7 Yes, because as the water freezes it expands, splitting the glass bottle. When you remove it from
the freezer you can cut yourself or water will seep out of the crack as it defrosts.
8 Student responses will vary. Two examples include:
i Mining has broken down rocks quickly because they sometimes use explosives.
ii Overgrazing and farming has removed grass allowing water and wind to erode the soil.
9 Acid rain can dissolve rocks such as marble, kill trees and make soil too acidic for plant growth,
leaving cleared land for wind and water to erode the exposed soil.
10 Ancient statues are made of marble and acid rain has slowly changed their shape. Parts that are
more likely to come into long-term exposure to acid rain due to collection, such as the base or
grooves like the elbow if arm is bent, will be more likely to change.
11 Factories and transport that release substances that contribute to acid rain are more likely to be
found in cities rather than the country.
12 They measure, record and find strategies to control harmful effects of human activities on our
environment.
Applying
13 a Waves, dramatic changes in temperature and wind.
b Animal scratching, seeds settling in cracks and tree roots forcing cracks wider.
14 Sulfur dioxide is released from the burning of fossil fuels from power stations and factories.
15 Choose to walk or ride a bike rather than drive. Use hybrid cars instead of current ‘normal’
petrol-operated cars.
Analysing
16 Both are broken-down rock particles however boulders are larger pieces compared to sand.
Evaluating
17 Individuals through their choices and actions, and governments by introducing laws and rebates.
Creating

Prac 1: You’re cracking me up!
Common mistakes
Allow the rock to cool completely in between trials.
Possible results
Heating and cooling caused the rocks to rapidly expand, contract and then eventually crack.
Suggested answers
1 Physical weathering.
2 Rapid temperature changes can crack rocks as they try to expand and contract rapidly and
different areas expand and contract at different rates.
3 Water can freeze in cracks in the rock. As the water expands it can force the rock apart and crack
it.
Prac 2: Acid rain

Common mistakes
For part 1 of the experiment, it is important to keep the rock pieces the same size. This will reduce the
number of variables and produce a fair test.
Possible results
Acid can break down some types of rocks more effectively than others. The smaller rocks have a
larger surface area to react with the acid faster.
Suggested answers
1 Chemical weathering.
2 Acid can dissolve some types of rock.
3 Acid attacks small pieces of rock more quickly than large pieces.
9.5 Answers
Remembering
1 Natural
2 a Oxygen
b Nitrogen
c Carbon dioxide
Understanding
3 a Humans live in the troposphere.
b Commercial aircraft travel in the stratosphere.
c Nitrogen is the most common gas in the atmosphere.
d Meteors burn up in the ionosphere.
e The ozone in the stratosphere protects us from UV-rays and gamma rays.
f The ozone layer is part of the stratosphere.
g Weather happens in the troposphere.
h Most of the air is in the troposphere.
4 a The temperature drops from an average of 17°C to −52°C.
b As you reach the top of the stratosphere the temperature increases to −10°C.
c The temperature in the mesosphere drops to about −93°C.
d The ionosphere is an area of increasing temperature.
5 a Oxygen (21%), carbon dioxide (0.03%) and nitrogen (78%)
b Oxygen—a gas that plants and animals breathe
Carbon dioxide—needed by plants for photosynthesis so they can make their own food
Nitrogen—dilutes concentration of oxygen in the air because pure oxygen is poisonous to
plants and animals
6 The greenhouse effect keeps the Earth at a temperature that can support life.
An example: The enhanced greenhouse effect could cause the Australian environment to
experience more natural phenomena, such as droughts and bushfires and the melting of glaciers
in Antarctica could cause flooding of our coastlines and cities.
8 If there is less snow, ski resorts will go out of business, which will affect our economy. Also, the
increased temperature may cause bacteria to grow faster, spreading more diseases.
9 a The statement is wrong because all the layers—troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere—make up the atmosphere.
b The troposphere is a section of the atmosphere.
Applying
10 a Thermosphere
b Mesosphere
c Ionosphere
11 Increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
12 a 0.7°C
b 0.3°C
Analysing
13 a The glaciers of Antarctica may melt due to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
b Melted polar caps.
c Flooding of coastlines and cities.
d Forest depletion—fewer trees means less carbon dioxide is used by plants, therefore
increasing its amount in the air.
Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide as a by product.
Rotting garbage releases carbon dioxide.
e Recycle garbage, create composts and use less technology that relies on the use of fossil fuels.
14 1880–1900
Evaluating
15 Air particles are held around the Earth by gravity.
Creating

Prac 1: An already wet planet
Common mistakes
Estimates of boxes that are half full will introduce errors.
Possible results
Students calculate the percentage of water on the Earth’s surface.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on student’s methods. Students may not have counted water on land if it was only a
small part of the overall results and would not really make a difference.
2 Yes, because it is harder to judge by this method, which has errors and inaccuracies.
3 Estimates of boxes that are half full or not and whether to count them will introduce errors.
Students may miss part of the total globe if not accurately mapping their progress. This is an
estimating process and will introduce errors.
Prac 2: An even wetter planet

Common mistakes
Estimation errors.
Possible results
Students calculate what would happen if the sea levels rose.
Suggested answers
1 Mostly small countries and islands.
2 Possible answers: Population would have to move from the coast; much farming land would be
lost; too much population for space available; small island nations would have to find new homes
in other countries; reefs would die in deeper water and ocean ecosystems would change; lots of
refugees, less food; destruction of property and lifestyle.
3 Various answers.
9.6 Answers
Remembering
1 Hurricane in the USA and typhoon in Asia
2 Tradewinds
Understanding
3 a Hot air rises and cool air drops.
b The equator receives more concentrated heat energy from the Sun than the Poles do.
c Hot air circulates to the Poles from the equator.
d Trade winds are global winds.
e All rocks heat up at different rates.
4 Clouds are cooled water vapour that has evaporated from the Earth’s surface. If condensation
forms drops that are heavy enough will fall as rain.
5 The water cycle is the flow of water throughout several layers of the Earth. Water undergoes
evaporation, condensation and precipitation as part of the water cycle.
6 Cyclones begin as intense low clockwise winds over a stretch of ocean.
7 The Poles receive less concentrated heat and light energy from the Sun, so if convection currents
didn’t carry the warm air to these areas they would be colder than the current temperature.
8 The temperature would be higher.
9 Plants take in water from the soil and release water via the stomata through transpiration
(‘sweating’).
10 Water in ecosystems is recycled. Humans release water in their sweat and urine, which becomes
part of the rain and rivers. This means, another human could consume the water once in a
scientist.
11 Meteorologists predict the weather and study the atmosphere so that we can have a better
understanding of the Earth’s climate.
12 i Bitumen road—hot air rises off the bitumen road and moves across to the forest where it will
drop once cooled.
ii The air will move from the land to the sea because land heats up faster than the sea.
iii The winds will move from the black rocks to the sand.
Applying
13 Altocumulus, Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulonimbus, Nimbostratus.
14 Land
15 Gliders will find thermals over areas that are dark in colour, such as bitumen roads.
16
Analysing
Evaluating
18 Snow is triggered by high floating dust particles and it could pick up pollution and other particles
as it forms in the atmosphere, making it dangerous to eat.
Creating

Prac 1: Making clouds
Common mistakes
Use the blue flame of the Bunsen burner.
Possible results
Students determine what conditions are needed to make clouds.
Suggested answers
1 Water particles as a gas.
2 It forms water droplets.
3 The water vapour starts to condense as it cools, and molecules are attracted together to form
droplets that float in the air.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 a False b True
c False d True
e True f True
g False h False
i True j True
k False l False
m False n True
o True p True
q True r True
s True
2 Sedimentary—made from broken-down particles compressed into layers.
Metamorphic—made from other rocks changed by heat and/or pressure.
Igneous—formed from molten material
3 Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust, troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere
Understanding
4 a Ionosphere
b Troposphere
c Outer core
d Stratosphere
e Troposphere
f Core
6 a Average temperature is likely to increase leading to an increase in phenomena like melted

glaciers, rising sea levels and natural disasters like drought, floods and bushfires.
b Increase in acid rain will lead to faster weathering of certain rocks.
7 Aborigines used greenstone for the head of weapons like axes and they used minerals called
ochres in powder form to make paints for decorations.
8 a Powdered minerals from weathered rocks used by native tribes are called ochres.
b The mineral is crushed to a powder using a grindstone. The powder is then mixed with egg,
juice or blood to make a paste.
9
Job title Main tasks Skills required

Geologist studying the composition and structure of keep accurate records and prepare reports
the Earth and its natural events like work safely in a number of different
weathering, erosion, earthquakes and environments
volcanoes
work alone and in a team
taking rock samples for analysis
Palaeontologist locating sites where fossils may be found work very carefully and patiently as it can
take years to remove fossils from rocks
carefully digging fossils out of the
sedimentary rocks have a good eye for detail
examining, classifying and describing work as a team member
fossils
Environmental measuring, recording and finding use written communication skills in
scientist methods to control the harmful effects of reports
human activity on the environment apply the scientific method to an
investigation
Job title Main tasks Skills required

work as a team
Greenhouse measuring greenhouse gas emissions communicate with people from many
engineer designing ways to do things better so that different backgrounds.
we can reduce the impact of humans on apply the scientific method to collect and
the environment analyse data
work as a member of different teams
Meteorologist using different scientific instruments to keep accurate records and prepare reports
forecast the weather use written communication skills in
recording and analysing many different reports
types of data analyse and interpret data
using different instruments to gather data
in the field
writing reports
Applying
10 a Talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite (any one from the list)
b Quartz, topaz, ruby, sapphire, diamond
11 a
12 Copper
13 Sedimentary: limestone—concrete, coal—fossil fuel.
Igneous: granite—bench tops, greenstone —Aboriginal tools.
Metamorphic: slate—roofing, marble—statues.
14
15
Analysing
16 Nimbostratus, cumulonimbus, stratus, stratocumulus, altocumulus, cirrus, cirrocumulus, cumulus
17 a Minerals are natural substance that form rocks.
b Minerals have a distinctive crystal structure.
c Pigment refers to the colour of the mineral in its compound whereas the streak is the colour of
the mineral in its powder form.
d Ores are minerals that are extracted from rocks for profit.
18 Calcite, quartz, topaz, corundum
19 a Sedimentary
b Sedimentary
c Igneous
d Sedimentary
e Sedimentary
f Metamorphic
g Igneous
Evaluating
20 Ice in Antarctica traps gas particles as snow falls. This gas can be studied and compared over the
years. The current level of carbon dioxide in the ice is above 350 ppm, whereas in the past it has
been between 200 and 275 ppm. This is a 31% increase since 1750.
Ice cores and the growth rings of trees show that the average temperature of Earth’s surface has
been increasing and it is at the highest level ever.
Coral bleaching occurs when sea temperatures increase above 30°C. Over the past decade there
has been an increase in the amount of coral bleaching.
The most convincing piece of evidence is the amount of carbon dioxide trapped within ice drills
of Antarctica.
8.1 Answers
Remembering
1 The imaginary line joining the North and South poles and the Earth spins around once every 24
hours.
2 23.5°
3 a 24 hours
b 365.25 days
4 a True
b True
c True
5
Month Southern hemisphere Northern hemisphere

season season
January Summer Winter
February Summer Winter
March Autumn Spring
April Autumn Spring
May Autumn Spring
June Winter Summer
July Winter Summer
August Winter Summer
September Spring Autumn
October Spring Autumn
November Spring Autumn
December Summer Winter
Understanding
6 The Earth’s tilt exposes some parts of the planet more to the Sun than other parts, as it orbits the
Sun. This means that some regions will receive more heat than others at different times of the
year.
7 a One of the two half spheres of the Earth.
b The longest day of each year is the summer solstice and the shortest day is the winter solstice.
c When day and night are of equal duration.
8 a There wouldn’t be seasons because we would receive the same amount of heat all year round.
b Day and night would still happen because the Earth would still rotate on its axis.
9 The summers would be warmer because the heat from the Sun will be more concentrated and the
winters colder because the Sun’s rays will have further to travel.
10 The equator is positioned along the middle of the Earth and is unaffected by the tilt, so the
temperature will be similar all year round. Since it receives a great amount of heat from the Sun it
will be warm all year round.
Applying
11 The equator.
12 a At the poles during winter.
b The pole furthest from the Sun during winter will receive little to no light, therefore it will
experience 24 hours of darkness.
13 Night
Analysing
14 Solstice applies to the longest and shortest days of the year, whereas equinox applies to the days
in a year when the amount hours of day and night in a day are equal, 12 hours each.
Evaluating
15 The Earth spins from east to west or anticlockwise.
Creating
16


Prac 1: A model Earth
Common mistakes
It is important to note that on one side of the Sun, the Earth will tilt towards the Sun, and on the other
side of the Sun, the Earth will tilt away from Sun. A common error is to keep the Earth tilting towards
the Sun all the way around the Sun.
Possible results
Students construct an Earth model to simulate night, day and the four seasons.
Suggested answers
1 The string keeps the Earth–Sun distance constant.
2 Days are longer and nights are shorter in ‘summer’ and vice versa in ‘winter’.
3 Fig 8.1.9 shows winter. Its opposite would be summer, and the positions where the globe is in
front of or behind the Sun would be autumn and spring.
8.2 Answers
Remembering
1 a 1969
b Neil Armstrong
c Buzz Aldrin
2 a No atmosphere
b 1/6 of Earth’s gravity
3 400 000 km
4 29.5 days
5 Two high tides per day
6 Galileo Galilei
7 At the Moon’s poles
Understanding
8 That the interior of the Moon is still hot.
9 The Moon takes about the same time to orbit the Earth as it does to complete one spin, so we
always see the same side of the Moon.
10 We see different parts of the Moon depending on its orbit around the Earth. The different views
are known as phases.
11 When the Moon passes into the shadow of the Earth.
12 a The bulge would be larger due to the greater attraction.
b The bulge would be smaller.
13 The side away from the Sun, therefore no light shines upon it.
14 The smaller the Earth the shorter the duration of the lunar eclipse because the Sun’s rays would
cause the Moon to pass through a smaller area of the Earth’s shadow.
Applying
15 Highlands are depressions caused by meteorite impacts. When these fill with lava from lunar
volcanoes the smooth solid areas formed are called maria.
16 The Moon’s gravitational pull on the Earth.
17 83.3
18 a Three-quarters of the Moon will be seen because the other quarter will be in darkness covered
by the Earth’s shadow.
b Part, not all of the Moon passes into the Earth’s shadow so part of the Moon will be seen.
19
20
Analysing
21 In a waxing crescent this part of the Moon is growing towards a full Moon, whereas a waning
crescent is reducing in size after a full Moon and is becoming a new Moon.
Evaluating
22 Unlike the Earth the Moon lacks an atmosphere, therefore the surface is more exposed and
meteorites will not be burnt up as they fly to the surface.
23 The Moon lacks ozone to act as a blanket that blocks out harmful UV rays from the Sun during
the day and to trap the heat in at night.
Creating
24
25

Prac 1: Crater formation
Common mistakes
Ensure that the layer of flour is deep enough to make a large range of impressions.
Possible results
Factors that affect the type of craters formed are; size, mass and speed of the spherical object and the
angle at which it hits.
Suggested answers
1 Size, mass and speed of the spherical object and the angle at which it hits.
2 No, the crater was a different size each time. The size of the crater depended on the height and
angle at which the rock was dropped.
3 Student answer.
Prac 2: Phases of the Moon

Common mistakes
Check the rising and setting times of the Moon to ensure it is visible when the students begin this
exercise.
Possible results
Students construct a flipbook to show the main phases of the Moon.
8.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Photosphere, chromosphere, corona
2 Ultraviolet radiation
3 Light and heat
4 Sun (Sol) 588 000 km
5 2 000 000°C
Understanding
6 Plants rely on the Sun for photosynthesis, the process whereby they produce glucose for energy
and oxygen. The oxygen is then needed by animals. Also many animals eat plants. This means
that if plants don’t survive then animals are unable to live and survive.
7 The Sun’s energy is stored within plants and animals. When plants and animals die over millions
of years they form fossil fuels. Oil is a type of fossil fuel.
8 Nuclear refers to the nucleus of atoms in the reaction and fusion refers to the process by which
these nuclei fuse (join) together.
9 Sunspots—depressions on the Sun’s surface that appear darker because they are cooler than the
surrounding gas.
Solar flares—come from sunspots and can reach heights of thousands of kilometres.
Prominences—larger types of solar eruptions.
Solar winds—streams of particles emitted by the Sun into space.
10 The Earth is warmed by the Sun’s radiation. As different parts of the Earth heat up by different
amounts, this creates a pressure difference in the atmosphere. This in turn creates wind, which
increases evaporation, leading to rain.
11 The Sun is made mainly of gas, which is less dense than the solid and liquid components of
Earth.
Applying
12 a Corona
b Photosphere
c Photosphere
13 10.9 mm
Analysing
14 a 2.59 × 1010 km
b 9.46 × 1012 km
c 18 000 000 km
d 1 080 000 000 km
15 9.46 × 1012 km
16 8.3 min
Evaluating
17 a Plants would stop photosynthesising and animals would feel cold.
b Plants would start to die. Animals such as ectotherms will start to die out.
c All life on Earth will have died.
Creating
18

Prac 1: The sunspot cycle
Common mistakes
Some students may need assistance in extrapolating the graph forward in time.
Possible results
Students use existing data to predict the number of sunspots up to the year 2013. The answer should
be 157 sunspots.
Suggested answers
Graphs and interpretation required.
8.4 Answers
Remembering
1 a Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury
b Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
c Mars, Mercury, Venus, Uranus, Earth, Saturn, Neptune, Jupiter
2 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
3 Student responses will vary. Examples:

Mercury Mariner I, Messenger
Mars Viking I and II
Pathfinder
Global Surveyor
Odyssey
Phoenix
Understanding
4 a Pluto
b Pluto’s gravitational is insufficient to sweep its orbit clear of debris.
c Asteroid Ceres and Eris.
5 ‘Earth like’ planet.
6 No probes have been out that far to complete an analysis of these planets.
Applying
7 a Neptune
b Venus
c Mars
d Saturn
e Jupiter
f Uranus
g Earth
h Mercury
8 a Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
b Uranus and Neptune
9 a Venus
b Uranus and Neptune
c Jupiter
d Mercury
e Venus
f Mars
g Uranus
h Venus
i Mars
j Venus
k Earth
l Saturn
m Neptune
n Venus
o Jupiter
p Venus
q Earth
10 a Mercury, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
b Earth, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
c Neptune, Uranus, Jupiter, Saturn
d Uranus
11
11 years old 12 years old
a 46 50
b 16 19.5
c 6 6
d 0.9 1
e 0.4 0.4
f 0.13 0.14
g 0.07 0.07
Analysing
12 600°C
Evaluating
An example: Temperature of the planets is too extreme to sustain life.
14 Scientists have found evidence of water, which could suggest Mars is habitable.
Creating
16 It would not be possible to accurately represent both the sizes of planets and distances because
the range of measurements is extremely vast and you wouldn’t be able to use a single scale.
17
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

0.056 0.815 1 0.107 318 95.184 14.54 17.15
Mass (times
that
of earth)
4878 12 103 12 756 6794 142 984 120 536 51 200 49 528
Diameter (km)
Lava Extensive One-third Iron oxide Liquid Liquid Frozen Liquid
flooded cratering, land two- hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen
plains and volcanic thirds water and helium and helium and helium
Surface smooth activity and
mountains mountain
trenches
Helium Carbon Nitrogen, Thin layer Hydrogen Thick layer Hydrogen Hydrogen
dioxide, oxygen, of carbon and helium of hydrogen and helium and helium
water and carbon dioxide and helium with high with high
Atmosphere sulfuric acid dioxide, winds winds
argon, water
vapour
0.38 0.9 1 0.376 2.525 1.064 0.903 1.135
Gravity (times
that
of Earth)
−170 to 430 460 22 −120 to 25 −150 −180 −220 −220
Surface
temperature
(˚C)
None None 1 2 Over 60 At least 30 At least 21 8
Moons
59 243 1 1.03 9 h 55 min 10 h 39 min 17 h 14 min 16 h 7 min
Period of
rotation
(Earth days)
0.39 0.72 1 1.52 5.2 9.6 19.2 30.1
Distance from
sun (au)
88 EA 225 EA 365.25 EA 687 EA 11.8 EY 29.5 EY 84 EY 165 EY
Time to orbit
Sun Earth
days (EA) or
Earth years
(EY)

Student needs to consider a scale, for example, 3 months = 2 mm.

