RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY
- the study of the structure and shape of the
body and body parts & their relationships to
one another.
- the term anatomy comes from the Greek
words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
- is the study of the structure and the
relationships among structures.
- the art of separating the parts of an
organism in order to ascertain their position,
relations, & structure
- cutting something up to see what’s inside
(structure)
- study of anatomy helps in understanding the
functions of body.
PHYSIOLOGY
- the study of how the body and its parts work
or function
- physio =nature
ology = the study of
- it has many subdivisions. For example,
neurophysiology explains the working of the
nervous system , and cardiac physiology
studies the function of the heart.
- is the study of the normal function of the
human body (to maintain life)
- Human physiology is the scientific study of
the chemistry and physics of the structures
of the body and the ways in which they work
together to support the functions of life.
- much of the study of physiology centers on
the body’s tendency toward homeostasis.
- Anatomy and Physiology are always related
- Structure determines what functions can
take place.
- For example, the lungs are not muscular
chambers like the heart and can not pump
blood, but because the walls of lungs are
very thin, they can exchange gasses and
provide oxygen to the body.
DIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
1.GROSS ANATOMY
- Structures that can be seen with the eye
- Muscles, bones, various organs
- A type of anatomy that can be undertaken
without a microscope
- considers large structures such as the brain
2. SURFACE ANATOMY (EXTERNAL)
- anatomy that we can see at the surface of
the body
3. REGIONAL ANATOMY (SPECIFIC AREA)
- complete anatomy (internal) of a specific
region of the body (learning every blood
vessel, muscle, bones, etc. in the arm) in
medical school
- is the study of the interrelationships of all of
the structures in a specific body region, such
as the abdomen.
- Studying regional anatomy helps us
appreciate the interrelationships of body
structures, such as how muscles, nerves,
blood vessels, and other structures work
together to serve a particular body region.
4. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY (ORGAN SYSTEMS)
- the body is divided into 11 organ systems
- is the study of the structures that make up a
discrete body system—that is, a group of
 structures that work together to perform a
unique body function.
- For example, a systemic anatomical study of
the muscular system would consider all of
the skeletal muscles of the body.
- Study of specific system:
*Integumentary *Nervous *Respiratory
*Endocrine *Skeletal *Digestive
*Cardiovascular *Muscular *Urinary
*Reproductive *Immune *Lymphatic
5.MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
- Structures that cannot be seen with the eye
- Need to use a microscope
- Cytology = study of cells
- Histology = study of tissues
- Requires the use of a microscope (e.g.
light or phase microscope)
- Microscopic anatomy can deal with the
same structures, though at a different scale.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. ORGANIZATION
- organize structure
- follows hierarchy
- living things are made of cells, which is the
basic unit of life. If something is going to be
alive, it should be made of cells
2. RESPONSIVENESS
- is the ability of an organism to adjust to
changes in its internal and external
environments.
- ability to sense and react to a certain
stimulus and changes from both internal and
external
- Example: Changes in an organism’s internal
environment, such as increased body
temperature, can cause the responses of
sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in
the skin in order to decrease body
temperature.
3. MOVEMENT
- a type of response to stimuli
- Human movement includes not only actions
at the joints of the body, but also the motion
of individual organs and even individual
cells.
- ability of a organism in displacement, move
from one location to another
4. DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
- Development is specialized in structure and
function to perform certain tasks in the body
- Development is all of the changes the body
goes through in life includes the process of
differentiation, in which unspecialized cells
become specialized in structure and function
to perform certain tasks in the body
- Development also includes the processes of
growth and repair, both of which involve cell
differentiation.
- knowledge, IQ and EQ
- Growth is the increase in body size. Humans,
like all multicellular organisms, grow by
increasing the number of existing cells,
increasing the amount of non-cellular
material around cells (such as mineral
deposits in bone), and, within very narrow
limits, increasing the size of existing cells.
- cell division specifically “Mitosis” is
responsible for growth
- Mitosis = divides in result to be alike
- Meiosis = sex cells; haploid
- Gametes = produce through meiosis
5. REPRODUCTION
- is the formation of a new organism from
parent organisms. In humans, reproduction
is carried out by the male and female
 reproductive systems. Because death will
come to all complex organisms, without
reproduction, the line of organisms would
end.
- Sexual = copulation; with the use of sex
organs
- 2 parents supply DNA
- male and female reproductive
system
- Asexual = absence of sexual act
- pollination, cross pollination
6. METABOLISM
- ability of organism to utilize energy
- ex: living things take in energy for
maintenance and growth
- Anabolism- process where simple
molecules are gathered to create
complex molecules
- storing/building of energy
- smaller to larger
- Catabolism- process where complex
molecules were broken down of energy
- breaking down of energy
- larger to smaller
7. GENES
- traits you have inherited to your parents/
ancestor
- hereditary/traits
- genetics
- dominant and recessive
8. HOMEOSTASIS
- balance between fluids/ chemical
components within the body
- is the state of steady internal conditions
maintained by living things.
- Passive Transport = without energy
- Active Transport = using energy
- Osmosis = segregate
- Phagocytosis = Cell eating
- Endocytosis = Cell drinking
THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
- To study the chemical level of organization,
scientists consider the simplest building
blocks of matter: subatomic particles,
atoms and molecules
- Elements = all matter in the universe is
composed of one or more unique pure
substances
- ex: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
calcium, and iron
- Atom = the smallest unit of any of elements
- are made up of subatomic particles such
as the proton, electron and neutron
- Molecule = formed by two or more atoms
combined
- ex: water molecules, proteins, and
sugars found in living things
- the chemical building blocks of all body
structures
- Cell = the smallest independently
functioning unit of a living organism
- each bacterium is a single cell
- all living structures of human anatomy
contain cells, and almost all functions of
human physiology are performed in
cells or are initiated by cells
- perform all functions of life
- it is the basic functional and structural
unit of body
- Organelles = a variety of tiny functioning
units together with water-based cellular
fluid

- Tissue = is a group of many similar cells

(though sometimes composed of a few
related types) that work together to
perform a specific function

- Organ = is an anatomically distinct structure

of the body composed of two or more
tissue types
- each organ performs one or more
specific physiological functions

- Organ system = is a group of organs that

work together to perform major
functions or meet physiological needs of
the body.

- Organism = a individual living being

- consists of different systems

REFERENCES:

https://www.cuyamaca.edu/people/greg-brulte/
files/test-1/A-intro.pdf

https://www.academia.edu/33633526/Chapter_
1_Introduction_to_Human_Anatomy_physiology

NOTE: Some information were gathered online

and others were from PDFs downloaded years
ago
 Dorsal Back/ Toward the back
Proximal Nearest/ Closer to a
point of attachment
Distal Distant/ Farther from a
point of attachment
Medial Toward the midline
Lateral Away from the midline
ANATOMICAL POSITION Superficial Toward to the surface
- in the anatomical position, the body is of the body
standing erect and facing forward, the feet Deep Toward the interior of
are together, and the arms are hanging at the body
the sides with the palms facing forward

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

- used to designate specific areas within
The major body divisions

CENTAL REGION OF THE BODY (AXIAL PARTS)

1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk- can be divided into:
a) Throrax (Chest)
b) Abdomen (region between thorax and
pelvis)
c) Pelvis (inferior end of the trunk
associated with the hips)

UPPER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS)

1. Arm- extends from the shoulder to the elbow
2. Forearm- extends from the elbow to wrist
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
3. Wrist
- describe parts of the body relative to each
4. Hand
other
LOWER LIMB (APPENDICULAR PARTS)
TERM DEFINITION 1. Thigh- extends from the hip to the knee
Supine Lying face upward 2. Leg- extends from the knee to the ankle
Prone Lying face downward 3. Ankle
Superior Higher/ above 4. Foot
Inferior Lower/ below
Anterior Front/ Toward the ABDOMEN (APPENDICULAR PARTS)
front of the body - often subdivided superficially into four
Posterior Back/ toward the back sections or quadrants by to imaginary lines
of the body that intersect at the navel
Ventral Belly/ Toward the belly
a. Quadrants- right-upper (RUQ), left-upper PLANES
(LUQ), right-lower (RLQ), and left-lower - imaginary flat surface
(LLQ) - the body is often cut, or sectioned, along
b. Regions- uses four imaginary lines that a flat surface
created an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure on
the abdomen, resulting nine regions: TERMS
1. Epigastric- located superior to the Sagittal Plane Runs vertically through
umbilical region the body and separates
2. Right hypochondriac- lie lateral to it into right and left
the epigastric region and deep to the parts
ribs (chondro = cartilage) Median Plane A sagittal plane that
3. Left hypochondriac- lie lateral to the passes though the
epigastric region and deep to the ribs midline of the body,
(chondro = cartilage) dividing it into equal
4. Umbilical- the centermost region right and left halves
deep to and surrounding the umbilicus Transverse/ Horizontal Runs parallel to the
(navel) Plane surface of the ground,
5. Right lumbar- lie lateral to the dividing the body into
umbilical region (lumbus = loin) superior and inferior
6. Left lumbar- lie lateral to the parts
umbilical region (lumbus = loin) Frontal/ Coronal Plane Runs vertically from
7. Hypogastric- located inferior to the right to left and divides
umbilical region the body into anterior
8. Right iliac- located lateral to the and posterior parts
hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Longitudinal Section A cut through the long
of the hip bone) axis of the organ
9. Left iliac- located lateral to the Transverse Section/ A cut at a right angle to
hypogastric region (iliac = superior part Cross Section the long axis
of the hip bone) Oblique Section A cut is made across
the long axis at other
than a right angle

BODY CAVITIES
- these cavities are closed to the outside and
provide different degrees of protection to
the organs contained within them.
1. NASAL CAVITY
- Open to the outside of the body
- located within and posterior to the nose, the
nasal cavity is part of the respiratory system
passageways
2. DORSAL BODY CAVITY
- which protects the fragile nervous system
organs, has two subdivisions
a. CRANIAL CAVITY
- in the skull, encases the brain
b. VERTEBRAL OR SPINAL CAVITY
- runs within the bony vertebral
column, encloses the delicate spinal
cord. The spinal cord is essentially a
continuation of the brain, and the
cranial and spinal cavities are
continuous with one another.
3. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
- the more anterior and larger of the closed
body cavities
- has two major subdivisions:
a. THORACIC CAVITY
- superior subdivision,is surrounded by
the ribs and muscles of the chest
- It is further subdivided into lateral
pleural cavities each enveloping a lung,
and the medial mediastinum. The
mediastinum contains the pericardial
cavity, which encloses the heart, and it
also surrounds the remaining thoracic
organs (esophagus, trachea, and
others).
- The thoracic cavity is separated from
the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity
by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped
muscle important in breathing.
b. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
- has two parts.
- these regions are not physically
separated by a muscular or membrane wall
- the abdominal and pelvic cavities are
not aligned with each other. Instead, the
bowl-shaped pelvis tips away from the
perpendicular
- the ventral body cavity houses internal
organs collectively called the viscera or
visceral organs.
4. ABDOMINAL CAVITY
- is bounded primarily by the abdominal
muscles and contains the stomach, the
intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas,
and the kidneys.
5. PELVIC CAVITY
- is a small space enclosed by the bones of the
pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part
of the large intestine, and the internal
reproductive organs.
6. ORAL AND DIGESTIVE CAVITIES
- commonly called the mouth, contains the
teeth and tongue
- it is part of and continuous with the cavity of
the digestive organs, which opens to the
body exterior at the anus.
7. ORBITAL CAVITIES
- (orbits) in the skull house the eyes and
present them in an anterior position.
8. MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES
- the middle ear cavities in the skull lie just
medial to the eardrums. These cavities
 contain tiny bones that transmit sound
vibrations to the hearing receptors in the
inner ears
9. SYNOVIAL CAVITIES
- are joint cavities
- they are enclosed within fibrous capsules
that surround freely movable joints of the
body
- like the serous membranes, membranes
lining synovial cavities secrete a lubricating
fluid that reduces friction as the bones move
across one another.
SEROUS MEMBRANES
- line the trunk cavities and cover the
organs of these cavities
- to understand the relationship between
serous membranes and an organ, imagine
pushing your fist into an inflated balloon.
The inner balloon wall in contact with your
fist (organ) represents the visceral serous
membrane, and the outer part of the
balloon wall represents the parietal serous
membrane
- the part of the membrane lining the cavity
walls is called the parietal serosa . It folds in
on itself to form the visceral serosa,
covering the organs in the cavity.
- The cavity, or space, between the visceral
and parietal serous membranes is normally
filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous
fluid produced by the membranes
- As an organ rubs against another organ or
against the body wall, the serous fluid and
smooth serous membranes reduce friction.
- Thoracic cavity contains three serous
membrane-lined cavities:
1. PERICARDIAL CAVITY
- surrounds the heart . The visceral
pericardium covers the heart, which is
contained within a connective tissue sac
lined with the parietal pericardium. The
pericardial cavity, which contains
pericardial fluid, is located between the
visceral pericardium and the parietal
pericardium
2. TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES
- surrounds each lung, which is
covered by visceral pleura. Parietal
pleura lines the inner surface of the
thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of
the mediastinum, and the superior
surface of the diaphragm. The
pleural cavity is located between
the visceral pleura and the parietal
pleura and contains pleural fluid.
- Abdominopelvic cavity contains a
serous membrane-lined cavity called the
peritoneal cavity. Visceral peritoneum
covers many of the organs of the
abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal
peritoneum lines the wall of the
abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior
surface of the diaphragm.
- Peritoneal cavity is located between the
visceral peritoneum and the parietal
peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid.
- Serous membranes can become
inflamed—usually as a result of an infection.
- Pericarditis is inflammation of the
pericardium
- Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura
- Peritonitis is inflammation of the and abdomen,
peritoneum. supported by the ribs,
sternum and costal
cartilages; chest
POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Umbilical Navel
Abdominal Anterior body trunk POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS
inferior to ribs Calcaneal Heel or foot
Acromial Point of shoulder Cephalic Head
Antebrachial Forearm Femoral Thigh
Antecubital Anterior surface of Gluteal Buttock
elbow Lumbar Area of back between
Axillary Armpit ribs and hips, loin
Brachial Arm Occipital Posterior surface of
Buccal Cheek area head or base of skull
Carpal Wrist Olacranal Posterior surface of
Cervical Neck region elbow
Coxal Hip Popliteal Posterior knee area
Crucal Anterior leg; shin Sacral Area between hips at
Deltoid Curve of shoulder base of spine
formed by large deltoid Scapular Shoulder blade region
muscle Sural Posterior surface of
Digital Fingers, toes leg; calf
Femoral Thigh (applies to both Vertebral Area of spinal column
anterior and posterior)
Fibular Lateral part of leg REFERENCE:
Frontal Forehead
Inguinal Area where thigh Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition.
meets body trunk; Scanlon, V.C. & Sanders, T., 2007. F.A. Davis
groin Company, Philadelphia. (PDF)
Mental Chin
Nasal Nose area Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Oral Mouth Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Orbital Eye area Pearson. (PDF)
Patellar Anterior knee
Pectoral Relating to, or Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology,
occurring in or on, the Ninth Edition. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., Russo, A.,
chest 2016. McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New
Pelvic Area overlying the York, NY. (PDF)
pelvis anteriorly
Pubic Genital region
Sternal Breastbone area
Tarsal Ankle region
Thoracic Are between the neck