Prac 1: Construct a model solar system
Common mistakes
Soft malleable plasticine will assist this exercise. If the plasticine is too hard, place on a paper towel
and microwave for a very brief time (too long and it melts).
Possible results
Students construct a model solar system to represent the relative sizes and distances of the planets.
Suggested answers
1 Student response.
2 Student response.
Prac 2: Classify the planets

Common mistakes
Misinterpretation of data.
Possible results
Students classify planets using different criteria.
Suggested answers
1 Pluto does not fit well into most classifications as it is rocky, yet sits with the outer gas giant
planets.
2 Dwarf planet.
Prac 3: Jumping on other planets

Common mistakes
Hold the metre ruler vertically with the zero end touching the ground.
Possible results
Students observe what a change in gravity does to a jump.
Suggested answers
1 a The Moon
b Jupiter
c Saturn
2 There would be less effort required to go in the opposite direction to the gravitational force.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
2 The ozone protects us from UV radiation and greenhouse gases maintain heat and water.
3 Day is the time taken for the planet to rotate on its axis and a year is the time taken for a planet to
orbit the Sun.
4 Equinox
5 Lunar
6 Galileo Galilei
7 a Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
b Earth, Mars, Venus, Mercury
c Uranus
d Mars because it has a similar period of rotation, similar surface temperature and tilt of axis
and evidence of water.
e Day = 1.03 Earth days (24.72 h)
Year = 687 Earth days
f Mars because it has a high iron oxide content.
Examples: Magellan (Venus)
Viking I (Mars)
9 The dwarf planet Pluto’s orbit overlaps Neptune’s.
Understanding
11 Energy for food, heat and light.
12 The nuclei of two atoms fusing (joining) together.
13 They are depressions that are slightly cooler than the gas surrounding them, so they appear
darker.
14 29.5 days
15 The gravity on the Moon is 1/6 of that on Earth and it is a force that pulls you towards the centre
of the celestial body.
16 Solar flares come from sunspots and reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometres
whereas a prominence is a solar eruption of glowing gas.
17
18 a Tides are the attraction of the oceans on Earth to the Moon. There are two high and two low
tides per day.
b Seasons happen as the Earth orbits the Sun and the Earth’s tilt exposes different hemispheres
during the orbit. For example summer in the northern hemisphere falls during June, July and
August whereas the southern hemisphere experiences summer during December, January and
February.
c Day is when the Earth receives direct light from the Sun. Night is when the Earth has no
direct sunlight because it is facing away as it rotates on its axis.
d The time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun on its elliptical path.
e The Moon passes into the shadow of the Earth, making it completely disappear.
f Formed by streams of particles emitted from the Sun into space.
19 Inca tribes saw the Milky Way as pathways to ancestors.

Aborigines used motions of the stars across the sky to predict season and food availability.
20 Mars, as it has similar hours in a day and surface temperature to sustain life.
Applying
21 No, because 2500 ÷ 400 = 6.25
22
Analysing
23 In the geocentric model the Earth is the centre whereas in the heliocentric model Copernicus
stated that the Sun is the centre and all the planets orbit the Sun. In the geocentric model the
Moon had an orbital path around the Earth as did all the other planets, but in the heliocentric
model the Moon is the only body to orbit the Earth.
24 Supporters: Copernicus, Kepler
Opponents: Aristotle, Ptolemy, Brahe
Evaluating
25 In their current state no planet except Earth could support life as we know it. No other planet has
running water and an appropriate atmosphere and temperature.
26 The Christian church believed the geocentric model because it was in line with biblical teachings.
27 The Sun because without the Sun there would be no heat, light or energy for life.
Creating
28
29
Distance from Sun Day length (Earth

Planet Year length
(million km) days)
Mercury 58 59 88 EA
Venus 108 243 225 EA
Earth 150 1 365.25 EA
Mars 228 1.03 687 EA
Jupiter 778 9 h 55 min 11.8 EY
Saturn 1400 10 h 39 min 29.5 EY
Uranus 2875 17 h 14 min 84 EY
Neptune 4500 16 h 7 min 165 EY
7.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Break, change shape, change speed, change direction
2 Spring
3 Newton (N), Sir Isaac Newton
4 Accelerate—go faster, speed up, quicken.
Decelerate—go slower, slow down, slow.
5 Forces are shown by arrows called vectors, where the size of the arrow indicates the size of the
force and the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the force.
Understanding
6 a Force is needed to change the direction of an object.
b A force is needed to slow down an object.
c A force is required to change the shape of an object.
d Objects speed up when they fall because there is a force involved.
e Twisting is caused by a force.
Applying
7 Push, pull, friction, air resistance, buoyancy
8 Gravitational force, magnetic force, electrostatic force
9 a Rugby players in a scrum, pushing a door open, typing
b Reeling in a fish, towing a car, stretching your muscles
c Turning your head, opening a bottle of soft drink, wringing the water out of a sponge
10 a Object falling, sprinter starting the race, rocket taking off.
b Car braking, plane landing, ball rolling along the grass.
c Ball is struck by a bat, diver hits the springboard, child falls off a swing.
d Can is crushed, car is dented, a bone is broken.
e A sponge is squashed, a tennis ball is hit, a balloon is compressed.
f A beanbag hits the ground, a cyclist brakes to a stop, you catch a ball.
11 a C
b D
c A
d B
12 a A, B, F, G
b D, E
c C
Analysing
13 a Elastic
b Inelastic
c Inelastic
d Inelastic
e Inelastic
f Elastic
g Inelastic
14 a D
b B and C
c A and D
15 The force required to stop a truck is much greater because the truck carries more mass.
Creating
16 Creative task.

Prac 1: Measuring forces
Common mistakes
A variety of spring balances with a range of 5 to 30 N will assist students in measuring light to heavy
objects.
Possible results
Using a spring balance, students measure the force applied to various items
Suggested answers
1 Factors may include size and mass of objects, and friction.
2 Depends on students’ results.
Prac 2: Build your own force-measuring device

Common mistakes
Ensure that the retort stand is clamped to the bench before applying weight to your measuring device.
Possible results
Students build a simple force-measuring device using everyday material.
Suggested answers
1 Calibration means to set the device to zero when no masses are attached. Calibration is
important to make sure all other measurements are accurate and that they can be compared.
2 Heavier objects may alter the calibration of the device due to the loss of elasticity in the spring.
3 The rubber band which will break, the coil spring which will squash and the wooden dowel will
hit the bottom of the measuring cylinder, or the hacksaw blade will break.
7.2 Answers
Remembering
1 Skateboard, a ball rolling along the ground, a paper plane, a coin sliding along a table top, bullet
shot into water.
2 Friction reduces the efficiency of machines by converting energy to heat. Friction causes wear
and tear on moving parts. Friction causes things to slow down. Friction may produce so much
heat that special cooling systems are required.
3 Ball bearings in a skateboard wheel, hovercraft going over water, oiled machine parts, bullet
travelling through air, the puck in ice hockey.
4 Driving a car, rock climbing, riding a bike, walking, roller blading, ice skating, rubbing your
hands for warmth, nail filing, licking an ice-cream, scratching your nose.
5 Skateboard, rollerblades, trains
Understanding
6 a Friction is caused by bumps and hollows of the surfaces catching on each other.
b Even smooth surfaces have small bumps and hollows.
c Friction causes moving objects to slow down.
d Friction is a contact force.
e Drag slows a moving object.
f ‘Streamlined’ is a word used to describe objects that cut through the air easily.
7 Traction is the strength with which two surfaces grip each other as a result of the frictional force
between them.
8 Door hinges squeak because the weight of the door forces the surfaces in the hinges together
tightly. Friction causes small vibrations that we hear as a high pitched squeak
Friction between the pencil lead and the paper cause small amounts of the lead to be deposited
where you’ve written.
Friction between the nail and emery board cause the jagged ends of the nail to wear away.
9 A, C, B
10 Grip is more important in wet conditions. In dry conditions, the weight of the car keeps the tyres
in contact with the road. However, wet conditions form a thin layer between the car and the road
that allow it to slide across the surface of the road.
11 a The object would slip out of your hand.
b The nail would slide out.
c The screw could come loose easily and the pieces of wood could rotate about freely.
d They would slide off the bed.
e They would come untied.
f You could not walk, you would slide.
g You could only stop by hitting something or pulling on something.
Applying
12 Car tyre, file, screw-top lid
13 a To improve the traction between their feet and the board in wet conditions.
b Skiing, snowboarding, windsurfing
Evaluating
14 a A snowboarder wants to reduce friction to go faster down the mountain, whereas a cyclist
needs the friction between the road and his tires in order to get more speed.
b Chalk increases the friction between the weightlifter’s hands and the bar, helping to lift the
weight.
c The chains help cut through the snow and ice to the surface of the road to get traction and
prevent it sliding.
Creating
15
Method Description
Lubrication A slippery material (the lubricant) is placed in between two surfaces to allow
them to pass over each other more easily.
Polishing Bumps and hollows are smoothed so that the surfaces can pass over each other
more easily.
Wheels and bearings Spherical or cylindrical objects placed in between two surfaces allow the
surfaces to roll over each other rather than slide.
Hovering A layer of air separates the two surfaces to reduce friction.
Streamlining The shape of the object is designed to make air or water flow more easily around
it.
16 Most likely the Egyptian used logs to roll the blocks of stone into place.
17 Creative writing task.

Prac 1: Measuring friction
Common mistakes
To make the test fair, all the shoes must have the same mass.
Possible results
Students measure the friction of objects on different surfaces.
Suggested answers
1 Any differences in the results can be attributed to the type of surface, not the mass.
2 A controlled variable.
3 Student answer.
4 Friction is a force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion.
Prac 2: Comparing friction

Common mistakes
Access to a wide variety of surfaces will assist this exercise.
Possible results
Rough surfaces have greater friction. A greater angle gives a greater downward force.
Suggested answers
1 The angle required to make the block slip increased as the roughness increased.
2 Rough surfaces have greater friction. Hence, the angle required to make the block slip increased
when the surface became rougher. A greater angle gives a greater downward force due to
gravity, giving the block more chance of moving.
Prac 3: Constructing roller ball

Common mistakes
Student-designed experiments should be assessed by the teacher for feasibility before carrying out the
experiment.
Possible results
Student design.
Suggested answers
Student design.
7.3 Answers
Remembering
1 a Kilograms, grams, milligrams
b Newtons
2 a Pulling
b Non-contact
3 The mass of the planet (or Moon etc.), the mass of the object, the distance the two are apart.
Understanding
4 a Weight is measured in Newtons
b Kilogram is a unit of mass
c Weight is a force
d The Moon has gravity
5 It means the mass is much less and the size is likely to be smaller
6 In space, an astronaut has less weight because the gravitational force in space is weaker.
However, the astronaut’s mass is the same regardless of the strength of gravity.
Applying
7 It would be the greatest at sea level and lowest at the highest point i.e. Mount Everest.
8 Throw something to a friend on the 5th floor of a building, jump over a car, rock climbing on a
very steep cliff face.
9 The force of weight pulls two objects together. There is an equal and opposite force on both
objects acting towards
each other.
10 1 kg of lead weighs the same as 1 kg of feathers because the mass of the two is the same. The
student is confusing mass with density.
11 a If you simultaneously drop two smooth, round objects from a tall building they will hit the
ground at the same time.
b Obvious exceptions to this are things like feathers, which have a very large air resistance.
However, in the absence of air these too would fall at the same rate.
12 a All planets
b Venus, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
c Mercury
d Jupiter
Analysing
13 Mass is a measure of how much matter an object contains, it is not a force and it does not depend
on the strength of the gravitational field. Weight is a measure of how much gravitational force is
being applied to an object. It is a force and it varies depending on the strength of the gravitational
field.
14 a 140 kg, 1372 N
b 140 kg, 1371 N
c 140 kg, 1148 N
d 140 kg, 1.6 N
15 They will always drop at the same rate.
Evaluating
16 The force of gravity attracts it to Earth
17 While lying in bed your spine and the cushioning between your vertebrae have a chance to relax
and expand. During the day they are compressed by the weight of your body, so you become
slightly shorter.
18 Because no weight is being placed on the spine it is able to expand making them taller. However,
they are also weaker because they do not have to apply the same sort of forces on their body
every day just to get around. As a result the muscles deteriorate.
Creating
19 Student design.

Prac 1: Falling objects
Common mistakes
Ensure that the falling objects fall onto something soft to reduce any damage.
Possible results
• Objects that catch the air fall more slowly than objects that do not.
• Objects that do not catch the air fall at about the same rate.
Suggested answers
1 Answers will vary depending on the selection of objects chosen.
2 Objects like feathers, sheets of paper and similar objects with a small mass and large surface
area. Their large surface area catches the air and experiences complex forces in a number of
directions.
3 Answers will vary. If any did, it is likely that they were more streamlined than the 50 g mass.
4 Distance is one of the variables that should be kept controlled.
5 Most objects fall at the same rate as a 50 g mass.
6 The loosely crumpled ball will drop straight but slowly. The tight ball will drop faster. The sheet
will usually drop slowest, fluttering instead of dropping straight down.
7 Answers will vary depending on the selection of objects chosen. The slowest object will have the
most air resistance for the same mass.
8 Objects that catch the air fall more slowly than objects that do not.
Objects that do not catch the air fall at about the same rate.
Prac 2: Measuring mass and weight

Common mistakes
Access to a wide variety of surfaces will assist this exercise.
Possible results
The weight of an object will be about 10 times the mass of the object.
Suggested answers
1 Student response.
2 Student response.
3 The weight of an object was about 10 (9.8 is also acceptable) times the mass of the object.
Prac 3: Testing strength

Common mistakes
experiment.
Possible results
Students design their own experiment to find the stretch and strength of various objects.
Suggested answers
Student design.
7.4 Answers
Remembering
1 a An object is not moving or it is moving but not changing speed or direction.
b An object is changing speed, shape or direction.
2 a The car travels in a straight line at a constant speed.
b The car accelerates or decelerates and/or changes direction.
3 The weight pushing down, the force of the chair pushing up.
Understanding
4 They are balanced if the are equal and acting in exactly opposite directions.
5 a Forces are balanced when there is no overall change in motion.
b Forces are balanced when the forces are the same size and acting in opposite directions.
c If I am sitting in a chair, the two forces acting on me are my weight pulling me down and the
force of the chair pushing upwards.
d A car travels at a constant speed when the force from the driving wheels balance the push
backwards from the air (we call this air resistance) as well as the friction between the road and
the wheels.
e An unbalanced force is needed if an object is to accelerate.
6 The motion of the bike is changing, therefore the forces must be unbalanced.
7 It is not moving so the forces are perfectly balanced. The size is 500 N and it is pushing towards
Tom.
8 Thrust from the engines, drag from wind resistance, the weight of the plane pulling it down, lift
caused by higher air pressure under the wings.
9 The air foil is curved on top and flat underneath. As it passes rapidly through the air, the air
passing over the top spreads out, causing a region of low pressure above the wing. The higher air
pressure below the wing tries to rush up and around the wing to equalise the pressure differences
giving the wing lift as it does so.
10 a Air moving over an air foil causes lift.
b The top part of a wing is longer than the bottom part.
c The faster-moving air has a lower pressure than the slower-moving air.
d An aircraft will take off only if the lift is greater than its weight.
e There is no overall force on an aircraft when it is cruising at altitude.
11 Lift and drag are both caused when the plane passes through the air. If it is not moving there can
be no lift or drag.
Analysing
12 The shape of helicopter blades will be similar to the shape of a plane’s wing, as they work on
similar principles. It may be tilted however to push the air down as it turns and give lift.
13
14 The faster a blade is moving through the air the more lift. If a helicopter is moving then the blade
moving in the direction of the helicopter will experience more lift, as its total speed is the speed
of the blade plus the speed of the helicopter. On the other hand, the blade moving in the opposite
direction will experience less lift, as its total speed through the air is the speed of the blade minus
the speed of the helicopter.
15 a Cannot say.
b The team of 4 students assuming the students are of equal strength.
c Cannot say.
d The team of 10 students assuming the students are of equal strength.
16 a The teams are balanced.
b The teams are balanced.
c The team of 6—although the two other teams have a total of 6 they are not applying a force in
exactly the same direction.
d The team of 5—the other two teams exactly balance each other.
e The bottom team of 3—the other 2 exactly cancel each other.
Evaluating
17 a The speed creates more lift under the air foil, as the air passes over it more rapidly.
b The wind provides extra lift in addition to that caused by the moving plane.
c Heavy aircraft need to attain greater speeds in order to achieve the lift necessary to overcome
their larger force of weight.
d The air is less dense on a hot day, so lift is reduced.
Creating
18
19
20

Prac 1: Tug of war #1
Common mistakes
Examine the strength of the rope before commencing the activity.
Possible results
Students examine balanced and unbalanced forces through tug of war.
Suggested answers
1 No-one will probably win because the forces were balanced assuming the students are of equal
strength.
2 The forces were unbalanced. The large team was able to apply a greater force moving the rope in
their direction.
3 The force against one person is unopposed.
Prac 2: Tug of war #2

Common mistakes
Ensure that the string is strong enough to withstand the force of the weights before commencing the
experiment.
Possible results
Students examine balanced and unbalanced forces.
Suggested answers
1 The washer did not move when the masses on each string were equal.
2 The forces are balanced in these situations.
3 The washer moved when the masses on each string were not equal.
4 Four masses exert more weight force than three masses, thus making the forces unbalanced.
There is a net or overall force in the direction of the most masses.
Prac 3: Wonky tower

Common mistakes
Plastic drinking straws will make a sturdier structure than paper drinking straws.
Possible results
Students design and construct a tall structure using drinking straws, pins and glue.
Suggested answers
1 Student response.
2 Gravity.
Prac 4: Creating lift

Common mistakes
A constant stream of air is required to create differential pressures.
Possible results
Air moves the fastest under the paper. Air moves the fastest between the ping-pong balls.
Suggested answers
1 Diagrammatic answers required for both paper and ping-pong experiments.
For paper experiment: Air is moving the fastest under the paper. The lowest air pressure is under
the paper where the air is moving the fastest. The paper moved downwards, as if being sucked
onto the bench.
For ping-pong experiment: Air is moving the fastest between the ping-pong balls. The lowest air
pressure is between the ping- pong balls where the air is moving the fastest. The ping-pong balls
move sideways, towards each other.
2 An air foil is pulled into an area of high-speed air, or lower pressure.
3 A force similar to lift has been generated. Calling it lift, however, would be inappropriate
because in neither example did the paper or ping-pong balls ‘lift’.
Prac 5 : Making an air foil

Common mistakes
The air flow of the fan should be kept horizontal.
Possible results
Students construct and test an air foil.
Suggested answers
1 Fast fan speeds would provide the most lift, as lift depends on airflow.
2 When the fan speed was increased, the air foil began to fly with more stability. At very high
speeds it can become unstable again.
3 Depends upon students’ results.
4 Should be when the wing is horizontal.
5 Depends upon students’ results.
6 Turbulent air flow can cause instability. The wing was sometimes very unstable when it had no
paperclips on it, making it very light and susceptible to buffeting by the wind.
7.5 Answers
Remembering
1 a It floats.
b It sinks.
2 Water tension. It forms a film or skin.
Understanding
3 a Buoyancy is the force that keeps a ship afloat.
b An iceberg stays afloat because its buoyancy balances its weight force
c A ship will sink if its weight is greater than its buoyancy
d Small objects will often float because of surface tension.
4 The less dense something is the more buoyant it is.
5 As the ship is loaded the water level rises. The weight of the ship increases and becomes less
buoyant.
6 When there is a hole in a ship, the air in the hull is replaced with water making the total density of
the ship more than the density of the water.
7 A steel submarine can change its total density using ballast tanks. When the ballast tanks are
filled with air, the total density of the submarine is less than water and it floats. When the tanks
are filled with water, the total density is greater than that of water and it sinks.
8 The crew must fill the ballast tanks with water to make it more dense than water.
Applying
9 a Buoyancy
b Surface tension
c Surface tension
d Buoyancy
e Surface tension
10 a LWNA-W
b LTF
c LW
Analysing
11 a Sink
b Sink
c Float
d Float
e Car oil—sink, cooking oil—float
f Sink
g Book—sink, sheet of paper—float
h Float
i Float
j Inflated balloon—float, deflated—sink if all the air is removed
Evaluating
12 The paper contains small pockets of air that make it less dense than water. As it becomes water-
logged these pockets become filled with water, making the total density greater than water and
the paper sinks.
13 Because ice is less dense than liquid water. They may also contain pockets of air that make them
even less dense.