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF THE CELL
- can be divided into two major groups:
Organic and Inorganic compounds
A. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- are chemical compounds that contain the
element carbon -Organic compounds in the
cell include carbohydrates, protein, lipids
and nuclei acids. Some of these compounds
are synthesised by the cell itself.
- are carbon containing compounds, and
make up about 95% of the dry weight of
the protoplasm
THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
IN THE CELL:
A. CARBOHYDRATES
- components carbon “carbo” and
components of water “hydrate”
- Supply energy for cell processes
- A means of storing energy
- Give structural support to cell walls
- classfified into 4 subtypes:
1. MONOSACCHARIDES
- mono= “one”; saccar= “sweet”
- simple sugars, most common of which is
Glucose
- number of carbons usually ranges from 3-7
- most monosacc ends with the suffix -ose
- If sugar has:
a. Aldehyde group= known as Aldose
b. Ketone group= Ketose
c. 3 carbons= Trioses
d. 5 carbons= Pentoses
e. 6 carbons= Hexoses
 GLUCOSE (C6H1206) (ENERGY)
- important source of energy for humans
- during cellular respiration, energy is
released from here and that energy is
used to help make ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)
- plants synthesize Glucose using CO2 and
water and Glucose is used for energy
requirements for the plant
- excess glucose is often stored as starch
that is catabolized by humans and other
animals that feed on plants
- Aldose
 GALACTOSE (MILK SUGAR)
- part of lactose
- Aldose
 FRUCTOSE (FRUITS)
- found in sucrose
- Ketose
2. DISACCHARIDES
- di= “two”
- form when two monosaccharides undergo a
dehydration reaction
- Dehydration Reaction- to put together while
losing water
-monomers combine with each other
using covalent bonds to form larger
molecules known as Polymers and so
monomers release water molecules as
byproducts
- Hydrolysis- Polymers are broken down into
monomers
-a reaction in which a water molecule is
used during breakdown
 LACTOSE (MILK)
- disaccharide consists of monomers Glucose
and Galactose
 MALTOSE (MALT SUGAR)
- formed by a dehydration reaction between
two glucose molecules
 SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR)
- composed of monomers Glucose and
Fructose
3. POLYSACCHARIDES
- poly= “many”
- a long chain of monossacharides linked by
glycosidic bonds
 STARCH (WATER)
- stored from of sugars in plants
- made up of a mixture of amylose and
amylopectine
- plants are able to synthesize glucose
- excess glucose is stored in different plant
parts
- starch in seeds provide foods for the embryo
- starch consumed by humans are broken
down by enzymes into smaller molecules
such as maltose and glucose
-made up of glucose monomores
 GLYCOGEN (HUMAN)
- storage form of glucose in humans and
other vertebrates
- made up of monomers of glucose
- animal equivalent of starch and is highly
branched molecule usually stored in liver
and muscle cells
- whenever blood glucose levels decrease,
glycogen is broken down to release glucose
with process glycogenolysis
 CELLULOSE
- most abundant natural biopolymer
- cell wall of plants is mostly made up of
cellulose; provides structural support to the
cell
B. LIPIDS
- from the Greek word lipos, meaning "fat"
- are naturally occurring, nonpolar substances
that are mostly insoluble in water (with
the exceptions being the short-chain volatile
fatty acids and ketone bodies), yet soluble in
nonpolar solvents (like chloroform and
ether)
- Store large amounts of energy over long
periods of time
- Act as an energy source
- Play a major role in the structure of the cell
membranes
- Act as a source of metabolic water
- Reduce the loss of water by evaporation
- They serve as membrane components
(cholesterol, glycolipids and phospholipids),
storage forms of energy (triglycerides),
precursors to other important biomolecules
(fatty acids), insulation barriers (neutral fat
stores), protective coatings to prevent
infection and excessive gain or loss of water,
and some vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and
hormones (steroid hormones)
- major classes:
1. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
(short, medium, and long-chain)
2. Triglycerides, lipoproteins {i.e.,
chylomicrons (CMs)
3. Very low density (VLDL),low density (LDL),
intermediate density (IDL), and high
density lipoproteins (HDL)}
4. Phospholipids and glycolipids, steroids
(cholesterol, progesterone, etc.), and
eicosanoids (prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and leukotrienes)
- All lipids can be synthesized from acetyl-CoA,
which in turn can be generated from
numerous different sources, including
 carbohydrates, amino acids, short-chain
volatile fatty acids (e.g., acetate), ketone
bodies, and fatty acids.
- Simple lipids include only those that are
esters of fatty acids and an alcohol (e.g.,
mono-, di- and triglycerides)
- Compound lipids include various materials
that contain other substances in addition to
an alcohol and fatty acid (e.g.,
phosphoacylglycerols, sphingomyelins, and
cerebrosides)
- derived lipids include those that cannot be
neatly classified into either of the above
(e.g., steroids, eicosanoids, and the
fat-soluble vitamins)
C. PROTEINS
- Act as building blocks of many structural
components of the cell ; required for growth
- Form enzymes which catalyse chemical
reactions
- Form hormones which control growth and
metabolism
- are amino acid polymers responsible for
implementing instructions contained within
the genetic code
- Twenty different amino acids are used to
synthesize proteins, about half are formed
as metabolic intermediates, while the
remainder must be provided through the
diet.
- Each protein formed in the body, unique in
its own structure and function, participates
in processes that characterize the
individuality of cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems
- A typical cell contains thousands of different
proteins, each with a different function, and
many serve as enzymes that catalyze (or
speed) reactions
- Other proteins transport different
compounds either outside or inside cells; ex:
 lipoproteins and transferrin (an
iron-binding protein) in plasma
 bilirubinbinding proteins in liver cells
- some act as storage proteins; ex:
 myoglobin binds and stores O2 in
muscle cells)
- others as defense proteins in blood or on
the surface of cells; ex:
clotting proteins and immunoglobulins
- others as contractile proteins; ex:
 the actin, myosin and troponin of keletal
muscle fibers
- others are merely structural in nature; ex:
 collagen and elastin
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Play a vital role in protein synthesis
- are nucleotide polymers (from the Greek
word poly, meaning "several", and mer,
meaning "unit"), that store and transmit
genetic informatio of cell
- Genetic information contained in nucleic
acids is stored and replicated in
chromosomes, which contain genes (from
the Greek word gennan, meaning "to
produce")
- A chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule, and genes are segments of
intact DNA.
- When a cell replicates itself, identical copies
of DNA molecules are produced, therefore
the hereditary line of descent is conserved,
and the genetic information carried on DNA
is available to direct the occurrence of
virtually all chemical reactions within the
cell.
- The flow of information from nucleic acids
to protein:
DNA —> messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
—> transfer RNA (tRNA) —> ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) —> protein
- The nucleotide sequence in a gene of DNA
specifies the assembly of a nucleotide
 sequence in an mRNA molecule, which in
turn directs the assembly of the amino acid
sequence in protein through a tRNA and
rRNA molecule
B. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Water is an inorganic compound which is
composed of hydrogen and oxygen. It is an
important compound in the cell.
- Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur,
and phosphorus normally makeup more
than 99% of the mass of living cells.
- Ninety-nine percent of the molecules inside
living cells are water molecules.
- Cells generally contain many more protein
molecules than DNA molecules, yet DNA is
typically the largest biomolecule in the cell.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE CELL REFERENCE:

- Water is important for life because its
chemical and physical properties allow it to Chapter 1, Introduction to Human
sustain life. Anatomy/physiology (PDF)
- Water is a polar molecule which consists of
2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. A Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body.
polar molecule is a molecule with an John P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of
unequal distribution of charges. Each Medical Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton,
molecule has a positively charged and a John E. Hall, Chapter 1
negatively charged end. Polar molecules
attract one another as well as ions. Because The chemical components of the cell. Haixu Tang.
of this property, water is considered the School of Informatics (PPT)
solvent of life.
- It is the transport medium in the blood NOTE: Some information were gathered online
- It acts as a medium for biochemical and others were from PDFs downloaded years
reactions. ago.
- Water helps in the maintenance of a stable
internal environment within a living
organism. The concentration of water and
inorganic salts that dissolve in water is
important in maintaining the osmotic
balance between the blood and interstitial
fluid.
- It helps in lubrication.
- Water molecules have very high cohesion.
- Water molecules tend to stick to each other
and move in long unbroken columns
through the vascular tissues in plants.
 TYPE EXAMPLES FUNCTIONS
Digestive Amylase, Help in
Enzymes Lipase, Pepsin, digestion of
Trypsin food by
catabolizing
nutrients into
monomeric
units
Transport Hemoglobin, Carry
Albumin substances in
the blood or
lymph
throughout the
body
Structural Actin, Tubulin, Construct
Keratin different
structures like
the
cytoskeleton
Hormones Insulin, Coordinate the
Thyroxine activity of
different body
systems
Defense Immunoglobuli Protect the
ns body from
foreign
pathogens
Contractile Actin, Myosin Effect muscle
contraction
Storage Legume storage Provide
proteins, egg nourishment in
white (albumin) early
development of
the embryo and
the seedling
Percenta
ge of
Element Usage
Body
Weight
This element is obviously
the most important
element in the human
body. Oxygen atoms are
present in water, which is
65% Oxygen the compound most
common in the body, and
other compounds that
make up tissues. It is also
found in the blood and
lungs due to respiration.
Carbon is found in every
organic molecule in the
body, as well as the waste
18.6% Carbon product of respiration
(carbon dioxide). It is
typically ingested in food
that is eaten.
Hydrogen is found in all
water molecules in the
9.7% Hydrogen body as well as many other
compounds making up the
various tissues.
Nitrogen is very common in
proteins and organic
compounds. It is also
3.2% Nitrogen
present in the lungs due to
its abundance in the
atmosphere.
This element is common in
Phosphor
1.0% the bones and teeth, as well
us
as nucleic acids.
Potassium is found in the
0.4% Potassium muscles, nerves, and
certain tissues.
Sodium is excreted in
0.2% Sodium sweat, but is also found in
muscles and nerves.
Chlorine is present in the
0.2% Chlorine skin and facilitates water
absorption by the cells.
Magnesium serves as a
Magnesiu
0.06% cofactor for various
m
enzymes in the body.
Sulfur is present in many
0.04% Sulfur
amino acids and proteins.
Iron is found mostly in the
0.007% Iron blood since it facilitates the
transportation of oxygen.
Iodine is found in certain
0.0002
Iodine hormones in the thyroid
%
gland.