Prac 1: Paper boats
Common mistakes
A paper boat will become quite soggy after a short while. Consider using aluminium foil instead.
Possible results
Students construct a paper boat and determine how much mass it can hold.
Suggested answers
1 Due to buoyancy.
2 The buoyancy force is not enough to balance the weight of the boat when too many paper clips
are added.
Prac 2: How do ships float?

Common mistakes
Ensure that the rubber stopper provides a tight seal in the conical flask.
Possible results
Students determine what happens to the total force on a ship as it is loaded.
Suggested answers
1 Depends upon student results.
2 The measured weight decreased due to the upward buoyancy force acting on the bottle. In reality,
the weight has not changed. The spring balance measured the total force on the beaker, which
equals weight minus buoyancy. This reading changes.
3 Diagrammatic answer. Diagrams should include an upwards arrow for buoyancy and a
downwards arrow for weight.
4 When the flask just sank, it was slightly more than half-full of water.
5 The buoyancy force will be insufficient to keep an object afloat when the object’s weight force is
greater than the force of buoyancy. This happens when the density of the object is greater than
the density of water.
Prac 3: A special case of floating

Common mistakes
The surface tension can be easily broken if the pin is pushed too hard. The pin will then sink.
Possible results
The pin floats on top of the water.
Suggested answers
1 The pin is made of steel, which is denser than water. The pin would therefore sink under most
circumstances, as it would break the surface tension and the ‘skin’ on top of the water.
2 The cohesive forces between the water molecules are strong and the pin is very light. The pin sits
on top of the water, as it does not have enough weight to break the ‘skin’ formed by surface
tension.
3 The surface tension can be easily broken if the pin is pushed too hard. The pin will then sink.
Prac 4: Sugar lumps and milk swirls

Common mistakes
Full-cream milk will be more effective in reducing the surface tension than reduced-fat milk.
Possible results
Student investigate how the surface tension of water can be altered.
Suggested answers
1 Reduced the surface tension.
2 The reduced surface tension drew the matchsticks and water towards it.
3 As the detergent attaches to the fat molecules in the milk it reduces the surface tension of the
water. The food dyes bind to the milk fat molecules that are still not affected by the detergent.
They therefore migrate with them as the detergent spreads across the milk. Hence, the colours in
the food dyes are moved around.
4 Low-fat milk does not work as well because the detergent relies on the fat in the milk to reduce
the surface tension. If very little fat is present, the detergent has limited molecules to which it can
attach.
Prac 5: Five cents worth of water

Common mistakes
The delivered amount of each drop of liquid will differ with each person and each dropper.
Possible results
Temperature affects the surface tension of all liquids.
Suggested answers
1 The shape is spherical as a result of the surface tension of the water.
2 The warm water produced the most drops. Temperature affects surface tension.
3 Yes! Temperature affects the surface tension of all liquids.
7.6 Answers
Remembering
1 Non-contact
2 Iron, nickel, cobalt
3 Iron
4 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
5
Understanding
6 a The north pole of a magnet will repel other north poles.
b Compasses are actually small magnets.
c The ends of a magnet are called its poles.
d The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field.

e Domains must be aligned for a piece of iron to be a magnet.
f The Earth has a magnetic field.
7 The domains, which are like tiny magnets, become aligned so that poles of the domains all point
in the same direction.
8 A magnetic pole is the end of a magnet where the magnetic field is the strongest.
9 A compass is a small magnet that is free to move. It naturally aligns itself with the Earth’s
magnetic field so that its ends point towards magnetic north and magnetic south.
10 The material can be placed in a strong magnetic field. The field must be strong enough to align
the domains of iron in the material.
11 Molten iron.
Applying
12 It is strongest at the poles and weakest at the centre.
13 Global positioning system.
14 a
Magnetic field is strongest at the poles.
b The field lines touch close to but not exactly at the North and South Poles. You might expect
to see an aurora close to the North or South Pole.
Evaluating
15 Ferromagnetic means that a substance is magnetic in the same way the iron is magnetic i.e. Ferro-
coming from the Latin word for iron Ferrum.

Prac 1: Attracted to magnets?
Common mistakes
A large variety of magnetic and non-magnetic will assist in achieving the desired outcomes of the
experiment.
Possible results
Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet and contain iron.
Suggested answers
1 Paperclip, nail
2 Zinc, aluminium, tin, copper, magnesium, rubber, cotton wool, plastic
3 They contain iron, cobalt or nickel.
4 Alloys of iron, cobalt or nickel.
Prac 2: Attracting and repelling

Common mistakes
Magnets are best stored in trays with divisions and keepers on the ends. This method will help keep
the magnets magnetised.
Possible results
The two magnetic poles on the magnet are north and south. The rule for attraction and repulsion of the
poles are like repel like and opposites attract.
Suggested answers
1 Like repel like. Opposites attract.
2 Where the magnetic field line enters and exits a magnet.
Prac 3: Magnetic fields

Common mistakes
Wrap magnets in cling wrap to stop the iron filings from sticking to them. Students can perform this
task over a tray to assist in retrieval of spilt iron filings.
Possible results
Students observe magnetic fields.
Suggested answers
1 The magnetic field will be strongest near the poles.
2 The field is weak far away from the magnet, particularly along its sides. Iron filings are less
attracted to those points.
Very few iron filings attach to the midpoint between the two poles and far away from the magnet.
3 The magnetic field becomes weaker further away from the magnet.
Prac 4: Sheilding
Common mistakes
Possible results
Students determine what blocks or shields a magnetic field.
Suggested answers
1 The paperclip moved either away from or towards the other magnet. This causes the paperclip to
‘wobble’ on its string.
2 The further the paperclip moved from the magnet, the weaker the magnetic field acting on it.
Hence, there was less attractive force. Eventually, the weight of the paperclip is greater than the
attraction. This is when the clip falls.
3 Metals (particularly iron and steel) will tend to block the magnetic field. Paper and plastic
should have limited effect.
4 The magnetic field still existed, but was not strong enough to hold the pin, or the pin was shielded
from it.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Push, pull or twist
2 Changes it shape, speed and/or direction
3 Add a lubricant, polish the surface, use wheels or ball bearings.
4 a True
b False
c False
d True
e False
f True
g True
h False
i False
Understanding
5 a Force—push or pull
b Spring balance—measures weight
c Friction—caused by rough surfaces sliding
d Newton—a unit of force
e Lubricant—reduces friction
f Heat—produced by friction
g Sandpaper—causes large friction
h Kilogram—unit of mass
i Balanced forces—forces that add up to zero
j Balance—Measures mass
Type of force Where it’s used How it works

Push Skateboarding Skateboarder pushes ground with foot to move forward.
Pull Fishing The fisherman turns the reel to pull the fish in.
Friction Filing nails The nail file causes friction between the nail and the file to
smooth the nail’s edge.
Gravity When sitting Gravity pulls you towards the Earth so you don’t float out of
your chair.
Magnetic Fridge magnet The magnetic force sticks the magnet to the fridge clamping
papers etc. in between.
Buoyancy Boating The buoyancy force balances the weight force of a boat to
keep it afloat.
7 Much of the energy in machinery is lost in the way of heat caused by friction. If this energy was
not lost, it could be used by the machinery to do more work.
8 Saliva and mucus lubricate the path from the mouth to the stomach.
9 Stroking a piece of iron repeatedly with a magnet. Aligning the iron with the Earth’s magnetic
field and tapping it gently. Placing it at the centre of a strong electromagnet.
10 For a piece of iron to be magnetic, its domains must be aligned. A magnet can be destroyed by
disrupting this alignment either by hitting it or heating it.
11 In between moving parts of a machine, to go faster when skiing, on a waterslide.
Applying
12 a Pull
b Magnetic
c Push
d Lift
e Surface tension
13 a Rugby scrum
b Repelling north poles of two magnets
c Towing a car
d Air resistance for cyclists
e Friction between tyres and roads

f Swimming with baggy clothes
g Falling off your chair
h Boat floating
i Mosquito walking on water
j Compass
14 a The Moon
b Mercury
c Venus
d Jupiter
Analysing
15 a Advantage
b Disadvantage
c Disadvantage
d Advantage
e Advantage
16 a 1372 N
b 140 kg
c 0N
Creating
17
6.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Energy is the ability to do work.
2 Chemical energy e.g. the energy stored in a battery or food.
Elastic potential energy e.g. the energy stored in a stretched elastic band.
Nuclear energy e.g. the energy stored in uranium nuclei used to power a nuclear generator.
Gravitational potential energy e.g. the energy that makes you fall when you go bungee jumping.
3 Anything that is moving has kinetic energy.
4 Heat, light, kinetic, electrical, gravitational potential.
5 The Sun and gravitational energy.
6 a Humans use the heat from the Sun to warm themselves and the light from the Sun to see.
Humans also convert the Sun’s rays to electricity using solar cells.
b Humans use energy from the Sun indirectly in the form of fossil fuels or through eating plants
and animals.
7 Heat energy, sound energy.
Understanding
8 a When you lift something you do work by converting the chemical energy in the food you’ve
eaten and stored in your fat cells to give the object kinetic energy. As you lift it higher
(against the gravitational force) you also give it potential energy.
b Gravitational potential energy.
9 Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it simply changes form. When energy changes from one
form to another (e.g. electrical energy changing to heat and light energy in a light globe) this is
called an energy transformation.
10 The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in the universe is
constant. It can be neither created nor destroyed.
11 Elephants, cows, sheep and horses are all examples of herbivores. They get their energy by
digesting sugars in plants. The sugars store energy as chemical energy. To create the sugars the
plants must first collect energy from the Sun in the form of light and then convert it to chemical
energy, stored in sugars via the process of photosynthesis.
12 Lions, tigers and dogs are examples of carnivores. They get their energy from the fat and protein
cells of other animals. If these animals are herbivores then the energy in their cells has come from
the sugars in plants, which store the energy absorbed from the Sun by the process of
photosynthesis.
13 When we say energy is lost, we mean that it has changed to a different form that is no longer
useful to us.
14 a Toaster: electrical energy → heat and light energy then sound and kinetic energy as the toast
is popped up. (Note: elastic potential energy in the spring is converted to sound and kinetic
energy. However, this mightn’t be obvious at first.)
b Light globe: electrical energy → heat and light
c DVD player: electrical energy → kinetic energy to move the disk and light energy in the form
of a laser for reading the disk and display. The movement of the disk can also cause heating.
d Car engine: chemical energy → heat, light, sound and kinetic energies. The energy is also
converted into chemical energy to recharge the battery and electrical energy to run lights etc.
Applying
15 Nuclear energy (which actually comes from the mass of the nuclei but is not discussed in the
chapter) is converted to sound energy, kinetic energy, heat, light, and various other forms of
radiation.
16 Plants absorb the Sun’s light and store it as energy in the form of sugars via the process of
photosynthesis. Solar panels use a different process to do a similar thing. Solar panels also absorb
and collect energy from the Sun and convert it to a different form. It may be converted directly to
electrical energy or may be stored as chemical energy in rechargeable batteries.
Analysing
17
Energy transformation Situation

A Chemical potential → heat and light Wood burning in a fire
B Light → heat Solar hot water heater
C Chemical potential → electrical + light and heat Torch
D Chemical potential → kinetic and heat Person running
E Gravitational potential → kinetic + sound (and heat) Cup falling off the bench
F Chemical potential → kinetic + gravitational potential Crane lifting steel girders
G Elastic potential → kinetic Jack in the box
H Kinetic → heat and sound Car braking
18 a Energy is lost in the form of heat energy caused by friction as the water falls down the pipes,
as the machine parts move across each other in the turbine and as electricity is passed along
wires. A very small amount is also converted to sound energy.
b Transformed.
c Electrical energy is converted to light, heat and sound.
Evaluating
19 Energy-efficient light globes last much longer than incandescent globes and are ultimately more
cost efficient. They are also much better for the environment as the electricity used to power
lights comes primarily from the burning of fossil fuels, which are a limited resource and pollute
the atmosphere.
Creating
20 Creative task.

Prac 1: Relighting candles
Common mistakes
Ensure the windows and doors are closed and fans are turned off. This will eliminate any breeze or
wind that may affect the vapour trail of the candle.
Possible results
When a candle burns, the wax vaporises and catches alight, releasing heat energy and light energy.
Suggested answers
1 Heat energy and light energy.
2 This energy came from the chemical energy stored in the wick and wax. The conversion was
‘sparked’ off using the chemical energy in the head of the match.
Prac 2: Popcorn
Common mistakes
Instruct students not to lift the lid while the popcorn is still popping.
Possible results
When popcorn is heated, the stored energy in the corn is changed into sound and motion
Suggested answers
1 a Heat
b Sound
c Kinetic
2
3 Underwent a chemical change.
Prac 3: Chemical energy

Common mistakes
The amount of sodium hydrogen carbonate used should be equal for both trials to ensure a fair test.
Possible results
Chemical energy is transformed into heat and kinetic energy.
Suggested answers
1
2 Hydrochloric acid bubbled more vigorously than the acetic acid.

3 a Hydrochloric acid, as it bubbled more vigorously.
b Acetic acid, as it bubbled for a longer period of time.
c Hydrochloric acid had more potential energy stored in it, as it bubbled more vigorously.
Prac 4: Light energy

Common mistakes
A totally darkened room will assist in the first part of this exercise.
Possible results
Light energy will be converted into electrical energy.
Suggested answers
1 Electrical energy is converted into light energy and then converted into electrical energy.
2 Electrical → Light → Electrical
3 More energy would be produced.
6.2 Answers
Remembering
1 The Sun, fuels, friction, electrical appliances
2 Copper, water, air, outer space
3 Insulator—foam, wood, plastic
4 Conduction, convection, radiation
Understanding
5 Heat is a form of energy, temperature is a measure of how hot something is.
6 As the temperature on one side of a substance is heated, the particles in this region begin to
vibrate more rapidly. The vibrating particles hit neighbouring particles causing them to vibrate
also. As more particles begin to vibrate, the temperature increases throughout.
7 The solids must be in physical contact with each other and the particles in the first substance must
be vibrating faster than the second i.e. the first solid must be hotter than the second.
8 A fur coat traps a lot of air. As air is a very poor conductor of heat, it stops the heat inside the
coat from escaping.
9 Double glazing is a form of insulation of windows. The window is made up of two panes with an
air gap in between. The air gap reduces the amount of heat that can be conducted through the
window.
10 Convection requires that the particles in a substance can move i.e. be a liquid or gas, whereas
conduction can also occur in solids. In convection, heat is distributed by distributing hot particles,
whereas in conduction the heat is energy transferred from one particle to the next.
11 The clouds act like a blanket, trapping heat absorbed by the Earth during the day close to the
ground. On a clear night, this heat escapes.
12 Cold air is much denser than hot air. As a result, the cold air is trapped, as it cannot float up.
13 Hot air is less dense than cold air and so will stay near the roof. Having the vents low would force
the hot air to rise to the top, aiding convection.
14 Conduction and convection both require particles to distribute heat. In space there are no
particles.
Applying
15
16
17
18 a Radiation
b Conduction
c Convection
19 Bar heater, stovetop, light globe
20 B
Analysing
21 A thermos has a lid to stop heat from escaping from the top via convection. The walls of the flask
are made of two layers with a vacuum in between so that the hot liquid is insulated from its
surroundings and to reduce heat loss by conduction. The inner lining of the container has a
reflective surface to reduce heat loss via radiation.
22 As the hotplate heats up, it transfers heat to the pot through conduction. The pot heats the bottom
of the water through conduction and this heat is transferred to the rest of the water by convection.
As the hotplate and pot increase in temperature they both emit heat in the form of radiation.
23 The total amount of heat generated by open and closed wood fires is the same. However, closed
wood fires can be operated more efficiently, as the amount of oxygen and therefore the rate at
which wood is burnt can be controlled more effectively. Closed fires are also safer and produce
less smoke.
Evaluating
24 A draught is like a sea breeze. When the door is left open, the hot air escapes, rising to the upper
atmosphere. The denser cold air outside then rushes in to fill its place.
25 a Hairdos that trap a lot of air, such a perm or afro, would be warmest.
b Hairdos that do not trap air would be the coolest, such as very flat straight hair or a crew cut.
26 a Black to absorb the most sunlight.
b White to reflect the heat and keep inside cool.
c Black to emit heat.
d White to reflect incoming heat.
Creating
27

Prac 1: Feeling the heat
Common mistakes
A large variation in water temperature will assist in achieving the desired outcomes of the experiment.
Possible results
The hand from the hot water will feel cool.
The hand from the cold water will feel warm.
Suggested answers
1 The hand that was placed in the hot water felt cooler when placed into the lukewarm water. The
hand that was placed in the cold water felt warmer when placed into the lukewarm water.
2 Hot-water hand—Energy was transferred from the hand into the lukewarm water.
Cold-water hand—Energy was transferred from the lukewarm water into the hand.
Prac 2: Conduction in metal rods

Common mistakes
Ensure that the blobs of wax are of equal size on each of the metal rods.
Possible results
The best conductors will be the metals that took the least time for the wax to melt.
Suggested answers
1 Various answers depending on the material available.
2 This may be best represented as a bar graph showing each metal rod type and the time taken for
the wax to melt.
Prac 3: Insulators
Common mistakes
It is important to keep the water level and temperature the same across all trials to ensure a fair test.
Possible results
The best insulator will be the material that kept the water warmest after 10 minutes.
The worst insulator will be the material that allowed the water to cool the most in 10 minutes.
Suggested answers
1 The table could be constructed similar to the one shown below.
2 The graph should have time on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis. A key should be used to
represent the different materials.
3 Various answers. The best insulator will be the material that kept the water warmest after 10
minutes. The worst insulator will be the material that allowed the water to cool the most in 10
minutes.
4 The uncovered container is the control, which acts as a comparison to ensure the results are due
to the different coverings and not another variable.
Prac 4: Convection currents

Common mistakes
Heavier rather than lighter beans will assist this exercise. Borlotti beans or chick peas have been
suggested.
Possible results
Students use beans to observe the behaviour of convection currents. The warmer water lifts the beans
to the surface and as the water cools, they fall to the bottom of the beaker again.
Suggested answers
1 Diagrammatic answer showing that the moving beans rise to the surface, and then fall to the
bottom of the beaker before repeating this cycle indefinitely.
2 The beans followed this path because the warmer water lifts them to the surface. As the water
cools, it falls to the bottom of the beaker again, removing any lift from the beans. Any water
vapour or air bubbles attached to the beans will further assist this process.
3 Various answers. Many students will refer to cooking situations in the kitchen. Others may refer
to the fact that the air near the ceiling is warmer than near the floor due to convection currents.
Prac 5: Radiation emission

Common mistakes
It is important to keep the water level and temperature the same across all trials to ensure a fair test.
Possible results
The black can should be the best radiator of heat, whereas the silver or white can should reflect most
of the heat back into the contents of the can.
Suggested answers
1 The graph should have time on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis. A key should be used to
represent the different colours. As black radiates heat better, the graph should show the black
can cooling faster
2 a The black can should be the best radiator of heat.
b The silver or white can should reflect most of the heat back into the contents of the can.
3 The temperature of the water must be the same in both cans to ensure that this variable is
controlled.
Prac 6: Radiation absorption

Common mistakes
It is important that the cards are the same size and are an equal distance away from the heat source to
ensure a fair test.
Possible results
The black card should absorb more radiation than the white.
Suggested answers
1 The black card should be the best at absorbing radiation.
2 All cards must receive the same amount of heat, from the same source at the same time.
3 Each square of card should be the same size to ensure that the only uncontrolled variable and the
only variable being tested in the experiment is the colour of the card.
4 Student response.
Prac 7: Heat machines

Common mistakes
The spiral for the heat machine must be made from aluminium, not paper nor cardboard.
Possible results
Student design.
Suggested answers
Student design.
6.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Luminous objects are visible because they emit light. Non-luminous objects are only visible
when light is reflected off them.
2 Light globe, candle, Sun
3 Glow worm
4 In the bathroom to see your reflection, as rear vision mirrors, in cameras to reflect an image into
the eye piece or periscopes.
Understanding
5 The fact that light reaches us from the Sun through space.
6 Light that hits the basketball is reflected into your eye.
7 A shadow is formed when an object blocks the light coming from a light source, creating an area
of darkness.
8 The shadow become bigger as the object is able to block more of the light coming from the light
source.
9 Shadows would be more well defined i.e. have a smaller penumbra.
Applying
10 a Lava, molten metal, TV screen, alarm clock
b Ball, tree, person, the Moon, a chair
11 Frosted glass, baking paper
12 a 600 000 km
b 18 000 000 km
c 1 080 000 000 km
13
14 90 cm (Assuming it can be moved up and down)

15 a C
b D
c B
d A
e E
Analysing
16 a An umbra is a completely dark and sharp shadow of an object. A penumbra is a partial
shadow that surrounds the umbra. A penumbra forms when the light source is large compared
to the object.
b A transparent substance allows all the light that hits it to pass through without scattering. An
opaque substance absorbs or reflects all the incident light.
17
Transparent Translucent Opaque

Plastic cling wrap, glass, some Baking paper, frosted glass, Cardboard, muddy water
freezer bags smoggy air
18 x = 30°; y = 60°; z = 30°
Evaluating
19 Both TV and computers have revolutionised society, the way people interact and communicate.
Lasers have many applications especially in communications and medicine. By using laser,
surgery can be performed more accurately and with less trauma to the patient.
Optical fibres use light to transmit information rather than electricity, meaning that more
information can be sent and faster.
Solar panels use light to generate electricity. This is a clean and renewable form of energy that
will become increasingly important as our fossil fuel resources run out.
Creating
20 Creative design task.

Prac 1: Teacher demonstration Light energy
Common mistakes
Check vacuum hoses for holes before commencing this demonstration.
Possible results
Light does not require a medium to travel through.
Suggested answers
1 The light remains the same.
2 The light can travel through the vacuum.
Prac 2: The pinhole camera

Common mistakes
A well-lit room may not allow students to see the behaviour of the light ray clearly. A darkened room
Possible results
The smaller the hole the clearer the image will be. If the hole is made larger the image will be less
focused.
Suggested answers
1 The screen or tracing paper represents the film in a camera.
2 The image is inverted.
3 a If the candle is further away from the camera the image will be smaller.
b If the hole is made larger the image will be less focused.
Prac 3: Transmission of light

Common mistakes
Possible results
Transparent materials allow light to pass through, producing a clear image.
Translucent materials allow some light to pass through, producing a blurred image.
Opaque materials do not allow any light to pass through, producing a shadow.
Suggested answers
1 Glass, acetate
2 Transparent materials allow light to pass through.
Translucent materials allow some light to pass through.
Opaque materials do not allow any light to pass through.
3 Transparent—light passes straight through and image is clear.
Translucent—light is scattered and image is blurred.
Prac 4: Law of reflection

Common mistakes
Possible results
The angles are the same for each pair of rays. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
in each case.
Suggested answers
1 The back of the mirror is where the light is reflected. It is the actual mirror. The front is just a
sheet of glass.
2 The angles for each pair of rays are the same (i = r).
3 Answers will vary.
6.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Voice—vocal cords
Guitar—strings
Bell—the metal casing
Clarinet—reed
Drum—the skin of the drum
2 340 m/s
3 a True
b False
c True
4 Whales, bats
Understanding
5 Put a speaker and receiver in space and see if an audio signal can be transmitted.
6 a Compression is a part of a sound wave where the particles in the substance through which the
sound wave is passing are closer together i.e. compressed.
b Rarefaction is part of a sound wave where the particles in the substance through which the
sound wave is passing are spread further apart.
7 1020 m
8 Ultrasound is a quick, harmless and effective way of obtaining images of inside the body. This is
particularly useful in situations when X-rays may harm the patient i.e. during pregnancy.
9 a Frequency—how many compressions and rarefactions pass per second. The frequency
determines the pitch of a sound.
b Resonance—when a sound wave causes an object to vibrate at the same frequency as the
wave itself, making the sound appear louder.
c Reverberation—when the time between when a sound and its echo is so short that they appear
to overlap.
10 The frequency is changed by changing the length of the string i.e. placing your finger on a fret.
The shorter the string, the faster the vibration and higher the frequency. Tightening the string also
increases the frequency.
11 Soft objects such as furniture absorb sound waves. Echoes require the sound to be reflected so
require hard surfaces.
Applying
12
13 B
14 a 300 m/s
b 200 m/s
15 Steel
16 Useful—echoes used for echolocation.

Not useful—echo caused by shouting into a canyon.
17 a The violin strings
b The air column in the flute
c The skin of the drum
18 D
19 340 m
20 Left
Analysing
21 2.94 s

Prac 1: A sound cannon
Common mistakes
The cling wrap must be taut to produce a decent vibration.
Possible results
Students construct a sound cannon that will blow out a candle.
Suggested answers
1 The flame flickered and/or was extinguished due to the action of air particles as they exited the
tube. They will be either in the form of a compression or a rarefaction.
2 Both ends of the tube should be sealed to ensure that the only place that air can exit is through
the hole. The cling wrap must be taut to produce a decent vibration.
3 Having a small hole will increase the air pressure, making the air go further.
Prac 2: The speed of sound

Common mistakes
Time measurements may vary depending on the reflexes of the time keeper.
Possible results
The time is recorded from when the students see the smoke rise from the starting pistol to when they
hear the sound. After a few trials the average is calculated to determine the speed of sound. There will
be various answers, but should be close to 340 m/s.
Suggested answers
1 The time it takes for light from the smoke to reach the people’s eyes is not a significant factor, as
the speed of light is so fast compared to sound.
2 Calculating an average makes the result more accurate, as it cancels out any small
inconsistencies caused by human error.
3 Various answers, close to 340 m/s.
Prac 3: Reflection and absorption of sound

Common mistakes
experiment.
Possible results
Student design.
Prac 4: Measuring cylinder resonance

Common mistakes
Strike the tuning fork on a rubber bung, not the bench.
Possible results
At a particular depth the air in the measuring cylinder will resonate with the tuning fork.
Suggested answers
1 Various answers.
2 The length of the tube required for resonance is determined by adding water. Adding water in
small amounts allows for a greater number of measurements. More measurements may reduce
the impact of human error on the results of the experiment and ensure a gradual change in the
volume of the sound produced.
Prac 5: Construct a musical instrument

Common mistakes
Student designed experiments should be assessed by the teacher for feasibility before carrying out the
experiment.
Possible results
Students design their own musical instrument.
Suggested answers
Students demonstrate their instruments to the class. The instrument must be able to play ‘Twinkle
Twinkle Little Star’.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Kinetic energy, light, sound, heat, gravitational potential, chemical potential, electrical, elastic
potential, nuclear
2 Conduction, convection, radiation
3 a Black
b Black
4 Longitudinal
5 a True
b False
Understanding
6 a Conservation of energy—The energy in the universe is neither created or destroyed e.g. when
a match is lit, it converts chemical energy to heat and light energy. Once the match has died,
the heat and light that have been produced are not destroyed but are absorbed by its
surroundings.
b Energy transformation—The different types of energy are interchangeable. Energy can be
converted from one form to another e.g. when Light energy is absorbed by a solar cell it is
converted to electrical energy.
7 Toaster—Electrical energy is converted to heat and light. Elastic potential energy is released
when the toast pops up and is converted to kinetic and sound energy.
Light globe—Electrical energy is converted to heat and light.
8 During the day the Sun heats the land faster than it heats the water. As a result, the air above the
land is warmer and rises. The cooler, denser air above the ocean then rushes in to fill its place.
9 When the light source is large in comparison to the object a partial shadow or penumbra is
formed around the edge of the main shadow.
10 Umbra is a sharp dark shadow formed in regions where an object completely blocks the light
coming from a light source.
11 Echoes are a reflection of a sound wave where reflected sound appears as distinct and separate
from the original sound. Reverberations are also reflections of a sound wave but the time between
the original sound and the reflected sound is so short that they appear to overlap and are
indistinguishable.
Applying
12 Radiation
13 Heat coming from a bar heater, light globe or the Sun.
14 A luminous object produces its own light e.g. a glow-worm or TV screen. Incandescent objects
are a type of luminous object that produce their own light because they are so hot e.g. light globe
or lava.
15 Lateral inversion is when an image is flipped from left to right while still appearing upright.
16 320 m/s
17 Resonance
18 a C
b B
19 A
Analysing
20
Insulators Conductors
Foam Esky, wooden table, plastic cup, fry pan Nail, BBQ grill, metal oven tray
handle, woollen jumper
21 Water is the better conductor of heat as the particles are much closer together so can collide and
transmit heat energy more readily.
22
Use of Type of
Technology How it works
technology energy
Sound waves are sent into the body and reflected back
Viewing unborn
Ultrasound Sound from bones, tissue etc. The reflected sound is changed
babies
into an image on a screen.
The hot liquid is placed inside a container with two outer
layers separated by a vacuum to reduce heat loss via
Keeping hot
Thermos Heat conduction. The inner lining is reflective to prevent heat
liquids hot
loss from reflection and a cap is used to stop loss by
convection.
High-frequency sound waves are emitted below the boat
Finding fish deep and the echo is recorded. By measuring the time it takes
Fish finder Sound
underwater for the echo to return, the depth of the ocean floor and fish
can be calculated and presented on a screen.
Plucking a string causes it to vibrate and make sound
waves. The sound waves resonate inside the body of the
Guitar Making music Sound guitar and are emitted as a loud sound. The frequency of
the sound can be changed by plucking different strings or
changing the length of the string.
Solar hot water systems use a black surface to absorb as
much heat and light energy from the Sun as possible. The
Solar hot-water Light/
Heating water heat is then transferred to water travelling through small
system Heat
tubes in the surface via conduction. The heated water can
then be used in the home.
Keeping a house An insulation batt is made of a foam that traps a lot of air
warm in winter and therefore acts as a good insulator. The insulator stops
Insulation batt Heat
and cool in heat from getting out of the house during winter and stops
summer heat getting into the house during summer.
23 a 700 m
b 350 m
5.1 Answers
Remembering
1 a Hans and Zacharias Jannsen and Hans Lippershey
b Robert Hooke
c Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
d Rudolph Virchow
2 a Robert Hooke
b Anton van Leeuwenhoek
c Anton van Leeuwenhoek
d Robert Brown
e Rudolph Kolliker
3 All living things are made of cells. New cells are created when old cells divide in two. All cells
are similar to each other, but are not identical.
4 Ocular lens
5 TEM—transmission electron microscope.
SEM—scanning electron microscope.
Understanding
6 Cells cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are so tiny that hundreds fit on a full stop,
therefore they need an instrument like the microscope to magnify them before they can be seen.
7 They remind him of the rooms occupied by the monks at the time.
8 a Microscopic—can only be seen using a microscope.
b Specimen—the object you place under a microscope for viewing.
c Image—the figure you see when you look through the eyepiece.
d Field of view—the area that you see through the eyepiece.
9 Microscopic
10 The image appears 10 times larger than its original size.
11 It can crack and ruin the specimen of the slide that has been placed on the stage.
Applying
12 A Eyepiece/ocular lens
B Objective lens
C Stage
D Lamp
E Base
F Arm
G Course adjustment knob
H Fine adjustment knob
13
Eyepiece Objective Total magnification

magnification magnification
×10 ×10 ×100
×5 ×100 ×500
×20 ×40 ×800
×3 ×100 ×300
×30 ×20 ×600
14 200 mm = 20 cm
Analysing
15 a Length 2 cm (20 mm) width 6 mm (0.6 cm)
b Length 8 cm (80 mm)
c
16 a Simple
b Simple
c Compound
d Compound
17 a Similarities: both use light and provide coloured images.
Differences: monocular has one eyepiece whereas stereo microscope has two lenses. The
monocular requires thin slices of the specimen but the stereo microscope doesn’t. The
monocular produces a flat image whereas the stereo microscope produces a 3D realistic
image.
b Similarities: both use electrons.
Differences: TEM requires thin slices of the specimen whereas the SEM doesn’t. In a TEM
the electrons pass through but in an SEM electrons reflect off the surface. In a TEM the image
produced is colour but in an SEM it is black and white or false colour.
c Similarities: thin specimens are required for both, true colour image produced in both, energy
source passes through and the inner structure of the specimen is visible.
Differences: TEM uses electrons whereas the monocular microscope uses light.
18 Stereo microscope because it is a three-dimensional realistic image in true colour.
19 a
Evaluating
20 Bubbles can be confused with other internal structures within the cell. Bubbles interfere with the
clarity of the image, hiding organelles and their true structure/appearance.
21 A stereo microscope is most similar to an SEM because both don’t need a thin sliced specimen
and the energy reflects off the surface rather than pass through it.
Creating

Prac 1: Constructing a simple microscope
Common mistakes
If the ring of petroleum jelly is too large, the drop of water will spread and loose its convex shape. The
smaller the drop of water the greater the magnification.
Possible results
Students construct a simple lens using a matchbox.
Suggested answers
1 a Drop of water.
b Matchbox tray.
c Sliding outer part of the matchbox.
2 Student responses.
3 A simple microscope has only one glass or plastic lens, whereas a compound microscope has
more than one lens. A compound microscope shows finer detail.
4 The rain acts as an extra lens.
Prac 2: Focus on the news

Common mistakes
Using the letter ‘o’ will make it difficult for students to determine if the image is upside down or back
to front. The letter ‘e’ is perfect for this exercise.
Possible results
Students make a wet mount and view the image under the microscope. The image produced moves in
the opposite direction to the object and will be vertically and horizontally inverted.
Suggested answers
1 Various answers depending on magnification and font size of print.
2 The image moves in the opposite direction to the object. For example, when the slide moves to the
left, the image will move to the right.
Prac 3: Observing everyday objects

Common mistakes
When viewing a slide under the monocular microscope, the specimen needs to be thin because light
must be able to travel through the specimen to reach the observer’s eye.
Possible results
Students view common objects using a monocular and stereo microscope and make comparisons
between the two.
Suggested answers
1 Monocular microscope—the view is less three-dimensional than with a stereo microscope.
Stereo microscope—gives a more three-dimensional image than a monocular microscope.
2 Student response.
5.2 Answers
Remembering
1 a Chloroplasts
b Xylem (water conducting)
c Root hair cells
d Guard cells
Understanding
2 Parts that make up cells are called organelles.
3 a Nucleus—controls all chemical reactions in a cell and how it develops and reproduces.
b Cell wall—supports the plant.
c Chloroplasts—contain chlorophyll, which traps the light energy needed for photosynthesis.
4 Chlorophyll is the green pigment that traps light energy from the Sun for the process of
photosynthesis.
Applying
5 a Root hair cell
b Guard cell
c Conducting cell
6 a Chlorophyll
b Cellulose
c Sap (air, water, waste and food particles)
7 a Carbon dioxide and water
b Oxygen and sugar (glucose)
c Glucose
d Sunlight
Evaluating
8 a Guard cells control water loss so, if there were no guard cells the plant would either lose too
much water or never release water.
b The plant cells and in turn the plants wouldn’t have enough support to hold their shape.
c The plant would not produce its food sugar through photosynthesis.
9 a Most plants have green chlorophyll.
b Plants have more cellulose for support because most animals have a skeleton for support.
c The upper surface receives the most amount of sunlight.
d Water and food travel in different directions because they are needed for different purposes in
the plant.
10 All plants cells share many features because they carry out similar functions whereas animals
perform more functions requiring specialised cells.
11 Animals obtain their energy (food) by eating plants and/or other animals.
Creating

Prac 1: Onion, rhubarb and banana cells
Common mistakes
Plant structures will be too difficult too see if the specimens on the slide are too thick. It needs to be
thin because light must be able to travel through the specimen in order to reach the observer’s eye.
Possible results
Students observe and draw plant cells and discover that there are some similarities and differences
between plant cells.
Suggested answers
1 The structures in banana cells are not easily viewed without staining.
2 Answer may depend on student results. Rhubarb cells are often the easiest cells to view as they
have a pink colouring to assist in distinguishing the features inside each cell.
3 Various answers are possible, including:
Similarities: all have a visible cell wall and a nucleus (although most students will find this
difficult/impossible to see).
Differences: rhubarb cells are very long and elongated boxes whereas onion cells are squarer.
The shape of banana cells is more difficult to observe.
Prac 2: Searching for stomata

Common mistakes
Allow plenty of time for the nail polish to dry, particularly on cold days. This activity works best with
leaves that are fairly thick and have a thick waxy cuticle. Camellia is suggested because it is easily
obtainable and known to give satisfactory results.
Possible results
Students produce an image of stomata and observe them under the microscope. There are more
stomata present on the underside than the upper side of the leaf.
Suggested answers
1 Sausage-shaped cells around a small opening.
2 Responsible for controlling gas exchange and to remove excess water.
3 Stomata allow water vapour to be exchanged. Stomata on the upper side of a leaf are few in
number to reduce the amount of water vapour lost from the leaf. Evaporation is more likely on
the upper side due to direct sunlight.
5.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Over one hundred million million cells.
2 Approximately 200.
3 Serious burning of a large area of the skin (skin cells) can lead to death because the person will
then be unable to retain water.
4 a Skin cells
b Nerve cells
c Red blood cells
d Muscle cells
e White blood cells
f Fat cells
Understanding
5 Cellulose provides support; animals have skeletons and/or muscles to help provide support.
6 Mitochondria is the site where energy capsules are found and muscles require a lot of energy to
function. The more mitochondria, the greater the amount of energy produced, therefore the better
the muscles will function.
7 a They wouldn’t carry enough oxygen around the body, especially to the mitochondria for
production of energy.
b They would find it difficult to fight infections and often become sick.
8 Messages to and from the brain would not be transported to the receptors so organisms wouldn’t
be able to respond
to changes and function properly.
9 Dizziness, numbness and unconsciousness because of the lack of oxygen and food to the brain.
10 Humans would have green skin.
Applying
11 a Nucleus
b Cytoplasm
c Membrane
d Mitochondria
e Cell wall
Evaluating
12 Sex cells (sperm)
13 Cellulose

Prac 1: Viewing prepared slides
Common mistakes
Ensure that the microscope lenses are free of dust and dirt, as they can often be mistaken for cell
structures.
Possible results
Students observe prepared slides under a microscope and compare the differences between animal and
plant cells.
Suggested answers
1 Students will give different answers. Similarities that might be mentioned are that cell shapes are
not box-like as in plant cells, all cells have a nucleus (although most students will find this
difficult/impossible to see) and all prepared slides have their cells stained. Differences that might
be mentioned are that each cell type has a different shape, and the fine structures of the cells
differ.
2 To eliminate the chance of transmission of blood-borne diseases such as hepatitis and HIV.
3 Prepared slides contain a sample that is already stained and thin enough for its features to be
visible and have no bubbles to confuse the viewer. Not all of this is possible with slides prepared
by students.
5.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Bacteria
2 a Help digestion, production of food, breakdown material to return nutrients to the soil.
b Bad breath, body odour, pimples and infections.
3 Unicellular
4 Sporozoans, flagellates, amoeba, ciliata
5 Gangrene
6 Student responses will vary. Examples: Heart, lungs, liver, skin, kidneys.
Understanding
7 Flagellum—two whip like tails.
Cilia—tiny hairs that beat in waves.
Amoeba—changes shape to allow it to move by ‘flowing’.
Sporozoans—live in other cells and are carried by them.
8 To allow the organisms to work more effectively and efficiently.
9 a Tissue—groups of similar cells.
b Organ—tissues group together to form organs.
c Systems—group of organs that work together is known as a system.
10 Skeletal
Applying
11 a Plant like—flagellates.
Animal like—ciliates, amoebas.
b Flagellates have chloroplasts, ciliates feed on other organisms and amoebas consume other
organisms.
12 a Circulatory
b Nervous
c Excretory
d Digestive
e Respiratory
Analysing
13 Cell, tissue, organ, systems
14
15 Organelles are like little organs in the cell. Like organs, organelles have specific structures and
functions that help the cell survive. Organs work together within a system to make the whole
organism function efficiently.
Evaluating
16 a Advantages: each cell type carries out a specific task to help the multicellular organisms to
work more effectively and to complete complex tasks
Disadvantages: large food and energy requirements, systems need to be regulated, slow
reproduction, complex transport systems required.
b Advantages: fast reproduction, easy to absorb and remove substances (osmosis and diffusion)
Disadvantages: easily affected by factors and changes in the environment, vulnerable to
damage e.g. death.
c Student responses will vary.
17 a B
b C
c E
18 a Sporozoans.
b Boiling and filtering water.
c Keeps unwanted micro-organisms from building up in large numbers.
19 Flower—reproductive system.
Stems—transport system.
Leaves—food making system.
Roots—water absorption.
Bulbs—food storage system.