Calcium is a primary
component of the skeletal
system, including the teeth.
1.8% Calcium
It is also found in the
nervous system, muscles,
and the blood.
CELLS
- basic unit of life
- all organisms are composed of cells
- all living things are made up of cells
- new cells arise only from preexisting cell
- bounded by a selectively permeable
membrane
A. PROKARYOTIC CELL
- Greek = before the nucleus
- single celled organism
- Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
- no nucleus
- DNA is not separated from other components
- Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
- Smaller than eukaryotic cells
- Have a single chromosome, semifluid
cytoplasm, and thousands of ribosomes
B. EUKARYOTIC CELL
- greek = true nucleus
- contain a well-defined nucleus surrounded by
a nuclear membrane
- can be single celled, such as yeast and
paramecium, or multicellular, such as animals
and plants
- Cytoskeleton= protein fibers that maintain cell
shape
- Have membrane-bound nucleus and
organelles
*Endomembrane system: endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes
*Energy-related organelles: mitochondria and
chloroplasts
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all
living organisms. It is made of three major parts:
THE CELL'S PARTS
1. The plasma membrane
2. The cytoplasm
3. The nucleus
A. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE (SKIN):
- Cell Membrane
- The plasma membrane (also called
plasmalemma) forms the outer boundary of
the cell
- semi-permeable
- It is the outer protective layer of cell. It isolates
cell from neighbouring environment.
- composed of proteins (structural; proteins)
- a selective barrier that allows sufficient
passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of every cell
- The general structure of a biological
membrane is a double layer of phospholipids
FUNCTIONS:
- maintains shape
- contains the contents inside
- prevents cell from mixing
- controls entrance and exit of materials
- protects the cell
STRUCTURE:
According to the "Fluid Mosaic Model Theory"
postulated by Singer & Nicolson, the plasma
membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
1. ) THE PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- form a fluid "sea" made of a central
bimolecular layer; here the long hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids (tails) are
attached to the hydrophilic globular portions
of phosphate (head).
2. ) THE PROTEINS
- float like "icebergs"
- Depending on their position they can be
classified as:
a.) Peripheral proteins- which associates to
the globular portions of phospholipids.
- they act as transporters or receptors
b.) Integral proteins- which are attached to
the hydrophobic portion.
- they act as cytoskeleton anchors or
enzymes
3. ) THE CARBOHYDRATES
- consist of glycolipids and glycoproteins which
form a filmy covering called the glycocalyx; it
acts as:
a.) an adhesive between cells.
b.) site for immunological response
c.) cell identity markers.
4. ) CHOLESTEROL
- attached to phospholipid chains; it determines
the fluidity of the plasma membrane.
MOVEMENT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANES:
- Two basic types of molecular traffic take place
in and out of cells: passive movement and
active movement
1. ) PASSIVE MOVEMENT
- Molecules pass through the plasma membrane
according to their concentration gradient
(meaning from areas of high concentration to
areas of low concentration without the use of
energy (ATP)). Passive movement includes the
following:
a. ) DIFFUSION - random movement of
molecules from areas where they are highly
concentrated to areas where they are less
concentrated until a uniform distribution of
molecules is achieved.
- (e.g.) inhaled O2 -> Lung -> Bloodstream
b. ) FACILITATED DIFFUSION - when carrier
proteins in the plasma membrane combine
temporarily to molecules and allow them to
pass through membrane via protein channels;
 they move from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration.
- (e.g.) - absorption of glucose or amino
acids by the duodenum during digestion.
c.) OSMOSIS - when water molecules move
through a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high concentration of water to
an area of low concentration of water.
 Osmotic Pressure is the force exerted
by a highly concentrated solution "A"
which prevents the net flow of water
across the selectively permeable
membrane coming from a lower
concentrated solution "B".
 Osmotic pressure concept has its
application in chemistry, biology, and
medicine, and allows one to
distinguish three types of solutions:
 Hypotonic solution
- when the solute concentration is lower
outside the cell than it is inside the cell
- (e.g.) when pure water is exposed to red
blood cells (RBC), hemolysis occurs due
the swelling and bursting of RBCs
 Isotonic solution
- when the water and solute concentration
outside the cell is the same as inside the cell.
- (e.g.) exposition of Red Blood Cells to a
solution containing 0.85g of sodium chloride
per 100 ml. water (physiological solution) does
not result in the net movement of water into
or out of the RBCs.
 Hypertonic solution
- when the solute concentration is higher
outside of the cell than it is inside.
- (e.g.) Exposition of RBCs in a solution
containing 100g sodium chloride per 100 ml;
results in crenation due to the loss of water by
RBC and the shrinkage.
d.) FILTRATION- Process that forces small
particles dissolved in a solution to cross the s
emipermeable membrane with the help of
hydrostatic pressure.
- (e.g.) Ultrafiltration of blood by the
glomeruli of the kidneys
e.) DIALYSIS- Exchange of solutes between two
solutions separated by a semipermeable
membrane
- (e.g.) Use of the cellophane sheets in the
artificial kidney machine is based upon this
principle.
2. ) ACTIVE MOVEMENT
- When substances move across a selectively
permeable membrane from areas of low
concentration to areas of high concentration.
Since active movement is against the
concentration gradient, it requires energy in
the form of ATP.
- Active movement includes the following:
a.) active transport
b.) exocytosis
c.) endocytosis
a. ) ACTIVE TRANSPORT - uses energy from
the breakdown of ATP to move substances
across selectively permeable membrane
against a concentration gradient.
- (e.g.) continuous transport of sodium out
of resting cells by the "sodium-pump" even
though its concentration is much higher
outside of the cell.
b. ) EXOCYTOSIS - is the fusion of secretory
vesicles with the plasma membrane, followed
by their expulsion from the cell through the
plasma membrane.
- (e.g. ) release of neurotransmitters by the
neurons
c.) ENDOCYTOSIS - process during which
particles are engulfed by cytoplasmic
extensions, thus forming membrane bound
vesicles within the cytoplasm.
- there are three types of endocytosis:
 Pinocytosis
- (also called "Cell Drinking")
- is the process during which the plasma
membrane invaginates and encloses small
amounts of fluid droplets, thus forming small
pockets which are released into the
cytoplasm. (e.g. Kidney cells take in tissue
fluids to maintain fluid balance).
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- when extracellular large molecules bind with
specific receptors on plasma membrane,
causing the membrane to invaginate and draw
them into the cytoplasm
 Phagocytosis
- called "Cell Eating"
- is the ability of the plasma membrane to
engulf large particles (foreign bodies, bacteria),
and digesting them by fusing the pocket into
which they are contained with lysosomal
enzyme. (e.g. neutrophils digest harmful
bacteria)
B. CYTOPLASM (BLOOS)
- Cyto= Cell
- Plasm= fluid
- living substance of cell
- rich in organic and inorganic compounds
- is the portion of the cell located between the
plasma membrane and the nucleus
- free floating
- Contains Organelles
- Source of energy
- is the mass of living matter between cell wall
and nucleus.
- It contains stored foods, secretion granules,
pigments and crystals. Stored foods are
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and
vitamins.
- Pigments are two types:
a. ) ENDOGENOUS - pigments are
haemoglobin and melanin
b. ) EXOGENOUS - pigments are
carotene from vegetables, dusts
(carbon) and minerals (silver, lead
etc.)
- It consists of an aqueous phase and an
particulate phase:
a. ) AQUEOUS PHASE OR "FLUID PHASE"
- consists of cytosol. The cytosol is
composed of water (75% to 90%), proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
inorganic substances.
b. ) PARTICULATE PHASE - consist of
organelles and inclusions:
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Blood vessels)
- parallel arrays of canals
- attaches to the nuclear envelope
- transport of substances
- a membranous system where ribosomes
attach and aid in protein synthesis
- is a network of tubes and flattened sacs that
channels the flow of substances around the
cytoplasm.
- is system that continues with infoldings of cell
membrane and interlaces with the interior of
cell
- Two types of "ER" are distinguishable: Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum "SER" and Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum "RER".
a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
- is a delicate branching network of tubules
free of ribosomes.
- lacks proteins and is where lipids are
made
- is the site of steroids synthesis, especially
steroid hormones (e.g. progesterone,
estrogen, testosterone).
- is involved in the degradation of
hormones and drugs in the liver cells.
- stores calcium in striated muscles.
b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
- is a complex system of branching tubes
and flattened sacs covered by ribosomes
on their surface.
 - assists in protein synthesis and translation
of language of nucleic acid
 Cell Wall
- extracellular structure that distinguishes plant
cells from animal cells
- protects the plant cell, maintains its shape,
and prevents excessive uptake of water
- Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
 Ribosomes
- creates protein
- non-membrane-bound particles where protein
synthesis occurs
- tiny spherical structures
- are sites of protein synthesis
- are spherical nonmembranous-bound
organelles made of two subunits:
(a.) The small ribosomal subunit.
(b.) The large ribosomal subunit
- are usually grouped in clusters in the
cytoplasm and are then called polysomes
 Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex (Mouth)
- series of smooth membrane
- continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
- prepare materials for digestion
- packaging of food materials in preparation for
digestion
- series of five to seven flattened sacs, involved
in processing, storing, and packaging of
secretory proteins.
- Composed of four or more stacked layers of
thin, flat enclosed vesicles lying near the
nucleus
- One side is directed toward the ER and t
- sorts and packages proteins and lipids in
vesicles
- Prominent in secretory cells where it is located
on the side of the cell from which secretory
substances are released
- Golgi apparatus functions with the ER, where
transport vesicles bud off the ER and diffuse to
the Golgi apparatus – the Golgi apparatus
processes ER vesicles to form lysosomes,
secretory vesicles, or other cytoplasmic
components
- Involved in the formation of some large
saccharide polymers bound with a small
amount of protein, such as hyaluronic acid and
chondroitin sulfate
 Lysosomes (Stomach)
- membrane-bound vesicles produced by the
Golgi apparatus
- Important in recycling cellular material and
digesting worn-out organelles
- Suicide bags with enzymes
- secretes enzymes like hydrochloric acid to
broken down nutrients and food materials and
also viruses
- Phagocytosis
- membrane-bound organelles that contain
digestive enzymes (acid hydrolase); act as the
digestive system of the cell; also known as
"suicide bags".
- They contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
- are absent in RBC
- Breaking down of particles taken in to cell and
digestion
- Autolysis
- Phagocytosis
- Killing of cells (planned way)
- Cell division
 Centrosome
- cell center
- centrioles and asters (used for cell division)
- used in cell division
 Peroxisomes
- small, membrane-bound organelles
resembling empty lysosomes
- Contain enzymes to digest excess fatty acids
*Produces products used by mitochondria
to make ATP
- Produce cholesterol and phospholipids found
in brain and heart tissue
- similar to lysosome
- purine (end product) catabolism
- converts fat into glucose (energy)
- membrane-bound organelles found mostly in
the liver, in the kidney and the macrophages
- contain enzymes (peroxidase) which are
involved in the formation of hydrogen
peroxide as they oxidize various substances.
 Mitochondrion/ Mitochondria (Liver- secretes
energy)
- hotdog like, spherical, rod shaped, hollow
structure
- are the "powerhouses" of the cell because of
ATP production.
- provide energy; convert sugar into ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) or enegry
- provide site for synthesis of RNA and DNA
- were also derived from bacteria and therefore
have a double membrane
- Double layered membrane organelle with its
inner layer thrown into folds called "cristae"
projecting into the inner cavity filled with
amorphous substance called "matrix" where
different enzymes are found.
- are abundant in different types of cells such as
myofibers, neurons, spermatozoa
- Is the site of the final steps in cellular
respiration, which result in the production of
ATP used in the cell metabolic activities.
 ATP
- ATP means Adenosine Triphosphate
- ATP is the main energy supplier for most
biological activities in the cell. The phosphate
bond (the P of ATP) is where most of the
energy exists
- Most of it is created in the cell's mitochondria.
 Microfilament (Fibers)
- Microscopic tubes
- made of contractile protein
- Locomotion
 Cytoskeleton
- Formed by:
a. Microtubules
b. Microfilaments
c. ntermediate filaments
- forms a supportive framework, assists in
organelles movement, and provides a
transport system within the cell.
 Centrioles
- A pair of cylindrical cytoplasmic organelles
located in a space near the nucleus called
centrosome
- Assist in cell division by forming Mitotic
Spindle System
* Note that mitotic spindle is involved
with chromosome movement during
mitosis
 Cilia
- Minute cytoplasmic extensions from the cell
which are involved in the transport of
materials along the cell surface
- hair like
- whiplike structures of cells
- (e.g. mucus movement in the trachea;
movement of the ova in the fallopian tube.)
 Flagellum
- Cellular appendage which protrudes from the
cell and allows its propulsion
- tail of sperm cell
- (e.g. Spermatozoa tail is made of flagellum)
 Secretory Vesicles
- Membrane bound cytoplasmic chambers
containing products of secretion such as
protein.
 Microtubules (Spine)
- made up of protein molecules
 Cytoplasmic Inclusions
- There is a variety of cellular inclusions. -
Examples are:
a. Lipid droplets - storage for energy
b. Glycogen - principal storage form of
carbohydrates
c. Zymogen granules - secretory products
rich in inactive enzyme
 d. Melanin pigment - most abundant skin
pigment
e. Hemosiderin - yellowish brown pigment
resulting from degradation of hemoglobin
 Centrosome
- Centrosome contains centrioles. Centrioles
control polarisation of spindle fibres. Centriole
is closely related to spindle formation during
cell division (Mitosis).
 Plasmosin
- is constant constituent of cytoplasm. They
form Tonofibrils in epithelial cells, myofibrils in
muscles and neurofibrils in nerves.
- They consist of long protein molecules rich in
deoxy -ribonucleoprotein.
 Vacuoles
- spherical empty sacs
- storage food
- They are also cytoplasmic organelles. They are
found covered by fat on staining with dilute
neutral red solution.
- membranous sacs larger than vesicles and
usually store substances
- Example: toxic substances used in plant
defense
- Central vacuole – found in plants, contains
watery sap and maintains turgor pressure
 Nasal bodies
- They are found in nerve cells.
 Secretory granules
- They store secretory products of cell and are
found in- Golgi apparatus and E.R
C.THE NUCLEUS (BRAIN)
- rounded darkly stained object inside the cell
- key structure of living cell
- control center/ controls all the processes of
organelles
- controls protein synthesis (production of
protein)
- The nucleus is the container of DNA in
eukaryotic cells
- Site where the genetic material is stored
- It consists of three components:
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE OR NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
- Contains opening called nucleopores which are
potential passageway for exchange of
substances (e.g.) Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
(mRNA)
2. CHROMATIN
- Complex substance made up fibrous strands
containing DNA and proteins. DNA controls:
a.) Cell's Heredity
b.) Protein Structure
c.) Other nonmetabolic activity
3. NUCLEOLUS
- Dense nonmembranous mass where RNA is
synthesized; location for the components
found in ribosomes.
* Note: Red Blood Cells (RBC) in circulation
don't have a nucleus; therefore, they are
unable to divide and they die after 4 months in
circulation
ADDITIONAL:
A. CHROMOSOMES
- Chromosomes are present as individual bodies
in interphase as well as in mitosis.
Predominant component in chromosome is
DNA.
- Genes are located in chromosome. They are
discrete units of transmission of hereditary
characters.
B. CHLOROPLASTS
- type of plastid, an organelle bounded by a
double membrane with a series of internal
membranes separated by a ground substance
- site of photosynthesis
- Other plastids are:
 Chromoplast- contain variously colored NOTE: Some information were gathered online and others
pigments like red, blue, violet, yellow etc. were from PDFs downloaded years ago.
 Leukoplast- colorless plastid; storage depot of
starch