Prac 1: Life in a drop of water
Common mistakes
The pond water organisms may move in and out of view too quickly for the students to observe them.
They can be slowed with the use of methyl cellulose solution. This solution can be bought
commercially from biological suppliers.
Possible results
Students observe the structures of single-celled pond water organisms.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on student observations. Both flagellates and ciliates are likely to be seen.
2 Depends on student observations. Movement using flagella and cilia are likely to be seen,
although it may be difficult for students to clearly determine which is which.
3 Will depend on the sample used. May include amoeba, paramecium and others.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Cork
2 Refer to Fig 5.2.2 on page 149.
3 Photosynthetic cells—have chlorophyll so that photosynthesis can take place.
Conducting cells—transport water and nutrients.
Root hair cells—involved in water absorption from the soil.
Bone cells—support the body and protect organs.
Fat cells—store energy.
White blood cells—help fight infections.
4 Euglena—flagellates.
Paramecium—ciliates.
Amoebas—amoeba.
5 Unicellular
Understanding
6
Date Scientist Discovery

1609 Hans Janssen and son Invented the compound microscope
1665 Robert Hooke Designed a prototype of the compound microscope to
study cork cells. Named ‘cells’.
1673 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Invented a single-lens microscope with ×300
magnification and looked at single-celled organisms
Nicolas Hartsocker Studied sperm
1831 Robert Brown Discovered cell nucleus
1857 Rudolph Kolliker Discovered mitochondria
1804–1881 Mathias Schleiden Proposed cell theory that all things are made of cells
1810–1882 Theodore Schwann Said that the cell was the basic unit of living things.
Proposed cell theory while working with Mathias
Schleiden
7 a All plants share many features because they carry out similar functions whereas animals
perform more functions requiring specialised cells.
b Mitochondria is the site of energy production. Animals need more energy than plants because
they move and undergo functions that require greater amounts of energy.
8 Specialised cells are cells that group together to form tissues and form specific functions.
Specialised cells are arranged into groups, allowing organisms to work more efficiently.
Applying
9 ×1000
10 a Sap
b Air, water, wastes and food particles
11 Ciliate
12 a Body system
b Tissue
Analysing
13
Feature Plant cell Animal cell

Chloroplasts Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Cell wall Present
Vacuole Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Cell membrane Present Present
Cell nucleus Present Present
14 Although simple and compound microscopes share the presence of a lens in their structure, a
simple microscope contains one lens whereas a compound microscope contains two or more
lenses. Both of these microscopes use light to view the specimen whereas the electron
microscope uses electrons.
Evaluating
15 a Advantages: each cell type carries out a specific task to help the multicellular organisms to
work more effectively. This allows the organisms to complete more advantageous complex
tasks.
Disadvantages: large food and energy requirements, systems need to be regulated, slow
reproduction, complex transport systems required.
b Advantages: fast reproduction, easy to absorb and remove substances (osmosis and diffusion).
Disadvantages: easily affected by factors and changes in the environment, vulnerable to
damage e.g. death.
c Student responses will vary.
d Humans are multicellular because they are constructed of many different types of cells, to
form organs and systems.
4.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Helps you find what you want.
2 Types, subject and author.
Understanding
3 a Function of item
b Service it provides
c Season or popularity
d Year the car was made or the model (type) of car
e Genre
4 Similarities: Branching and dichotomous keys start with one large group and slowly divides into
smaller more defined groups. Each division is a choice.
Differences: Branching keys offer two or more divisions at each branch, whereas dichotomous
keys have only two choices at each branch.
Applying
5 a beetle
b butterfly
c grasshopper
d mosquito
e rhino beetle
f termite solider
Analysing
6 a Herman
b Ken
c Eugene
d Louisa
e Jane
7 Xero
Evaluating
Creating
a How are all the lollies at the cinema different?
b Why are boys’ names different?

14 Student responses will vary. An example follows:
1 a short
Chris
b not short
Go to 2
2 a male
Ro
b not male
Go to 3
3 a brunette
Marg
b not brunette
Jacinta
16 Student responses will vary. Examples follow:
a
b 1 a Lives in water
Water lily
b Doesn’t live in water
Go to 2
2 a Has spikes
Cactus
b Doesn’t have spikes
Go to 3
3 a 1 single leaf is divided into sections

Tree fern
b 1 single leave is whole
Go to 4
4 a Used to make Eucalyptus oil
Gum tree
b Not used to make Eucalyptus oil
Wattle bush
c


Prac 1: Making a pasta key
Common mistakes
Students should be encouraged to devise questions that divide each group into two fairly equal
subgroups.
Possible results
Students construct a dichotomous key to classify pasta.
Suggested answers
1 It contains questions that divide objects into two groups.
2 It is possible that every student produced a different key, even if they had the same items to
classify.
3 May depend on whether the keys work. Compare some to see which are better and why.
Prac 2: Constructing keys

Common mistakes
Students should be encouraged to devise questions that divide each group into two fairly equal
subgroups.
Suggested answers
1 It is easier to list characteristics of objects that are familiar and readily available.
2 Student response.
4.2 Answers
Remembering
1 Take in energy, take in and use gases, produce wastes, respond to stimuli, move, ability to
reproduce, grow and are made from cells.
2 Mammals use lungs, birds use lungs, amphibians have lungs but use their skin and fish use gills.
Autotrophs: mammals, birds, reptiles
Heterotrophs: grass, seaweed, trees
4 37°C
5 Glucose
6 a Photosynthesis
b Cellular respiration
7 a Carbon dioxide + water + energy → oxygen + glucose
b Oxygen + glucose → water + carbon dioxide + energy
8 Excretion
Understanding
9 After sun-baking the blood and body temperature of ectotherms can be high. This can give them
extra energy so they are far more active.
10 During growth and when it responds to light.
11 During our infant and teen years, as humans get older they grow, become larger and more
complicated. As humans grow they also change shape and proportions, for example, our arms and
legs grow longer and stronger.
12 a Carbon dioxide, a product of cellular respiration, is produced when the astronauts breathe out.
b On Earth there are trees and plants that take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Applying
13
a Living Reproduces
b Non-living Doesn’t breathe
c Living Made of cells
d Living Produces wastes
e Non-living Not made of cells
f Living Made of cells
g Living Moves
h Non-living Doesn’t produce wastes
14 Microscopic
15 Piece of wood
16
Stimulus Response
a BBQ smell Grumbling stomach
b Change in temperature Leaves falling from tree
c Change in temperature Goose bumps
d Smell of blood Feeding frenzy
e Fear from person approaching Seagull flies away
17
a Reproduction Later on in life, as the Year 7 students get older they may have
children because they have reproductive organs.
b Growth As young children and young adults, humans grow from the baby stage
because we create new cells, but as you age this process slows done.
c Taking in energy Although the protestor isn’t currently eating to obtain energy, they
have in the past and will continue to once the hunger strike is over
because all living things require energy to survive.
d Removing waste In summer these people could remove waste through their sweat, so
they will urinate less.
Evaluating
18 a
Show Don’t show

Movement Reproduction
Response to stimuli Cells
Need for energy Growth
Excretion
Taking in gases
b Student responses will vary.
Creating
20
Frequency of characteristic
Characteristic observed
Excretion 1
Movement 3
Energy intake 1
Gas exchange Constant
Responds to stimuli 5

Prac 1: Characteristics of life
Common mistakes
Students may confuse the top side of the leaf with the bottom side of a leaf. A demonstration
beforehand may be helpful.
Possible results
The most shrivelled leaf has petroleum jelly covering its top side as this is where the least amount of
stomata are present.
Suggested answers
1 The water came from the leaves through tiny pores (stomata) on the undersides of the leaves.
2 Cellular respiration.
3 The most shrivelled leaf had petroleum jelly covering its top side. The leaf that retained its shape
the most was totally covered with petroleum jelly.
4 The bottom side of the leaf.
5 All rocks will retain their shape, as rocks do not possess stomata so there would be no water loss.
Prac 2: Mustard seeds

Common mistakes
As nature will have it, not all seeds sprout. Make sure there are a few extra seeds to compensate for
the seeds that don’t sprout.
Possible results
The seedlings that were grown in dark conditions are shorter and less upright than the seeds kept in
light conditions.
Suggested answers
1 Diagrammatic answer depends on the student’s results.
2 Seedlings will start to grow regardless of whether there is light, but light is required if growth is
to continue after initial sprouting has occurred.
4.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Taxonomy: process that sorts all living things into groups.
Taxonomist: a scientist who sorts all living things into groups.
2 Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
3 Species.
4 Animals, Plants, Fungi, Monera and Protists.
5 Vertebrates (backbone) and Invertebrate (no backbone).
6 Those that have a transport system (vascular plants) and those without transport systems.
Understanding
7 They belong to the same species because they can reproduce fertile offspring.
8 Even though they have the ability to produce an offspring, their offspring (mule) is not fertile,
which means it is unable to reproduce.
9 Each species receives a unique scientific name using the binomial name system. This includes the
genus and the species.
10 A subclass is a group smaller than a class but bigger than an order. A subclass is a more defined
group than class but less defined than order.
Applying
11 a Sarcophilus
b harrisii
12 Hair, whiskers, tails, fast runners
Analysing
13 a 4
b Banksia ericifolia and Banksia marginata
c Scientists can cross the two Banksia plants.
Creating
14 Student answers will vary.
Example: King Phillip Classed Ordinary Families as Generous and Special
15
Human Dog Similar or Different

Kingdom Animal Animal Similar
Phylum Chordata Chordata Similar
Class Mammalia Mammalia Similar
Order Primata Carnivora Different
Family Hominidae Canidae Different
Genus and species Homo sapiens Canis familaris Different
16 Student answers will vary.
4.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Zoology.
2 Whether animals have a backbone or not.
3 Chordata.
4 Arthropods, cnidarians, molluscs and worms.
5 One million different species of insects are known and many more are likely to be found in the
future.
6 a Hatch from eggs and have a two stage life, have a thin skin that would dry out if they did not
live in a damp area, need to go back to water to reproduce because eggs lack waterproof
coating, are able to breathe through their skin, as well as lungs and are ectotherms.
b Breathe using lungs, have scales on their legs and feet, feathers, lay hard shelled eggs and are
endotherms.
c Have gills, are ectotherms and most lay eggs.
d Feed their young on milk from mammary glands, have hair (wool, fur or spikes) and are
endotherms.
7 a Polyps and medusas

b Arthropods
c Octopus
d Water: shrimp, crabs, yabbies, octopus, squid
Land: spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks, snails, slugs
Understanding
8 Parasitic means to live off or weaken other living organisms.
9 Dry scales, lungs, soft leathery waterproof eggs and ectothermic.
10 Millipedes have two pairs of legs per segment whereas centipedes have only one pair of legs per
segment, therefore millipedes will have more legs.
Applying
11 Insects have three pairs of legs and wings, so the other features this organism would have are: one
pair of antennae and body divided in three segments.
12 a Birds, reptiles, amphibians.
b Feathers, scaly or slippery skin and texture of eggs.
13 a Amphibians
b Cnidarians
c Mammals
d Fish
e Reptiles
14 a Birds, reptiles, amphibians
b Fish, reptiles, birds
c Fish, amphibians, reptiles
Analysing
15 a Vertebrate
b Invertebrate
c Vertebrate
d Invertebrate
e Vertebrate
f Vertebrate
g Invertebrate
16 a Roundworms have long cylindrical bodies. Flatworms have flat bodies. Segmented worms
have bodies with multiple segments.
b Bony fish have skeletons made of bone. Cartilaginous fish have skeletons made of cartilage.
c Centipedes are flat. Millipedes are round. Centipedes have one pair of long antennae.
Millipedes have one short pair.
d Reptiles have one stage in their life. Amphibians have to stages. Amphibians breathe through
their skin and lungs. Reptiles breathe through their lungs.
e Arachnids have no antennae but insects do. Arachnids have two body segments but insects
have three. Arachnids have four pairs of legs but insects have three.
f Monotremes lay eggs but marsupials give birth to tiny young.
17 Mammals (monotreme)
Evaluating
19 Too small to be found or could have become extinct or ecosystems have not yet been completely
explored.
20 The soft bodies decompose leaving nothing behind.
Creating

Prac 1: Fish dissection
Common mistakes
Instruct students to make careful incisions. Deep cuts through the skin may damage the fish’s organs
making them difficult to identify.
Possible results
Student dissect a fish to investigate the internal structure of a vertebrae.
Suggested answers
1 Bony.
2 The air bladder adjusts their buoyancy (particularly as their body tissue is denser than the
water).
3 Depends on students’ experience.
4 Fins for movement, gills for absorbing oxygen, air bladder for buoyancy, slippery, scaly slimline
body for moving through
the water.
Prac 2: Preserved invertebrates

Common mistakes
Some characteristics of the invertebrates may be too small to see. Hand lenses and stereo microscopes
Possible results
Students examine and note the characteristics of preserved invertebrates.
Suggested answers
1 Arthropods or echinoderms may have an exoskeleton.
2 Depends on specimens supplied for study.
4.5 Answers
Remembering
1 Botany
2 a Angiosperms
b Bacteria
3 a Tropical environments
b Cooler environments
c Moist and water environments
d Moist and cooler environments
4 Huon, kauri pine, bunya and hoop pines
5 i Small plants.
ii Do not have well developed vascular systems.
iii Do not have true roots.
Understanding
6 Fruits
7 Only one species in a class of its own because it has cones with seeds but unlike other cone-
bearing trees, the ginkgo sheds its leaves in winter.
8 Spore cases grow on their leaves. When ready the cases open to release the spore.
9 They are heterotrophs (don’t make their own food). That is they feed on other plants and animals
to survive.
10 Less desirable: Bad breath, pimples, infections and diseases.
Beneficial: Digestion and production of foods such as cheese and yoghurt.
11 a Plants have both male reproductive parts (anther and filament) and female parts (stigma,
ovary and style) on each flower.
b Hermaphrodite is an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs.
Analysing
12 a Flowering
b Ginkgo
c Bryophyte
d Conifers
13 a Similarities: reproduce by spores.

Differences: ferns are producers and fungi are heterotrophic.
b Similarities: Some are useful but others cause infections.
Differences: unlike fungi, bacteria
are microscopic.
c Similarities: produce seeds in cones.
Differences: conifers prefer cool climates and cycads prefer tropical environments.
14 a Vegetable
b Fruit
c Fruit
d Fruit
Evaluating
15 a English scientists did not have access to the vast Australian plant species prior to the arrival of
the first European settlers.
b The local Aborigines and the first settlers could not communicate because of language
barriers.
Creating
16

Prac 1: Vascular plants
Common mistakes
The vascular system will be too hard to see if the flower colour is too dark. Light-coloured flowers
Possible results
The dye will travel up through the veins of the flower changing the colour of the flowers.
Suggested answers
1 Vascular plants have veins present on their leaves.
2 The dye has travelled up through the veins of the flower.
3 The test tube with only water served as a control.
Prac 2: Dichotomous key of plants

Common mistakes
Some characteristics of the plants may be too small to see. Hand lenses and stereo microscopes will
assist this exercise.
Possible results
Students construct a dichotomous key for plants from the local area.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on key produced.
2 Depends on key produced.
Prac 3: Growing a fungus

Common mistakes
The characteristics of fungi may be too small to see. Hand lenses and stereo microscopes will assist
this exercise.
Possible results
Students grow mould and compare the characteristics of a fungus to a vascular plant.
Suggested answers
1 No veins. Absence of chlorophyll.
2 They use dead organic material as a food source and break it down into carbon dioxide and
water.
Chapter answers
Remembering
a Plant, animal, fungi
b Mammals, amphibians, birds
c Molluscs, insects, cnidarians
d Dog, human, parrot
e Lizard, snake, frogs
f Daisies, gum trees, wattle
g Huon, Kauri pine, Bunya
h Mushrooms, toadstool, moulds

i Staphylococcus, Anthrax, Streptococcus
2 a Birds, mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians
b Monotremes, placentals, marsupials
c Arthropods, molluscs, cnidarians, worms
d Insects, arachnids, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes
e Flowering, conifers, cycads, ginkgo, ferns
Understanding
3 To organise different things into related types.
4 Cells are microscopic; they cannot be seen with the naked eye so they need a technology that
could magnify them in order to be seen.
5 a Process whereby glucose and oxygen react to release energy.
b Production of wastes.
c Changes in the environment of organisms.
d How the organism reacts to the stimulus.
e Process of sorting living things into groups.
f Final, smallest and most defined group in the classification scheme whereby individuals have
the ability to produce offspring that can reproduce.
g Animals with a spinal cord running down their backs that carry messages to and from the
brain.
h A hard outer covering that acts as an external skeleton.
i An organism that is not capable of photosynthesis and cannot make its own food.
6 Unlike animals, plants have chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll to convert the Sun’s energy
into chemical energy. Animals lack the ability to use the Sun’s energy.
Applying
7 a Yes
b No
c Yes
d No
8 a Movement, response to stimuli, exchange of gases, produce wastes
b Movement, response to stimuli, exchange of gases, produce wastes
9 a Same species
b Different species
c Same species
d Different species
e Different species
10 The fire is the only non-living thing in the sentence. The fire can show the following
characteristics of living things:
Take in energy—when fuel like wood is added it gives the fire energy.
Takes in gases—oxygen gas increases the size and intensity of flames and carbon dioxide gas
puts out a fire.
Grow—it can grow higher and wider.
11 a Genre, album, song name, artist, play count
b It allows the users to make a search with greater ease and in less time.
12 a White flowers and produce seeds
b Acacia
c Gunii and Mearnsii
Analysing
13 a Dry scales, lungs, soft leathery eggs, ectothermic
b Animal, vertebrates, birds
c Have lungs, birds have scales on their legs and feet.
14 a Conifers
b Ferns
c Angiosperms
d Bryophytes
15
Vertebrate/ Class Order
Invertebrate
a Vertebrate Fish Cartilaginous fish
b Invertebrate Arthropod Arachnid
c Vertebrate Mammal Monotreme
d Vertebrate Mammal Marsupial
e Vertebrate Fish Bony fish
f Invertebrate Arthropod Crustaceous
g Vertebrate Mammal Placental
h Invertebrate Worm Segmented
i Invertebrate Arthropod Insect
Evaluating
16 New undiscovered species were discovered especially with the invention of microscopes which
allowed us to study the microscopic cellular components of living things.
17 a i Plants are visible to the naked eye therefore can be seen and identified.
ii Monera are microscopic therefore are not easily detected by the naked eye.
b Insects—they are small and are found everywhere (land, water and air) rather than in one
specific location and this makes it harder to find all species.
3.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Some medicines and paints.
2 a Sugar, sodium chloride
b Sand, oil
3 a False
b False
c False
d True
Understanding
4 Solution is a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another. The substance that dissolves is
called the solute, whereas the substance that it is dissolved into is called the solvent.
5 Colloid particles are very small so remain suspended because the motion of the water particles
constantly jostles them about. On the other hand, suspension particles are larger and heavier so
cannot be suspended by the water particles and fall to the bottom due to gravity.
6 These medicines are suspensions so may settle out of the liquid and form a sediment. Shaking the
bottle puts the sediment back into suspension.
7 If the substance is a colloid, light from the torch should be scattered even though no particles are
visible and no sediment forms.
8 Detergent molecules are very long and each end has different properties. One end likes water
(hydrophilic) and the other likes oil (hydrophobic). The hydrophobic ends stick to the oil,
breaking it apart and allowing the detergent molecules to surround it with their hydrophilic ends
pointing out. This ball of oil surrounded by detergent molecules can then mix with the water to
form an emulsion.
Applying
9 B
10 A
11 a Chalk
b Sand
c Metal
Analysing
12 A—suspension, B—colloid, C—solution
13 They are both mixtures of the same substances but the concentrated solution has more solute in
the same volume of solvent. As a result, the concentrated solution may be darker in colour, more
dense and more viscous.
14 Solutions—saline, whiskey
Suspension—glue (colloid), cream (colloid), muddy water, Sunscreen (suspension or colloid)
15 Solute
Evaluating
16 a
b 24 g at 35°C and 55 g at 85°C.

c As the temperature goes up, the solubility of the solid goes up.
Creating
17
18
Colloid Dispersion Medium Example