C. PRESENCE OF CAPSULE IN BACTERIA = harmful

D. KIDNEY - steriles; does not have bacteria
E. URINE - is sterile since it came from kidney

REFERENCE:

Chapter 1, Introduction to Human Anatomy/physiology (PDF)

Introduction to Human Anatomy. The Medical Lab Technician

(PDF)

Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John P. Fisher,

Adapted from Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11th Ed.
Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Chapter 1

https://twitter.com/student_nxrs/status/1036502465493889
024?s=21&fbclid=IwAR2licQH2zbPdPMLCIBX4BOWDgL6G9h
NBdtizO2-JF6fHEPBtxh_I452mPk
PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE BOTH
Have
No nucleus With nucleus
ribosomes
DNA is not DNA is
separated from separated by
Have DNA
other membrane
components bound
Small and Have Have
simple organelles cytoplasm
Can be
Have cell
No organelles unicellular or
membrane
multicellular
Are very Have
Have flagella
abundant cytoskeleton
All are
Some have cilia
unicellular
Includes
Cells have a everything
sticky capsule that’s not
bacteria
All cells have Found in
cell walls humans
Reproduce/divi
Were the first
de by
cells
meiosis/mitosis
Live a wide
variety of
environments
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Not found in
humans
Reproduce/
divide by binary
fission

CELL PHYSIOLOGY
- is the biological study about the
activities that take place in a cell to keep
it alive. In the context of human
physiology, the term cell physiology
often specifically applies to the
physiology of membrane transport,
neuron transmission, and (less
frequently) muscle contraction.
* Cells are the basic building blocks of all living
things. The human body is composed of trillions
of cells. They provide structure for the body,
take in nutrients from food, convert those
nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
functions.
OSMOSIS
- Osmosis movement of a solvent (such as
water) through a semipermeable
membrane (as of a living cell) into a
solution of higher solute concentration
that tends to equalize the
concentrations of solute on the two
sides of the membrane.
*It does not require energy to be applied
THREE TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS
A. ISOTONIC:
- equal. Water moves in and out of the
cell at an equal rate
B. HYPOTONIC
- water moves into the cell, making it
swell and get fat. There is a greater
concentration or number of solute
particles inside a membrane than there
are outside.
C. HYPERTONIC
- water moves outside the cell, making it
shrink. There is a greater concentration
or number of solute particles outside a
membrane than there are inside.
DIFUSSION
- Diffusion is the net movement of
particles from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF DIFFUSION:
A. PASSIVE DIFFUSION
- is the movement of molecules across a
semi-permeable membrane without the
help of protein channels.
B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- is the flow of molecules down a
concentration gradient, across a
membrane, but requires the help of a
protein. There are two categories of
proteins that assist facilitated diffusion:
 CARRIER PROTEINS- are like taxi cabs in
a cell membrane
  CHANNEL PROTEINS- are like tunnels
that create a hole across a cell
membrane. Channels open to allow
molecules to flow through them.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND
DIFFUSION:
Osmosis- is a slow process and diffusion is the
fast process. Osmosis is dependent on one
solvent to the another for the reduction of free
energy
Diffusion- the movement of molecules is from
the area of their higher free energy to the area
of the lower free energy
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- a protein pump uses energy, in the
form of ATP, to move molecules from an
area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration.
3 MAIN TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
A. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
- is a structure known as a cell-membrane
pump that uses energy to transport
Sodium and Potassium ions in and out
of the cell.
B. ENDOCYTOSIS
- is a process by which cells can take in
large particles and deposit them into
the cell
- There are 2 sub-categories:
 PINOCYTOSIS- brings liquids into the
cell
 PHAGOCYTOSIS- is responsible for
transporting large particles or other
solids into the cell
C. EXOCYTOSIS
- is very similar to endoxytosis except
that it deposits materials from inside
the cell on the outside instead of the
other way around
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- is a movement of ions and other atomic
or molecular substances across cell
membranes without need of energy
input.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
A. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- movement of small or lipophilic
molecules
B. OSMOSIS
- movement of water molecules
C. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- movement of large or charged
molecules via membrane proteins
CELL DIVISION
- Cell division is the process by which a
parent cell divides into two or more
 daughter cells. Cell division usually THE CELL CYCLE
occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
- It is the period between the beginning
of one cell division and the beginning of
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION: the next cell division.

A. MITOSIS - There are two types of cell division:

somatic and reproductive.
- is a fundamental process for life. During
mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its
contents, including its chromosomes,
A. SOMATIC CELL DIVISION (BODY CELL
and splits to form two identical
DIVISION)
daughter cells.
- Mitosis has five different stages: - It involves three major process:
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
1. ) INTERPHASE
3. Metaphase
- Is a very active period of cell activity
4. Anaphase
during which DNA in the nucleus
5. Telophase doubles. The phenomenon is called
"Replication", meaning that DNA makes
- The process of cell division is only
complete after cytokinesis, which takes the copy of itself.
place during anaphase and telophase. 2. ) CYTOKINESIS
Each stage of mitosis is necessary for
cell replication and division - division of the cytoplasm into two
distinct daughter cells.
B. MEIOSIS
3. ) MITOSIS
- Meiosis ensures that humans have the
same number of chromosomes in each - is the process during which two diploid
generation. It is a two-step process that
reduces the chromosome number by (2n) daughter cells result from the
half—from 46 to 23—to form sperm division of a diploid (2n) parent cell.
and egg cells. When the sperm and egg
cells unite at conception, each - in human daughter cells, n = 23
contributes 23 chromosomes so the
resulting embryo will have the usual 46. chromosomes from each parent.
Meiosis also allows genetic variation - It is divided into four sequential stages:
through a process of DNA shuffling
while the cells are dividing.
 PROPHASE
- the first stage of mitosis; it is the
longest mitotic phase.
a. Early Prophase- Chromatin
condenses and shortens into
chromosomes.
-Each prophase chromosome has a pair
of identical, double-stranded DNAs
called Chromatids
b. Late Prophase- Disappearance of the
Nucleoli
- breakdown of the nuclear membrane
- Movement of the two centrioles
toward opposite directions.
- Appearance of mitotic apparatus
 METAPHASE
- the second mitotic stage; the chromatid
pairs line up at the center of mitotic
apparatus.
 ANAPHASE
- the third stage.
- shortest mitotic phase
- movement of the two sister chromatids
of each chromosomes toward opposite
pole of the cell.
 TELOPHASE
- the fourth mitotic stage
- Chromosomes uncoil and become
chromatin
- formation of nuclear membrane around
each set of chromatin.
- appearance of nucleoli
- Mitotic apparatus disappears.
- formation of two daughter cells with 46
chromosomes each
B. REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION OR MEIOSIS
- occurs only in the gonads (testes &
ovaries) and results in the formation of
mature gametes (spermatozoa in the
male and ova in the female)
- starts at the onset of puberty and
continues during the entire lifetime in
the male; stops during menopause in
the female.
- unlike the somatic cell division, meiosis
is characterized by the formation of
haploid (n chromosome) daughter cells
resulting from the division of the diploid
(2n chromosome) parent cell. Thus,
each daughter cell contains only 23
chromosomes.
- Meiosis consists of two steps: first
meiotic division (reduction) and second
meiotic division (equatorial)
1. ) FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION
- is composed of four sequential phases:
 PROPHASE I
- appearance of double stranded
chromosomes. Pairing of homologous
chromosomes lie side by side
 METAPHASE I
- pairs of homologous chromosomes line
up at the center of mitotic apparatus
 ANAPHASE I
- one chromosome of each homologous
pair migrates to opposite poles.
 TELOPHASE I
- two haploid (n chromosome) daughter
cells result from the division of a diploid
(2n chromosome) parent cell
2. ) SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION
- is the continuation of the first meiotic
division and is also subdivided into four
phases
 PROPHASE II
- Each chromosome of the haploid
daughter cell resulting from the first
meiotic division has two chromatids
 METAPHASE II
- single chromosome lines up at the
center of the mitotic apparatus.
 ANAPHASE II
- migration of the chromatid of each
chromosome to opposite poles.
 TELOPHASE II
- production of two haploid cells from
each haploid cell of the telophase I.
REFERENCE:
Chapter 1, Introduction to Human
Anatomy/physiology (PDF)
Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John
P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of Medical
Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall,
Chapter 1
NOTE: Some information were gathered online and
others were from PDFs downloaded years ago.