Sol Liquid Blood, ink, paint
Emulsion Liquid Milk, mayonnaise, hand cream
Foam Liquid Shaving foam, whipped cream
Gel Solid Jelly, hair gel
Aerosol Gas Fog, mist, clouds
Solid aerosol Gas Smoke
19 Design task.
20
Mass of solvent (g) Mass of solute (g) Mass of solution (g)

100 12 112
60 30 90
115 65 180

Prac 1: Testing solubility in water
Common mistakes
A soluble substance could be mistakenly classified as insoluble if too much solid is added or not
enough time is allowed for the solute to dissolve.
Possible results
Some substances are soluble in water and some substances are insoluble in water.
Answers
1 Answers will vary depending on the substances chosen.
2 Some substances are only slightly soluble and if too much solute is added, it may not be obvious
that some has dissolved.
3 Answers will vary depending on the substances chosen.
Prac 2: Temperature and solubility

Common mistakes
A soluble substance could be mistakenly classified as insoluble if too much solid is added or not
enough time or heat is allowed for the solute to dissolve.
Possible results
Heat increases the solubility of a substance.
Answers
1 Increased temperature increases solubility.
2 Copper sulfate is more soluble than copper acetate.
3 The gases dissolved in water are less soluble when water is heated. The bubbles observed when
water is heated are the gases being released.
4 Crystals of copper sulfate will form, as the solution cools it can no longer keep all the solute
dissolved.
5 Student diagram.
Prac 3: Surface area and solubility

Common mistakes
The level and temperature of the water must be kept the same across both trials to ensure a fair test.
Possible results
Sugar crystals dissolve more quickly than sugar cubes.
Answers
1 Increasing the surface area of a solute makes it dissolve more quickly.
2 The crushed cube is used up because it has a larger surface area and so has more particles in
contact with the solvent.
3 The water level and temperature are the controlled variables.
Prac 4: Light transmission in mixtures

Common mistakes
The light source and sensor must be kept at the same distance across all trials to ensure a fair test.
Possible results
Light will pass through a transparent solution.
Suggested answers
1 Light passed through the copper sulfate solution because it is transparent; followed by the starch
solution (colloid) because it is cloudy. The least amount of light passed through the muddy
suspension because the large particles blocked or absorbed more light.
2 The light source and sensor must be kept at the same distance from the beaker across all trials to
ensure that the only variable that changes is the type of mixture.
3 Student response.
4 Student response.
Prac 5: Forming an emulsion

Common mistakes
Ensure that the lid is tightly secured before shaking the bottle.
Possible results
The oil is shaken into small particles and spreads throughout the water.
Suggested answers
1 The oil breaks down into small particles.
2 Emulsion—particles of oil are spread throughout water.
3.2 Answers
Remembering
1 Decanting, filtering, centrifugal separation, gravitational separation, magnetic separation,
electrostatic separation, froth flotation
2 a False
b True
Understanding
3 Place the sand and water mixture in a beaker. Allow time for the sand to settle. Carefully pour the
water into another beaker, making sure not to disturb the sediment.
4 During sieving, a mixture containing various sized particles is placed into a container with holes.
Particles small enough to fit through whereas bigger particles remain in the container.
5 Residue is the insoluble substance that was originally suspended in the filtrate.
6 Spinning a mixture in a centrifuge puts a force on the particles in the mixture that pushes them
towards the outer edge of the centrifuge. Heavier particles experience a greater force so are sent
to the outer edge first, separating them from the lighter particles.
7 Liberation, chemicals added, air blown in, skimming
8 Gangue is the unwanted sediment that forms during the process of froth flotation. It is made up of
the rock and sand that contained the metal ore.
Applying
10 Sieving
11 a Magnetic separation
b Sieving
c Electrostatic separation
d Decanting
12 Tea bags—keeps the tea leaves in the bag while the flavour goes into the hot water.
Vacuum cleaner filters—allows air to pass through while trapping dust particles.
13 Washing machine, dryer, some vacuum cleaners
14 Gravitational separation—once dislodged the heavier stones fall farthest separating them from the
smaller stones.
Analysing
15
Separation Brief description Example

method
Decanting Liquid gently poured from one container to another Wine from an old bottle
leaving sediment at the bottom of the original poured into a carafe leaving
container. sediment behind.
Sieving Mixture of various sized components is put in a Sieving sand to remove rocks.
container with holes. The particles smaller than the
holes pass through leaving the larger particles
behind.
Filtration Liquid or gas containing solid particles is passed Filtering hot water with ground
through a substance with very small holes e.g. filter coffee beans to remove solid
paper. The liquid or gas passes through leaving the particles.
larger solid particles behind.
Separation Brief description Example

method
Gravitation Mixture containing particles of different weights are Panning for gold.
separation continuously tossed around. Eventually the heavier
particles make their way to the bottom.
Centrifuge Mixture is spun in a circle at high speeds creating an Separation of solid blood
outward force on the particles in the mixture. The particles from plasma.
heavier particles experience more force and make
their way to the outer edge first, leaving smaller
particles behind.
Magnetic A magnet is used to attract magnetic particles leaving Separate metals from plastics
separation non-magnetic particles behind. for recycling.
Electrostatic Gas containing solid particles is passed in between Removal of particles from
separation two electrodes. The solid particles are attracted to the smoke produced by a factory.
electrodes, separating them from the gas.
Froth flotation Crushed ore is mixed with liquid and other Refining of copper ore.
chemicals. Air is passed through the mixture creating
bubbles. The ore sticks to the surface of the bubbles
and can be skimmed off the top while sand and rock
fall to the bottom.
Evaluating
16 The test tubes are at an angle to drive the sediment to the bottom of the test tube.
17 The paper is folded to increase the surface area. This will allow more oil to pass through and
therefore make the filtration process quicker.
Creating
18
19 Design task

Prac 1: Filtration
Common mistakes
Check the filter paper for tears. Wet the filter paper inside the funnel with a little water to help the
filter paper stick to the sides. This will ensure that the liquid does not run under the filter paper.
Possible results
The copper sulfate particles are much smaller than the chalk particles and can pass through the filter
paper. The chalk particles are too large to pass through the filter paper and remain in the funnel.
Suggested answers
1 The copper sulfate particles must be much smaller than the chalk particles because they can pass
through the filter paper. The chalk particles are insoluble and ‘clump’ together making them too
large to pass through the pores of the filter paper.
2 Student answer.
3 The copper sulfate may be recovered from the solution by evaporating the water.
Prac 2: Gravitational separation

Common mistakes
Ensure that the rubber stopper is tightly fitted before shaking the flask. Select soil samples that contain
different-sized particles so that significant results can be observed.
Possible results
Depends on the soil samples selected. Particles of soil will be layered according to their weight.
Suggested answers
1 Depends on the soil samples. Heavier particles will migrate to the bottom of the flask.
2 The particles of soil were layered according to their weight. Heavier particles sank to the bottom
of the flask. The lighter particles floated to the top.
3 Filter with filter paper.
Prac 3: Magnetic separation

Common mistakes
Iron filings can be difficult to clean up if spilt. Perform the experiment over trays to make spills easier
to clean up.
Possible results
The sand and iron filing mixture is separated using a magnet.
Suggested answers
1 It allowed the magnet to slide easily above the top of the mixture.
2 It kept the surface of the magnet from being covered with difficult-to-remove iron filings.
3 A large magnet could be used to sort steel from aluminium (which is not magnetic) at a recycling
plant. Electromagnets are often used in industry because it is easier to clean the metal off them.
3.3 Answers
Remembering
1 Table salt, sugar, carbon dioxide
2 In a mixture of liquids, a fraction is one liquid that boils at a different temperature to the other
liquids in the mixture.
3 Chalk, oil, sand
Understanding
4 Saltpans are giant areas filled with salt water. The large area means the energy from the Sun can
be used to evaporate the water, leaving behind the salt.
5 In distillation, the evaporated solvent is cooled, recondensed and stored.
6 Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of many soluble compounds assuming some
molecules travel faster through the medium than others.
7 When a solvent is added to a drop of ink or dye on a medium like filter paper, the solvent travels
through the medium quickly, carrying the dye with it. However, some molecules travel quickly
through the medium while the other dye molecules lag behind. As a result the different colours
separate depending on their molecular size and attraction to the medium.
Applying
8 Used to distill alcohols like whiskey, used to purify salt water, used to get fractions from
crude oil.
9 a Bitumen for making roads
b Lubricants for oiling machinery
c Waxes for making candles
d Kerosene for lamps
e Fuel for jets
f Petrol for cars
10 a Sponge, silica gel

b Carbon in the form of charcoal
11 a Evaporation
b Distillation
c Chromatography
d Absorption
Analysing
12
Separation method Brief description Example

Evaporation The mixture is boiled so that the solvent evaporates, Salt from sea water.
leaving behind the solute.
Distillation A solution is boiled to evaporate the solvent but the Purification of water.
solvent vapour is captured, cooled and collected in a
separate vessel.
Absorption Gas or liquid with contaminant is passed through a Silica gel to absorb water
medium that absorbs these contaminants to purify the vapour.
gas or liquid.
Chromatography A mixture of substances with large and small particles Separating the colours of
(e.g. a dye) is dissolved in a solvent and dispersed in a pen inks.
solid medium (e.g. filter paper). The solvent travels
rapidly through the medium carrying the mixture of
substances with it. However, the small molecules travel
faster through the medium than the larger molecules,
causing them to separate.
Evaluating
13 It will absorb the moisture from your stomach and gut, which will seriously dehydrate you.
14 Place the sea water in a large container with an empty collection vessel in the middle. Cover the
container with a clear plastic sheet and place a weight on the sheet above the collection vessel.
Place it in direct sunlight. The water will evaporate, collect on the sheet, fall to the point created
by the weight and drip into the collection vessel.
Creating
15

Prac 1: Separation by evaporation
Common mistakes
Be careful not to burn the sugar or salt at the final stages of evaporation. Turn off the Bunsen burner
just before the last drop of water disappears.
Possible results
When the salt or sugar solution is heated, the water evaporated from the solution leaves behind salt
and sugar crystals.
Suggested answers
1 Solid crystals began to appear as the last of the water disappeared.
2 The hot crystals can ‘spit’ as the last of the water is removed and this is dangerous. If soft drink
was used the sugar can also burn, which is smelly.
3 It turned to water vapour (gas) and was dispersed into the atmosphere of the room. (The room
might now be noticeably more humid unless the windows are open.)
Prac 2: A simple distillation

Common mistakes
Use different paperclips for each flame test. This will ensure that only the solution being tested is
involved and not the residue from the previous flame test.
Possible results
The paperclip dipped into the distillate should not produce a coloured flame showing that the water
had been separated from the salt through distillation.
Suggested answers
1 The paperclip dipped in the salt solution produced a orange flame indicating the presence of
sodium ions. The paperclip dipped into the water did not produce an orange flame. The paperclip
dipped into the distillate did not produce an orange flame showing that the water had been
separated from the salt through distillation.
2 It is important to use different paperclips to ensure that only the solution being tested is involved
and not the residue from the previous flame test.
Prac 3: Survival distillation

Common mistakes
Ensure that the plastic bag and plant can bear the weight of any collected water. Ensure that you have
permission from the appropriate authority if you must collect water on council or private property.
Possible results
Plants give off water vapour though their leaves. This water can be collected by enclosing the leaves
in a plastic bag so that the vapour condenses into droplets in the bag.
Suggested answers
1 Student response.
2 It comes from the leaves through tiny pores on the undersides of the leaves.
3 This method of water collection would be very useful if stranded in the desert because plant
respiration does not depend on light; it occurs at night as well as during the day, providing a
continuous supply of water.
Prac 4: Chromatography of Textas and Smarties

Common mistakes
Allow enough time for the colour to spread.
Possible results
Different colours travel at different rates. Colours that have different solubilities will be carried at
different rates by the solvent. Those that are more soluble will travel further.
Suggested answers
1 Answers will vary depending on the materials chosen.
2 The molecules move at different speeds.
3 A real Smartie of that colour could be tested alongside the suspect lolly. If it was a Smartie the
chromatogram (set of colour bands produced by chromatography) should be nearly identical.
3.4 Answers
Remembering
1 a Chlorine
b Fluoride
2 Flocculation—the process of electrolytes binding with particles in the water, causing them to
clump together.
3 Bacteria
4 Sink, toilet, bath, shower, drains
5 Mixture
Understanding
6 The ocean, rivers, streams, plants, animals, people
7 Rainwater can pick up impurities from the atmosphere such as smog, from the ground, drain etc.
8 Bacteria break down all the organic materials, processing them into gas and soluble substances
that can be returned to the soil. Matter that cannot be broken down by the bacteria is left behind.
9 Bacteria are living things, so require oxygen to live, grow and reproduce.
10 Chlorine is poisonous so we can only tolerate a small amount in the water we drink. It is,
however, safer to swim in so swimming pools have a higher dose. Also, because swimming pools
are often in direct sunlight the conditions are more favourable for growing bacteria, so more
chlorine is necessary.
11 The trees around a water source absorb impurities in the water through their roots.
Applying
12 a Screen (Filtration)—filters rocks and large objects.
b Aeration tank (Gravitational)—bacteria convert biodegradable wastes into soluble substances
that react with chemicals to form solids that fall out.
c Separation tank (Gravitation separation/Decanting)—bacterial and other solid wastes are
allowed to settle before decanting the water.
d Pebble filters (Filtration)—suspended particles are removed by the pebble filters.
e Disinfection (Not technically a separate method)—UV light and chlorine are added to kill
bacteria etc.
13 Use water-saving shower heads, make sure there are no dripping taps, water the garden in the
evening, use a pool cover, switch to water-efficient appliances.
Analysing
14 Sewage is the waste produced by industry and households whereas sewerage is the system of
pipes used to remove this waste.
15 The sewage would float back to beaches and other residential areas. A huge increase in the
amount of bacteria and algae in the water could kill plant and animal life.
Evaluating
16 The runoff from catchment areas goes directly into our drinking water supply, so if the catchment
is contaminated so too is our drinking water.
17 The water gets used twice, once to watch the car and once to water the lawn. Detergents can be
absorbed by the lawn rather than running into the drain.
18 Fertiliser, food for some animals, it can even be turned into fuels.
19 The S-bend traps water to stop smells coming up from the sewerage system and stop things
falling down the sink into the sewerage system.
Creating
20 Design task.
21 Design task.

Prac 1: Water purification
Common mistakes
If the hole in the container is made too large, the soil particles may pass through it.
Possible results
Sand and stones are used to purify dirty water. The more filtration stages involved, the more pure the
product will be.
Suggested answers
1 Various answers. The sand and stone will usually be quite effective.
2 Various answers. More stages could be added.
Prac 2: Testing flocculation chemicals

Common mistakes
Allow the muddy water to stand for a few minutes to separate out some sediment.
Possible results
The most effective flocculation chemicals clumped the suspended particles together. The clumps fell
to the bottom as sediment.
Suggested answers
1 Various answers, which depend on student results.
2 Flocculation chemicals work better with suspended particles as the remaining fluid still contains
particles in solution.
3 The flocculent could be removed by waiting for the clumps to settle to the bottom and then
collected or the liquid decanted. Alternatively, filtration could be used.
Prac 3: Separating artificial sewage

Common mistakes
Student-designed experiments should be assessed by the teacher for safety and feasibility before
carrying out the experiment.
Possible results
Students design their methods of treating sewage. Results will vary depending on the method chosen.
Suggested answers
Student report
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 A solution is a mixture in which substances are mixed at the atomic level. The particles in a
suspension are much bigger and will fall to the bottom of the dispersion medium with time.
2 a Dilute
b Concentrated
3 Crushing rocks to release the ore.
4 To protect from tooth decay.
Understanding
5 a Sieving—a mixture containing various sized particles is placed into a container with holes.
Small particles fall while bigger particles remain.
b Filtration—a liquid or gas containing small solid particles is passed through a medium with
very small holes (the filter). The holes allow the gas or liquid to pass though but trap the solid
particles.
6 Each substance has a different boiling point. To separate them the temperature is increased until
the substance with the lowest boiling point has boiled off. Then, the temperature is increased to
the boiling point of the next substance and so on.
7 Rainwater may be contaminated from gas and particles in the air such as smog or from pipes and
the ground.
8 This allows fine particles suspended in the water to fall to the bottom i.e. sediment.
9 Aeration is required to provide the bacteria with oxygen to respire, grow and reproduce.
10 Chlorine and irradiation with UV light.
11 The particles that make up the solid (atoms or molecules) are each surrounded by liquid particles
and dispersed thinly and evenly throughout the liquid.
12 a Decant the contents, evaporate and collect the pure water leaving salt behind.
b Let the sand settle and decant.
c Pass the mixture through a fine filter.
13 Floc is a substance that is formed when electrolytes are added to untreated water. The electrolytes
bind suspended particles causing them to clump together.
Applying
14 shampoo, coffee, tap water, cake mix etc.
15 a Turpentine
b Paint
16 Fuels—powering vehicles, heating
Oils—lubricating machinery, car engines
Natural gases—home stovetop, laboratory
17 Gravitational separation
18 Removing water in a washing machine, separating solid parts of blood from its plasma,
separating milk and cream
19 Gas absorption e.g. in a gas mask. The air containing the unwanted gas is passed through
charcoal. The unwanted gas sticks to the charcoal.
20 A solvent is added to a dye in a medium like filter paper. The solvent travels through the medium
quickly, carrying the dye with it. Some molecules travel quickly through the medium whereas
other molecules lag behind. This could be used in forensics to see what pen was used to write a
letter etc.
21 a Turpentine
b Kerosene
c Nail polish remover—acetone or ethyl acetate
Analysing
22 The detergent allows the oil and water to mix and form an emulsion. The oil then sinks to the
bottom.
23 a Solvent—water, solute—copper sulfate.
b The solubility increases.
c Heating the solution gives the water particles more energy to break apart the particles in the
solid and keep them in solution.
d
e The amount of solute dissolved would also double. It would be like taking two beakers of 100
mL of saturation solution at 20°C and adding them together.
Evaluating
24 The coffee filters have very small holes that allow the hot liquid to pass through while blocking
the large, solid particles of the ground-up coffee beans. You could try to create your own filter by
using many layers of tissue paper or a fine mesh.
25 The castor sugar would dissolve faster. Because the caster sugar is made of smaller crystals, it has
much more of its surface exposed to the water particles, so more sugar particles can dissolve at
one time.
Creating
26 Design task.
27 Design task.
2.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Computer models, scale models, theoretical models, the atomic model, the particle model.
2 Solid—wood, ice, gold nugget, paper, plastic
Liquid—water, vegetable oil, wine, vinegar, alcohol
Gas—nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium, fluorine
3 Whether a substance is solid, liquid, gas or plasma
Understanding
4 Anything that has mass. The ‘stuff’ that makes up all solids, liquids and gases.
5 Brownian motion is the random motion of small particles on the surface of water as they are
being knocked about by the invisible water molecules. It was first discovered by Robert Brown, a
botanist who was studying pollen particles in water using a microscope.
6 A solid is a substance whose atoms are locked in place—bound tightly to neighbouring atoms
such that they cannot move past each other without breaking the solid.
7 Each particle in the solid is surrounded by particles from the liquid and distributed evenly
throughout the liquid.
8 The fact that a gas confined to one corner of a room (say ammonia in a bottle) will diffuse to all
other corners of the room suggests that particles of gas are not bound as tightly to one another as
those in solids and they are free to move about independently. Diffusion of two coloured liquids
shows that the particles can mix together uniformly to produce a solution of a uniform colour
suggesting that the particles are moving randomly.
9 To ensure that the model holds true time after time under any circumstances. It also ensures that
there wasn’t a simple mistake made during the experiment.
10 In the particle model the particles in gases are very far apart so it is easy to push them closer
together. On the other hand, it is very difficult to push the particles in solids and liquids closer
together because the particles sit right next to each other with little free space in between.
11 The foam rubber contains many bubbles of air. When a force is applied, it is actually these
bubbles of air that are being compressed.
Applying
12 a Minestrone soup
b Soda water
c Ice
d Glass of water
13 a Perfume particles make their way across a room by the process of diffusion. They travel in a
straight line until they hit another gas molecule but eventually they will disperse to all corners
of the room.
14 a Subjective
b Objective
c Objective
d Subjective
Analysing
15
Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Definite No definite shape No definite shape
Ease of compression Very low Very low Very high
Bonds between particles Strong Weak None
Movement of particles Vibrations only Medium Very high
Take the shape of the bottom of
Ability to flow Do not flow Fill their container
their container
Expand when heated Very little A little A lot
Contract when cooled Very little A little A lot
Evaluating
16 This statement is true. Without bonds or attraction there would be nothing to keep the particles in
a liquid from drifting apart like a gas. We can see the forces between liquid molecules because of
water tension, the formation of a meniscus and bubbles. They are particularly evident in viscous
liquids like honey in which the particles stick together in long strands.
17 Liquids are incompressible, which means that when we apply pressure to the brake pedal a liquid
will transfer this pressure immediately to the brake for a quick stop in an emergency. However,
shock absorbers need to be compressible to smooth out the bumps in the road, therefore a gas is
required.
18 a As a solid is heated, the very strong bonds that hold the particles together are broken but the
particles remain weakly attracted to each other allowing them to move past each other but not
fly apart.
b As a liquid is heated, the particles have enough energy to break the weak bonds of attraction.
As a result, they fly apart to become a gas.
Creating
19
20 Design task.

Prac 1: Particle role play
Common mistakes
This experiment would lend itself well to a large group exercise rather than a small group exercise.
Possible results
Students use role play to simulate how particles move in a solid, liquid and gas. To demonstrate a
solid, students link together and vibrate in a fixed position. To demonstrate a liquid students move
freely with small spaces between them. To demonstrate a gas, students move very fast in all directions
with large spaces between them, bumping into each other and the walls of the room.
Suggested answers
Student response.
Prac 2: Plasticine particle models

Common mistakes
Soft malleable plasticine will assist this exercise. If the plasticine is too hard, place on paper towel and
microwave for a very brief time (too long and it melts).
Possible results
Students build a model showing the arrangements of particles in various solids. The most common
pattern should be spheres arranged in a body-centred cubic pattern.
Suggested answers
1 Answers will depend on the creativity of students. At least four arrangements should be made
easily.
2 Solids
Prac 3: Silly putty

Common mistakes
Students may be tempted to add larger amounts of borax or PVA mixture in order to maximise the
quantity of the product, producing an undesirable result. Pre-measured quantities will reduce the
chances of this happening.
Possible results
Silly putty can be classified as solid when compressed and liquid when allowed to sit.
Suggested answers
1 Should bounce well if rolled into a firm ball.
2 Spreads into a puddle.
3 Changes to fit shape of the container.
4 Can be classified as solid when compressed, and liquid when allowed to sit.
Prac 4: Comparing viscosity

Common mistakes
A large rather than small range of viscous liquids will assist this experiment.
Possible results
Answers will depend on the design of the experiment. An example of an experimental design to test
the viscosity of a liquid is to place the tested liquid in a measuring cylinder, then drop a marble or
small ball into the liquid. The time taken for the ball to reach the bottom of the measuring cylinder is
recorded. The longer it takes for the ball to reach the bottom of the cylinder, the more viscous the
liquid.
Suggested answers
1 Student response.
2 Student response.
Prac 5: Compressibility
Common mistakes
Ensure that the rubber stopper is not damaged or loosely fitted otherwise the water or gas will leak and
will not be compressed.
Possible results
Gas can be compressed as there is space between particles. Liquids cannot be compressed as there is
no space between liquid particles.
Suggested answers
1 Gas.
2 Liquid particles are already close together and have little room to be compressed, whereas gas
particles are far apart and have space between them, allowing compression.
Prac 6: Diffusion of food dye

Common mistakes
Instruct students to use one or two drops of food dye. Too much dye will make it difficult for the
students to observe the dye diffusing into the water.
Possible results
The random motion of the water molecules will act to mix the dye molecules through the water as the
water molecules collide with the dye molecules. This process is called ‘diffusion’. The diffusion
process will occur faster at higher temperatures because the water molecules are moving around
faster.
Suggested answers
1 The colour is spread evenly around and is not more concentrated at the bottom, which gravity
alone would cause to occur.
2 The diffusion process will occur faster at higher temperatures because the water molecules are
moving around faster.
3 Particles in water are constantly moving and bumping into each other. When dye is added, the
water particles bump into and move the dye particles around randomly, so they eventually spread
evenly throughout the water particles.
2.2 Answers
Remembering
1 a Vaporisation or evaporation
b Condensation
c Sublimation
2 Solidification
3 a Freezing
b Evaporation
4 a 100°C
b 1064°C
c 60°C
d −78.5°C
5 Carbon dioxide, iodine, naphthalene, graphite.
Understanding
6 When ice reaches the melting point of water (0°C) the strong bonds holding the water particles
together tightly are broken. At this point, the particles are still weakly attracted to each other but
are free to move.
7 When water boils the water particles have enough energy to overcome the weak bonds of
attraction that keep the liquid water particles together. When these bonds are broken, the particles
fly apart to form a gas either at the surface as vapour or within the liquid as bubbles.
8 Melting and freezing are the same process in reverse.
Applying
9 Boiling water on the stove for cooking— liquid to gas.
Spreading butter on hot toast—solid to liquid.
Steam from the shower fogging up the mirror—gas to liquid.
10
11 B
12 D
13 B
14 Although the maximum temperature of water is 100°C, the temperature of steam can be much
greater, causing far more severe burns. This is because heat is released when steam condenses on
skin.
Analysing
15 Both evaporation and boiling involve breaking bonds between particles in a liquid to form a gas.
However, evaporation occurs across a range of temperatures. Boiling only takes place above the
boiling point. Also, evaporation only occurs at the surface of a liquid, whereas boiling takes place
throughout the liquid.
16 a Liquid
b Liquid
c Gas
d Gas
17 It would remain solid, as its melting point is 60°C.
18 a Evaporation can occur at any temperature between the melting and boiling points.
Occasionally, particles at the surface of a liquid randomly gain enough energy to overcome
the weak bonds between liquid particles and fly off to form a gas. This becomes more likely
as the temperature of the liquid increases.
b i Evaporation would still occur but at a slower rate.
ii The evaporation would be faster.
Evaluating
19 Dry ice is much better than water ice for producing fog because CO2 is a denser gas so stays close
to the ground. Also, dry ice causes a fog to form at room temperature, whereas water would need
to be boiled at 100°C and have the air temperature quite cool. Moreover, because dry ice
sublimes there is no liquid left over once the fog has been produced.

Prac 1: Ice to water to steam temperature graph
Common mistakes
Heating too fast will not allow the graph to flatten while melting is occurring. Students need to supply
a constant amount of heat in order to get a smooth line graph.
Possible results
The graph should rise as the temperature of the steam increases. The graph should appear flat while a
change of state is occurring, such as the ice melting and the water boiling.
Suggested answers
1 Typically, the graph will start just above zero and stay flat for a while. It will then rise fairly
smoothly to 100°C and plateau there for the rest of the experiment.
2 To supply a constant amount of heat so the temperature rises steadily.
3 The ice blocks are at a temperature of 0°C but the water around them is at a slightly higher
temperature because it is receiving energy from the air in the room.
4 The graph cannot go above 100°C so it should have a flat section at the end. It may also have a
flat section at the start, because the energy is being used to melt the ice rather than to increase
the temperature of the water.
5 The temperature graph for the steam would rise upwards as its temperature increases.
Prac 2: CO2 hovercraft

Common mistakes
The film canister will hover more evenly if the holes in the lid are small and evenly spaced.
Possible results
As the dry ice sublimes, the gaseous carbon dioxide inside the film canister takes up more space than
the solid carbon dioxide, forcing the gas out of the holes and creating a cushion of carbon dioxide that
keeps the canister above the bench.
Suggested answers
1 It sublimes.
2 It changes from solid to gas without passing through the liquid phase.
3 The particles change from being tightly packed to widely spaced.
4 The gaseous carbon dioxide takes up more space than the solid carbon dioxide forcing the gas
out of the holes creating a cushion of carbon dioxide keeping the canister above the bench.
Prac 3: Teacher demonstration: Iodine sublimation

Common mistakes
Overheating the test tube may cause it to break. Heat the test tube gently.
Possible results
When heated, solid iodine crystals sublime directly into a gas.
Suggested answers
1 The iodine was a solid at the start of the demonstration. Upon heating, it sublimed directly into a
gas.
2 No liquid formed.
3 Solid purple crystals of iodine.
4 The substance moved and floated in air like gas. The particles were obviously free to
move around.
2.3 Answers
Remembering
1 The pressure increases.
2 Between 0°C and 4°C.
3 Liquids expand more when heated. In solids and liquids, expansion is caused by the particles
vibrating and taking up more space. In liquids, the bonds between particles are weaker so that
they are free to vibrate more and take up more space.
4 Pyrex, platinum, concrete, brass
Understanding
5 The particles vibrate more, pushing each other apart.
6 The gas particles are travelling very fast and hitting the sides of the container.
7 The particles are fixed in place but vibrate more rapidly as the solid is heated. At the melting
point, the bonds are broken and they are free to move.
8 With a clinical thermometer you are mainly interested in the maximum temperature of a patient.
A constriction maintains this temperature while reading the thermometer. In a laboratory, you
may be interested in how the temperature increases or decreases, depending on the experiment.
Therefore a constriction would not be helpful.
9 Invar expands and contracts only a very small amount when heated, meaning the instruments will
remain stable.
10 A clinical thermometer has a constriction that reduces the rate at which the liquid flows back into
the bulb. Shaking the thermometer helps to return the thermometer back to its normal state.
Applying
11 Thermometer, ceiling fire sprinkler
12 a When two materials need to be fused together the one that expands more can cause the other
to break. Solution: Find two materials that have similar expansion coefficients e.g. steel and
concrete for reinforced concrete.
b Large structures made of rigid material such as bridges can break as the material expands and
contracts with changing weather conditions. Solution: Engineer gaps in the structure to allow
for the extra length when the structure is hot.
13
Analysing
14 a Aluminium
b Invar
c Concrete
d Glass
e Glass and platinum
f Iron
15 a Glass—0.009 mm per °C
Platinum—0.009 mm per °C
b They are the same.
c The filament in a light globe gets very hot. If the glass did not expand at the same rate as the
filament, the filament would sag as it heated and tighten as it cooled, so that it would break
after only a short time.
16 a 1.1 mm
b 0.003 mm
c 0.22 mm
d 0.6 mm
17 Iron and Aluminium
Evaluating
18 Both mercury and alcohol have freezing points much lower than 0°C and mercury can go much
higher than 100°C before boiling. Alcohol expands much more than water when heated so
changes in temperature are more obvious.
19 The gaps accommodate changes in length of the bridge caused by thermal expansion. Without the
gaps the bridge might buckle.
20 As it is heated and cooled the metal grill expands and contracts, rubbing against the other metal
parts, causing these sounds.
Creating
21
22
10-m length expansion table
Temperature 1ºC 10ºC 100ºC
Solid Expansion amount (mm)

Invar 0.01 0.1 1.0
Wood 0.03 0.3 3.0
Pyrex 0.03 0.3 3.0
Glass 0.09 0.9 9.0
Platinum 0.09 0.9 9.0
Steel 0.11 1.1 11.0
Concrete 0.11 1.1 11.0
Iron 0.12 1.2 12.0
Brass 0.19 1.9 19.0
Aluminium 0.25 2.5 25.0

Prac 1: Ball and hoop
Common mistakes
Students may accidentally heat the chain.
Possible results
When cool, the ball fits through the hoop, but when heated it expands and does not fit.
Suggested answers
1 This activity demonstrates that solids expand when heated.
2 Placing the ball in the freezer or under cold water.
Prac 2: The bimetallic strip

Common mistakes
A yellow flame will not produce enough heat to bend the bimetallic strip. A blue flame will assist this
exercise.
Possible results
When heated, the bimetallic strip bends away from the flame as in Fig 2.3.4..
Suggested answers
1 The bimetallic strip bends away from the flame.
2 The side of the strip that is heated will expand more quickly than the opposite side. Therefore, it
is the ‘outside’ of the curve that has expanded the most.
Prac 3: Expanding air

Common mistakes
Ensure that the balloon is weighted just enough to keep it at the bottom of the beaker.
Possible results
As the water is heated, the gas inside the balloon expands. As the balloon expands, water is displaced,
causing an upthrust which will cause the balloon to float.
Suggested answers
1 The balloon expanded.
2 Gas pressure increases with heat as the particles move faster and take up more space, creating
expansion.
3 As the balloon expands, water is displaced, creating an upthrust.
Prac 4: The gas thermometer

Common mistakes
Ensure that the rubber stopper and tubing is well sealed before inverting the flask. It is important to
remove all air bubbles from the flask and tubing. This can be done by carefully tilting the flask until
the air bubble is dislodged.
Possible results
When hands are placed around the flask, the air inside heats up and expands, causing the liquid level
in the glass tubing to rise. When the flask is cooled, the air contracts, causing the liquid level in the
glass tubing to drop.
Suggested answers
1 Hands heated the air in the flask, causing the air to expand.
2 Cooling the air caused the air to contract.
3 When the air expanded the liquid level in the glass tubing rose; when the air contracted the liquid
level in the glass tubing dropped.
4 A temperature scale could be marked on the glass tubing.
2.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Neither, they both weigh the same amount.
2 How much mass it has per unit volume e.g. how many grams per cubic centimeter
3 a 1.0 g/cm3
b 0.3 g/cm3
c 8.9 g/cm3
d 18.9 g/cm3
4 Its mass and volume
5 a volume (V) = length (L) × width (W) × height (H)
b density = mass ÷ volume
Understanding
6 If the object is a regular shape you can use a mathematical formula. If it is irregular you can
measure the volume by seeing how much water it displaces.
7 Measure the density of the object and the liquid. If the object is more dense than the liquid then it
will sink. If it is less dense than the liquid it will float.
8 An egg is slightly more dense than pure water so it sinks. Adding salt to the water makes the
water more dense until it is more dense than the egg. At this point, the egg will float.
9 The steel hull is hollow and contains a lot of air, which is less dense than water. In total, the
density of the air and the steel combined is less than that of water. Another way of looking at it is
that although the steel hull has a large mass it has an even larger volume, so its density is less
than 1.0 g/cm3.
Applying
10 3 g/cm3
11 24 cm3
12 960 g/cm3
13 90 – 70 = 20 cm3
14 1.6 g/cm3
Analysing
15 a 2 g/cm3
b 1.1 g/cm3
c 1.8 g/cm3
d 77 kg/cm3 or 77 000 g/cm3
16 1.5 g/cm3
17 10 cm3
18 2400 g or 2.4 kg
19 75.6 g
20 100 000 g or 100 kg
Evaluating
21 Cedar is less dense than oak.
22 Brand B is denser. It has the same mass packed into a tighter volume.
23 Measure the mass of the beaker. Add 100 mL (100 cm3) of the oil then measure the mass of the
oil and beaker. Subtract the mass of the beaker from the total to find the mass of the oil. Divide
the mass by 100 (from the 100 cm3 volume) to get the density.
Creating
24

Prac 1: Density of cubes
Common mistakes
Accuracy in weighing and measuring will assist this exercise.
Possible results
volume = length × width × height
density = mass ÷ volume
Suggested answers
1 volume = length × width × height
= 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 cm3
2 Calculated densities for similar substances were similar. Substances have the same density
regardless of size or shape.
3 Answers depend on the substances available.
Prac 2: Density of irregular objects

Common mistakes
To prevent the measuring cylinder from cracking when heavy objects are placed inside, place a solid
rubber stopper at the bottom to cushion the force of the object.
Possible results
The density of irregular-shaped objects is found by measuring the rise in the water level.
Suggested answers
1 Answers will vary depending on the objects chosen.
2 Possible sources of error are measuring the mass of the objects, reading the scale of the
measuring cylinder, air bubbles trapped in or on the materials, errors in the amount of water
placed in the measuring cylinder and forgetting to refill the cylinder after each trial (i.e. water
loss).
Prac 3: Density of liquids

Common mistakes
Assess each student design to ensure that the equipment requested by the students is available.
Possible results
Students design their own experiment to determine the density of various liquids. Results will vary
depending on the liquids chosen.
Suggested answers
1 A cup or beaker would be weighed empty, then a set amount of liquid poured into it and the cup
or beaker weighed again. Subtracting the mass of the empty cup from the total mass gives the
mass of liquid.
2 Distinct layers should be seen, with the least dense on the top and the densest on the bottom.
Prac 4: Average density

Common mistakes
Soft malleable plasticine will assist this exercise. If the plasticine is too hard, place on paper towel and
microwave for very brief time (too long and it melts).
Possible results
The plasticine ball takes up a smaller space than the flatter-shaped plasticine. The larger plasticine
shape pushes more water out of the way than the ball and creates enough upward force to cause it to
float.
Suggested answers
1 Make the plasticine flatter and wider.
2 By making it flatter and wider, more water is displaced, which then creates more support for the
plasticine, helping it to float.
3 A steel ship will float, as its shape displaces a large amount of water and the weight of water
displaced weighs much more than the ship. An iron block will sink because its shape displaces
less water than its weight.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Solid, liquid, gas
2 Solid—metal fork, liquid—water, gas—air

3
To solid To liquid To gas

Melting Sublimation
From solid
Freezing Vaporisation
From liquid
Sublimation Condensation
From gas
4 Carbon dioxide, iodine, naphthalene, graphite

5 Contraction
6 Gas
Understanding
7 Brownian motion—the random motion of small particles on the surface of water.
Diffusion—liquids can break apart into particles that can mix together uniformly to produce a
solution of a uniform colour.
Others include compressibility, melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, dissolving, expansion,
contraction, pressure and general properties of solids, liquids and gases.
8 A model is a simplified view of something. It is used to help understand things and predict things
that cannot be observed directly.
9 See the answer to question 7.
10 The hot part of the plate expands rapidly, putting a large force on the cooler side causing it to
crack.
11 A thermometer has a bulb of liquid connected to a thin tube or capillary. When the liquid in the
bulb is heated it expands and moves up the capillary. The change in temperature can be
determined by how far the liquid moved.
12 The gas particles move very fast and collide with the sides of the container causing pressure.
Applying
13 D—Because unlike other liquids water contracts when heated from 0°C and 4°C.
14 As it thaws the soup changes from solid to liquid (melting). As it boils water changes from liquid
to gas (vaporisation).
15 Measure how much water it displaces in a large measuring cylinder.
16 a 100 cm3
b 11 g/cm3
17 Liquid
Analysing
18 The bonds in a solid are strong and hold the particles in place. The bonds in a liquid are weaker,
meaning the particles can move around, but don’t fly apart.
19 D and E
Evaluating
20 a False
b True
c False
21 The oil is thick and floats on top of the water so the fire on the surface is separated from the
water.
Creating
22
23 Design task.
24
1.1 Answers
Remembering
1 Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Geology, Ecology and Astronomy
2 DOs
• Do wear safety glasses
• Do tie hair back
• Do use an exhaust fan for smells
• Do call the teacher when accidents happen
DON’Ts
• Don’t eat
• Don’t drink
• Don’t smell chemicals
• Don’t pour things down the drain
3 a Silly
b Good
c Silly
d Silly
e Good
f Silly
g Good
h Good
i Silly
Understanding
4 • Hot equipment can cause burns.
• Broken glass can cause cuts.
• Spilt chemicals can cause slips and burns.
• Incorrect use of chemicals can cause explosions.
5 Chemicals, hot substances, splashing into eyes. Wear safety glasses to reduce the chance of
exposure to the elements above.
Applying
6 a Ecology
b Chemistry
c Geology
d Astronomy
e Ecology
f Physics
7 a Physics
b Biology
c Geology
d Biology
8 Burning hand, foreign objects in eye, swallowing poisonous substances, slipping on wet
substances, cutting of hand with broken glass.
10
Senses that would

Senses that you would Senses that you
Experiment give the most
use would not use
information
Testing the different abilities of strong Sight, hearing Sight Taste, touch,
acids to clean a sheet of metal smell
Testing how long milk takes to go off Sight, smell Smell Taste, hearing
Testing how long it takes for tomatoes Sight, smell Sight, smell Hearing
to ripen
Studying lava flowing from a volcano Sight, smell, hearing Sight Touch, taste
Testing a new pesticide Sight Sight Smell, taste, touch
Evaluating
11 Hazchem—hazardous chemicals in the area.
Radioactive—radioactive substance.
Gas 2—poisonous gas.
Hard hat—protective hard hat must be worn.
Crossed water tap—Don’t drink water from the tap.
Crossed lit match—No flames in the area.
12 a Call the teacher and remove the other students from the area.
b Check your gas tap is closed and call the teacher.
c Check if gas tap is closed.
d Turn the flame to a safety flame and inform others in the group.
13 There are more dangerous chemicals in science, the equipment and glassware used are more
dangerous and naked flames are used.
Creating
Prac 1: The mysterious case of the stolen sausages

Common mistakes
This experiment would lend itself well to a group exercise to aid students with lower comprehension
skills.
Possible results
Reading the story provided, students use deduction to discover that the dog stole the sausages.
Suggested answers
1 Who stole the sausages?
2 The neighbour’s lawn has been mowed, the sausages on the table are gone, the front window is
broken, glass lies everywhere, the vase is broken on the floor, the curtains are messed up, the
carpet is wet and muddy, strands of blond hair are on the window sill, a small stone is on the
coffee table, Fritz did not eat his food that night.
3 The neighbour and Fritz the dog.
4 Strands of blond hair on the windowsill.
5 a The dog (the correct answer).
b The stone, probably thrown up by the lawn mower through the window while the neighbour
was mowing the lawn.
c The window was broken before it started raining.
d The dog, climbing in the window.
e Lawn being mowed, stone breaks window, rain falls, dog enters window and breaks vase, puts
mud everywhere, dog eats sausages before exiting out window again.
1.2 Answers
Remembering
1 a Used to hold a crucible or evaporating basin on a tripod.
b To hold, store or heat a liquid or solid sample.
c To protect the eyes from dangerous substances entering the eye.
d To hold, store or heat a small quantity of liquid or solid.
e To measure the temperature of a substance.
f To correctly measure the volume of a liquid.
g To hold hot glassware or hot metals.
2
3 a Visible, pale yellow flame and it is relatively cool.
b Blue, noisy, burns efficiently without smoke and is extremely hot.
Understanding
4 The collar controls the amount of air that enters the burner and controls heat and colour of the
flame.
5 It is a safety flame because it is easily visible.
6 To eliminate the build-up of gas in the atmosphere before producing a naked flame.
7 The Bunsen burner is still hot and could cause burns.
8 A burning piece of paper is too dangerous to use because the flame is turned on. You could burn
yourself because it will increase the size and intensity of the flames.
Applying
9 a Thermometer
b Measuring cylinder
c Filter paper
d Beaker
10 a Microscope
b Thermometer
c Stopwatch
d Telescope
11 Hair not tied up around naked flame, touched hot equipment, lights a Bunsen burner with burning
paper, no safety goggles.
Analysing
12 a Hold and heat liquids, for chemical reactions and made of Pyrex.
b Made of Pyrex and can hold liquids.
c Used to hold other scientific equipment.
d Both used as a support while heating over a tripod.
e To heat and evaporate liquids.
Creating
13

Prac 1: What is it?
Common mistakes
A larger range of laboratory equipment will increase students’ knowledge and confidence for future
experiments.
Possible results
Students draw, classify and name common laboratory equipment.
Answers
Student results.
Prac 2: Lighting a Bunsen burner

Common mistakes
To avoid the match flame going out, instruct students to close the airhole before lighting the Bunsen
burner.
Possible results
Students learn how to light a Bunsen burner correctly and safely. They will observe that when the
airhole is open the flame is blue. This flame is used for heating.
Suggested answers
1 When the airhole is half-open, the flame is not as blue or as hot compared to when the hole is
fully open.
2 When the airhole is completely open, the flame is blue.
3 When the Bunsen burner is being lit, the airhole should be closed. This is because the gas moves
up more slowly and will not blow out the match. It also means the flame can be seen when it’s
alight.
Prac 3: Investigating the flame

Common mistakes
It is very common for a Bunsen burner to become blocked with spilt substances from previous
experiments. Ensure that the Bunsen burners are checked for any blockages and malfunctions prior to
use.
Possible results
Students investigate the flame of a Bunsen burner.
Suggested answers
Part 1: Flame temperature
1 If the wire glows red, this infers it is the hot part of the flame. No, the yellow flame is not hot
enough to make the gauze mat go red.
2 The markings caused by the blue flame are in the shape of the flame, and occur where the flame
is hottest.
3 The flame is hottest at the top part of the flame, at the tip of the blue triangle inside the flame and
coolest at the inner core of unburnt gas.
Part 2: Matches that won’t light!
1 The match does not light.
2 The flame at the centre near the collar is not actually burning, and is not too hot.
3 The pin became red at the edges.
4 The heat is greater at the edges of the flame, as it is burning at this location.
Part 3: Dirty and clean
1 In the blue flame, no residue is left on the porcelain. In the yellow flame, the porcelain goes black
while being heated.
2 The yellow flame could be called dirty.
3 The yellow flame is the cold flame.
Prac 4: How hot is hot?

Common mistakes
To avoid the match flame going out, instruct students to close the airhole before lighting the Bunsen
burner.
It is very common for a Bunsen burner to become blocked with spilt substances from previous
experiments. Ensure that the Bunsen burners are checked for any blockages and malfunctions prior to
use.
Possible results
It will take less time to boil water using the blue flame, as it is hotter than the yellow flame.
Suggested answers
1 Answer will depend on students’ results.
2 The beaker heated with the blue flame boiled first.
3 The blue flame was the hottest.
4 The blue flame was the hottest, as it took the least amount of time to boil the same amount of
water.
5 You can control the heat and colour by opening and closing the airhole. To control the heat you
can turn the gas down rather than change the flame colour.
6 Using the same quantity of water will ensure that the variable being tested is the flame.
Prac 5: Heating a test tube

Common mistakes
Instruct students to continually move the test tube in and out of the flame to ensure a more even heat
and to stop the contents boiling and shooting out.
Possible results
Students demonstrate how to heat a liquid in a test tube safely.
Suggested answers
1 It is dangerous to point test tubes at people, as the contents can boil and shoot out of the tube.
2 Test tubes must be kept moving to provide a more even heat and to stop the contents from boiling
and shooting out.
3 Tongs need to be kept near the top of the test tube to avoid them catching alight.
4 The test tube may roll off the bench or the contents could run out of the test tube onto the bench
top.
1.3 Answers
Remembering
1 a milligram, gram, kilogram, tonne
b millimetre, centimetre, metre, kilometre
2 a g
b kg
c L
d mL
e s
f °C
Understanding
3 a Qualitative observations are described using senses.
b Quantitative are observations using measurements.
c A meniscus is the curving of liquids in tubes due to surface tension.
d Mistakes can be avoided with care.
e Errors are not mistakes—they are slight changes in measurements that cannot be avoided no
matter how careful you are.
4 a A quantitative observation is one where numbers are involved.

b If we use a thermometer we are making a quantitative observation.
c The colour of a leaf is an example of qualitative measurement.
d An inference is a logical explanation about what happened in an experiment.
e A prediction is a logical guess about what might happen in the future.
f Metric units are used by scientists for measurement.
g The kilometre is an example of a metric unit.
h Metres could be used to measure the distance that a sprinter runs.
i There is 375 mL in a normal soft drink can.
j Mistakes are not the same as errors.
5 a When you need to guess the measurement because it falls between markings of the
measurement instrument.
b When your eye is not in direct line with the measurement.
c This is when the device reads a value other than zero even though nothing is being measured.
Applying
a Solid, grain, rough, crystalline, white, easily crushed
b Liquid, opaque, white, can be poured, takes shape of container
c Solid, white/cream, fine, flies everywhere, fragrance
d Solid, goldish/brass colour, round, ribbed edge, kangaroos on one side, Queen on reverse,
cold or warm
e Cannot be seen, can be felt when blown out, can be compressed, colourless
7 a Inference, prediction, observation
b Observation, prediction, inference
c Prediction, observation, observation
8 Prediction
9 a 150.25 g
b Time and distance missing
c Miles should be metric (km or m)
d 1.25 L not mL
e 158 cm not 158 m
10 Row 1 33.3 g
Row 2 23.3 g
Row 3 79.9 g
11 Mistakes that could have been avoided with more care.
Analysing
12 a 41 mL
b 4.4 mL
c 220 mL
d 14 mL
e 27.2 g
f 199.7 g
g 50 min
h 150 min
i 17.4 cm
j 48 g
k 110 g
l 42 s
13 When the solid was added to the liquid in the test tube it dissolved. As it dissolved the
temperature increased, a gas was produced and the solution changed colour.
14 a Inference
b Inference
c Inference
d Prediction
e Prediction
f Inference
g Prediction
h Prediction
Creating
15
Time Temperature of
(min) solution (°C)
0 15
1 18
2 21
3 35
4 40
5 51
6 63
7 70
Time Temperature of
(min) solution (°C)
8 76
9 100

Prac 1: The burning question!
Common mistakes
If the candle is only alight for a short period of time a significant difference in mass cannot be
obtained. Instruct the students to keep the candle alight for a long period of time to obtain an
observable difference in mass.
Possible results
Qualitative observation—the candle went out when the gas jar was placed over the candle.
Quantitative observation—the difference in the mass of the candle after burning.
Suggested answers
1 Many observations are possible. Most are qualitative except for the mass of the candle measured
on the balance.
2 They were different because some of the wax reacted to produce gas, which floated away.
Prac 2: Taking measurements

Common mistakes
Ensure that the equipment selected for this experiment uses a range of measuring devices with a
variety of units. A variety of sizes should also be included, such as a 100 mL and a 10 mL measuring
cylinder.
Possible results
All measurements will have a source of error.
Suggested answers
1 Not all the results on the paper will be the same.
2 Not everyone will be wrong. The measurement will depend on how the scale is read, particularly
if the amount falls between two graduated markings and an estimate is required.
3 Student response.
4 Most measurements will have a source of error. The source of error may depend on the quality of
the equipment or human error, such as misreading the meniscus.
5 Scientists may use different equipment to take the same measurement, may read scales slightly
differently or use a different technique, resulting in different results.
Prac 3: Oddball measuring

Common mistakes
Miscounting due to large numbers of Smarties, paper and heartbeats.
Possible results
Mass of a Smartie
Thickness of a single piece of A4 paper
Time for one heartbeat
Suggested answers
1 Each one is smaller than the smallest unit on the measuring device.
2 All Smarties are the same weight, all paper is the same thickness and all heartbeats are the same
length.
Prac 4: How massive?

Common mistakes
Students may misread the scale resulting in varied results.
Possible results
The beam balance should read zero when there is nothing in the pan and read 50 g when a 50 g weight
is placed in the pan.
Suggested answers
1 Zero.
2 It should be 50 g if weighed accurately and if the equipment is good quality.
3 The standard 50 g mass may not be 50 g exactly due to human error or inaccurate equipment or
the balance not being exactly on zero to begin with.
4 Zero error, parallax error or an equipment error.
Prac 5: Measurements and predictions

Common mistakes
For best results extreme measurements should be repeated.
Possible results
The length of the spaghetti is directly related to its mass.
Suggested answers
1 A line of best fit goes through most of the points on a graph so that it makes a smooth line that
represents a pattern in the data, without going through every point.
2 It should be quite close to the line of the graph, as the graph represents the average mass per
length of spaghetti.
3 As the length of the spaghetti increases so does its mass.
1.4 Answers
Remembering
1 Aim, hypothesis, equipment, risk assessment, method, results, discussion, conclusion.
2 Heading and units.
3 Labels, units and spacing that increases by same amount.
Understanding
4 The problem you would like to investigate.
5 A hypothesis is an educated guess of what you might find out in an experiment, whereas an
inference explains what happened based on observations.
Applying
6 a Equipment, risk assessment
b Quantities, list form, diagram
c Labels, units, correct equal spacing along axes
d Units
7 Fishing wire snaps when 250 g of weights are added and it stretches to 3.3 cm.
Analysing
8 Tony uses information provided to make an educated guess about what could happen.
9 a To investigate who stole the sausages.
b The golden retriever ate the sausages because there was golden hair on the floor and it wasn’t
hungry when fed.
c Sunny day, downpour of rain, howling winds, lawn has been mowed, sausages are missing,
pieces of glass everywhere, carpet is wet and marked with mud.
d The sausages were stolen and eaten by the golden retriever.

Prac 1: Spreading puddles
Common mistakes
Dark-lined graph paper will assist this exercise.
Possible results
As the drops of water increase so does the area covered.
Suggested answers
1 Answer will depend on student results.
2 As more drops are placed, the area increases.
3 Answer will depend on student results.
4 Graph should be similar to that shown in Fig 1.4.5
5 A suitable conclusion may be: As more drops are placed, the area increases.
Prac 2: Does salt make a difference?

Common mistakes
Factors such as the differences in the measured amounts of salt by tablespoon and the accuracy of
each thermometer may result in varying temperature readings for the boiling point of water.
Possible results
The boiling temperature of the salted water is higher than that of water.
Suggested answers
1 Student answer.
2 The boiling point of the salted water is higher than the boiling point of water.
3 Student answer.
4 Salt increases the boiling temperature of water.
5 Cooks add salt when they cook pasta or rice to increase the temperature of the water thereby
reducing cooking time.
1.5 Answers
Understanding
1 A variable is an element of an experiment that can be changed.
2 If more than one variable were changed, you couldn’t tell which one created the observed change
in the results.
Analysing
3 a Amount of water, nutrients, climate, temperature, sunlight.
b Size of potato, amount of water, temperature of potato, saucepan type
c Amount of fluids you drink, salt uptake, climatic temperature.
d The type of notes, the amount of study time, understanding of topic

and sleep before the exam.
4 a The amount of detergent used, water in the sink, the speed of the water out of the tap and the
temperature of the water.
b The temperature of the water.
c The amount of detergent used.
d The type of detergent and the amount of grease on dishes.
e Use a ruler to measure the height from the bottom of the sink.
5 Experiment 1
a To investigate if the speed of water from the tap affects the amount of froth produced.
b Sink ½ filled with hot water, 3 drops of detergent × 2, dropper, ruler.
c The hot water could burn so don’t place hand in the water.
d 1 Place the plug in the sink’s hole.
2 Place 3 drops of detergent into the sink.
3 Slowly run hot water from the tap until the sink is half full.
4 Measure the height of froth produced.
5 Repeat steps 1–4 but use fast hot running water in step 3.
e
Speed of water Height of froth

produced (cm)
Fast
Slow
Experiment 2
a To investigate if the amount of detergent affects the amount of froth produced.
b Sink ½ filled with water, 10 drops of detergent ×2, dropper, ruler
c Liquid spilling on the floor, a person can slip so mop up spills.
2 Place 1 drop of detergent into the sink.
3 Turn the tap on high until the sink is half full.
5 Repeat step 1–4 but in step 2 use 2 drops, then 3 and then 4 drops.
Number of drops of Height of froth

detergent produced (cm)
1
2
3
4
6 a To investigate if the temperature of the water affects the amount of froth produced.
b Sink half filled with water (cold, warm, hot), dropper, 5 drops of detergent for each test, ruler
c The hot water could burn so don’t place hand in the water. Liquid spilling on the floor, a
person can slip so mop up spills.
2 Place 5 drops of detergent into the sink.
3 Turn the cold tap on high until the sink is half full.
5 Repeat steps 1–4 but use fast warm and then fast hot running water in step 3.
e
Temperature of waterHeight of froth

produced (cm)
Cold
Warm
Hot

Prac 1: Froth production
Common mistakes
Check the plug to the sink for leaks before commencing this experiment.
Possible results
The variables tested in Joe’s experiments are the speed of water and the amount of detergent.
Suggested answers
1 The speed of the water, the amount of detergent.
2 Variables affect the results of the experiment.
3 Water temperature, the amount of water.
4 The amount of detergent.
Prac 2: Answering a question with an experiment

Common mistakes
Provide both worn and new tennis balls. New or less worn tennis balls will bounce higher and provide
better results.
Possible results
Variables that can affect the bounce height of the ball are the age of the ball, temperature, the height
from which the ball is dropped, the surface it is dropped onto.
Suggested answers
1 a Possible answers are the age of the ball, temperature, the height from which the ball is
dropped, surface it is dropped onto.
b The amount of hair on the ball, size of ball.
2 a Possible answers are higher temperature, new ball, high drop height, hard surface.
b Possible answers are an old ball, cold day, low height, soft surface.
Prac 3: Investigating variables

Common mistakes
Assess each student design to ensure that the equipment requested by the students is available.
Possible results
Students design their own experiment.
Suggested answers
Student answers.
Chapter answers
Remembering
1 Biology (living things), physics (forces and energy), chemistry (materials, chemicals and
reactions), geology (rocks and the Earth), astronomy (planets, stars and the Universe), ecology
(living things in their environment).
2 a Spatula—used for rough measuring of quantities and for delivery of chemicals.
b Beaker—to hold, store and heat substances.
c Measuring cylinder—to accurately measure volume of liquids.
d Tripod—to stand glassware over a Bunsen burner.
e Evaporating basin—to evaporate liquids and form crystals.
f Bunsen burner—flame used to heat chemicals.
4 i The airhole on the collar needs to be closed.

ii Light the match.
iii Turn on the gas tap.
iv Starting at the base, run the match up the barrel until the flame appears.
v Open the airhole.
5 a mg, g, kg, t
b s, min, h
c mm, cm, m, km
d °C
6 Aim, equipment, risk assessment, method, results, discussion and conclusion.
Understanding
7 It is called the safety flame because it is the coolest and easiest to see.
Applying
8 a Qualitative
b Quantitative
c Qualitative
d Quantitative
9 a Red in colour, thick, liquid, the smell, taste
b Cube, clear, colourless, cold, size, solid
c Amount, speed, colourless
d Colour, amount of grass, length, height, sharpness of tip
Analysing
10 Differences: In the yellow flame there is little air mixing with the gas, therefore it will not burn
well, producing an easily visible, pale yellow, relatively cool flame, whereas in the blue flame the
air mixes well with the gas, producing an extremely hot blue smokeless flame.
Similarities: Both use the same gas and are controlled by the airhole on the collar.
Evaluating
11 Oxygen is needed for fire to burn so when the airhole is open a greater amount of oxygen mixes
with the gas, producing a hotter flame.
Creating
An example follows:
Aim:
To investigate if hot chocolate cools down faster in a glass or polystyrene cup.
Equipment:
Hot milk 200 mL × 2
Chocolate powder 20 g × 2
Polystyrene cup
Glass cup
Teaspoon
Spatula
Measuring cylinder
Thermometer
Stopwatch
Risk:
Hot milk could burn; avoid placing hand in hot liquid.
Method:
1 Use a scale to weigh two lots of 20 g of chocolate powder.
2 Place one lot into the glass cup and the other into a polystyrene cup.
3 Add 200 mL of hot milk to each cup and stir.
4 Time how long each takes to cool to a certain temperature

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Answers to Science Focus 1 second edition Student Book questions

9.1 Practical activity

18 Student responses will vary.

9.2 Practical activities

Prac 2: Observing rocks

3 20 000 years old

Sedimentary rock Made from

Metamorphic rock Parent rock

9.3 Practical activities

Prac 2: Concrete evidence

9.4 Practical activities

Prac 2: Acid rain

9.5 Practical activities

Prac 2: An even wetter planet

9.6 Practical activities

6 a Average temperature is likely to increase leading to an increase in phenomena like melted

Job title Main tasks Skills required

Job title Main tasks Skills required

Month Southern hemisphere Northern hemisphere

17 Student responses will vary.

8.1 Practical activity

26 Student responses will vary.

8.2 Practical activities

Prac 2: Phases of the Moon

8.3 Practical activity

3 Student responses will vary. Examples:

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

18 Student responses will vary.

8.4 Practical activities

Prac 2: Classify the planets

Prac 3: Jumping on other planets

19 Inca tribes saw the Milky Way as pathways to ancestors.

Distance from Sun Day length (Earth

7.1 Practical activities

Prac 2: Build your own force-measuring device

7.2 Practical activities

Prac 2: Comparing friction

Prac 3: Constructing roller ball

7.3 Practical activities

Prac 2: Measuring mass and weight

Prac 3: Testing strength

7.4 Practical activities

Prac 2: Tug of war #2

Prac 3: Wonky tower

Prac 4: Creating lift

Prac 5 : Making an air foil

7.5 Practical activities

Prac 2: How do ships float?

Prac 3: A special case of floating

Prac 4: Sugar lumps and milk swirls

Prac 5: Five cents worth of water

d The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field.

Magnetic field is strongest at the poles.

7.6 Practical activities

Prac 2: Attracting and repelling

Prac 3: Magnetic fields

Type of force Where it’s used How it works

e Friction between tyres and roads