TISSUE
- group of cells that are similar in structure
and function and represent the next level of
structural organization
- contributes to the functioning of the organs
in which it is found.
- are organized into organs such as the heart,
kidneys, and lungs
- the four primary tissue types interweave to
form the fabric of the body
1. Epithelial (covering)
2. Connective (support)
3. Muscle (movement)
4. Nervous (control)
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- or Epithelium
- the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of
the body
- Covering and lining epithelium covers all
free body surfaces, both inside and out, and
contains versatile cells.
- its functions include protection, absorption,
filtration, and secretion
- Glandular epithelium forms various glands
in the body
- Secretion is a specialty of the glands, which
produce such substances as sweat, oil,
digestive enzymes, and mucus
CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM
- Except for glandular epithelium, epithelial
cells fit closely together to form continuous
sheets. Neighboring cells are bound
together at many points by specialized cell
junctions, including desmosomes and tight
junctions
- the membranes always have one free
(unattached) surface or edge. This apical
surface is exposed to the body’s exterior or
to the cavity of an internal organ. The
exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick
and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface
modifications, such as microvilli or cilia.
- the anchored (basal) surface of epithelium
rests on a basement membrane, a
structureless material secreted by both the
epithelial cells and the connective tissue
cells deep to the epithelium. Think of the
basement membrane as the “glue” holding
the epithelium in place.
- Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of
their own (that is, they are avascular) and
depend on diffusion from the capillaries in
the underlying connective tissue for food
and oxygen.
- If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate
themselves easily.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
CELL ARRANGEMENT (LAYERS)
Terms Description
Simple Epithelium One layer of cells
Stratified Epithelium More than one cell
layer
SHAPE OF ITS CELLS
Squamous Cells Flattened like fish scale
Cuboidal Cells Cube-shaped like dice
Columnar Cells Shaped like columns
Transitional
The terms describing the shape and
arrangement are then combined to describe the
epithelium fully.
a. SIMPLE EPITHELIA
- are most concerned with absorption,
secretion, and filtration
 SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- a single layer of thin squamous cells resting
on a basement membrane
- the cells fit closely together
- it usually forms membranes where filtration
or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion
occurs
- it is in the air sacs of the lungs (called
alveoli), where oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged
- it forms the walls of capillaries, where
nutrients and gases pass between the blood in
the capillaries and the interstitial fluid
- it also forms serous membranes or serose
which is the slick membranes that line the
ventral body cavity and cover the organs in the
cavity
 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
- it rests on a basement membrane
- it makes up the functional units of the
thyroid gland and salivary glands
- it is common in glands and their associated
small tubes called ducts
- it also forms the walls of the kidney tubules
and covers the surface of the ovaries.
 SIMPLE COLUMNAR EITHELIUM
- is made up of a single layer of tall cells that
fit closely together
- are specialized for secretion and absorption
- Goblet cells, which produce a lubricating
mucus, are often seen in this type of epithelium
- it lines the entire length of the digestive
tract from the stomach to the anus
- Epithelial membranes that line body cavities
open to the body exterior are called mucosae or
mucous membranes
 PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
EPITHELIUM
- all of the cells rest on a basement
membrane. However, some of its cells are
shorter than others, and their nuclei appear at
different heights above the basement
membrane. As a result, this epithelium gives the
false (pseudo) impression that it is stratified;
hence its name
- like simple columnar epithelium, this variety
mainly functions in absorption and secretion
- a ciliated variety (more precisely called
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium) lines most of the respiratory tract
- the mucus produced by the goblet
cells in this epithelium acts as a “sticky trap” to
catch dust and other debris, and the cilia propel
the mucus upward and away from the lungs
b. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
- it consist of two or more cell layers consists
of many layers of mostly flat cells, although
lower cells are rounded
- being considerably more durable than the
simple epithelia, these epithelia function
primarily in protection
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- it is the most common stratified epithelium
in the body
- it usually consists of many cell layers. The
cells at the free edge are squamous cells,
whereas those close to the basement membrane
are cuboidal or columnar.
- it is found in sites that receive a good deal of
abuse or friction, such as the surface of the skin,
the mouth, and the esophagus
- this type of epithelium makes up the
epidermis of the skin, where it is called
“keratinizing” because the protein keratin is
produced, and the surface cells are dead
- Stratified squamous epithelium of the
non-keratinizing type lines the oral cavity, the
esophagus, and, in women, the vagina
 STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL AND STRATIFIED
COLUMNAR EPITHELIA
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium typically has
just two cell layers with (at least) the surface
cells being cuboidal in shape.
- the surface cells of stratified columnar
epithelium are columnar cells, but its basal cells
vary in size and shape
- both of these epithelia are fairly rare in the
body, found mainly in the ducts of large glands
 TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- is a highly modified, stratified squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of only a few
organs—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and
part of the urethra
- As part of the urinary system, all of these
organs are subject to considerable stretching
- cells of the basal layer are cuboidal
or columnar; those at the free surface vary in
appearance.
- when the organ is not stretchd, the
membrane is many-layered, and the superficial
cells are rounded and domelike.
- when the organ is distended with urine, the
epithelium thins like a rubber band being
stretched, and the surface cells flatten and
become squamouslike
- this ability of transitional cells to slide past
one another and change their shape (undergo
“transitions”) allows the ureter wall to stretch as
a greater volume of urine flows through that
tubelike organ. In the bladder, it allows more
urine to be stored
ADDITIONAL:
 GRANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- A gland consists of one or more cells that
make and secrete a particular product.
- This product, a secretion, typically contains
protein molecules in an aqueous (water
-based) fluid. The term secretion also
indicates an active process in which the
glandular cells obtain needed materials from
the blood and use them to make their
products, which they then discharge by
exocytosis.
- Two major types of glands develop from
epithelial sheets:
a. Endocrine glands
- lose their ducts; thus they are often
called ductless glands. Their secretions
(all hormones) diffuse directly into the
blood vessels that weave through the
glands
- Examples of endocrine glands include
the thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
b. Exocrine glands
- it retain their ducts, and their secretions
exit through the ducts to the epithelial
surface
- Exocrine glands, which include the
sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas,
are both internal and external.
 ENDOTHELIUM
- the inner lining of blood vessels, the heart,
and lymphatic vessels) is a specialized form
of epithelium
- with a single layer of squamous cells
attached to a basement membrane
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- it is the most abundant and widely
distributed of the tissue types
- it performs many functions, but they are
primarily involved in protecting, supporting,
and binding together other body tissues
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Variations in blood supply. Most connective
tissues are well vascularized (that is, they
have a good blood supply), but there are
exceptions. Tendons and ligaments, for
example, have a poor blood supply, and
cartilages are avascular. Consequently, all
these structures heal very slowly when
injured
- Extracellular matrix. Connective tissues are
made up of many different types of cells
plus varying amounts of a nonliving
substance found outside the cells, called the
extracellular matrix.
*Extracellular Matrix- the matrix, which is
produced by the connective tissue cells and
then secreted to their exterior, has two main
elements, a structureless ground substance
and fibers
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 BONE
- sometimes called osseous tissue
- it is composed of osteocytes sitting in
cavities called lacunae. These pits are
surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix that
contains calcium salts in addition to large
numbers of collagen fibers
- because of its rocklike hardness, bone has
an exceptional ability to protect and support
other body organs (for example, the skull
protects the brain)
 CARTILAGE
- is less hard and more flexible than bone.
- its major cell type is chondrocytes (cartilage
cells)
- it is found in only a few places in the body.
- most widespread is hyaline (hi′ah-lin)
cartilage, which has abundant collagen fibers
hidden by a rubbery matrix with a glassy (hyalin
= glass), blue-white appearance
- it forms the trachea, or windpipe, attaches
the ribs to the breastbone, and covers bone ends
at joints
- although hyaline cartilage is the most
abundant type of cartilage in the body, there are
others
- highly compressible fibrocartilage forms the
cushionlike disks between the vertebrae of the
spinal column
- elastic cartilage is found in structures with
elasticity, such as the external ear
 DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- also called dense fibrous tissue
- the collagen fibers are the main matrix
element - crowded between the collagen fibers
are rows of fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells) that
manufacture the building blocks of the fibers.
- it forms strong, ropelike structures such as
tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal
muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to
bones at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and
contain more elastic fibers than do tendons
- this also makes up the lower layers of the
skin (dermis), where it is arranged in sheets
 LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- are softer and have more cells and fewer
fibers than any other connective tissue type
except blood
- there are three main types of loose
connective tissue: areolar, adipose, and reticular.
a. Areolar connective tissue
- the most widely distributed connective
tissue variety in the body, is a soft, pliable,
“cobwebby” tissue that cushions and
 protects the body organs it wraps. It and many other substances throughout the
functions as a universal packing tissue and body.
connective tissue “glue” because it
helps to hold the internal organs together TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and in their proper positions. TYPE STRUCTURE LOCATION AND
FUNCTION
Blood Plasma (matrix) Within blood vessels
b. Adipose Connective Tissue
and red blood
- is commonly called fat. It is an areolar cells, •Plasma—transports
tissue in which adipose (fat) cells white blood materials
predominate. Adipose tissue forms the cells, and • RBCs—carry
subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, platelets oxygen
• WBCs—destroy
where it insulates the body and protects it
pathogens
from bumps and extremes of both heat and • Platelets—prevent
cold. Adipose tissue also protects some blood loss
organs. Areolar (loose) Fibroblasts and a Subcutaneous
matrix of tissue
c. Reticular Connective Tissue flfluid, collagen, • Connects skin to
and elastin muscles; WBCs
- it consists of a delicate network of fibers destroy pathogens
interwoven reticular fibers associated with Mucous membranes
reticular cells, which resemble fibroblasts. (digestive,
Reticular tissue is limited to certain sites: It respiratory, urinary,
forms the stroma (literally, “bed” or reproductive tracts)
• WBCs destroy
“mattress”), or internal framework of an pathogens
organ. The stroma can support many free Adipose Adipocytes that Subcutaneous
blood cells (largely white blood cells called store fat (little
lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs. It may matrix) • Stores excess
help to think of reticular tissue as “cellular energy
• Produces
bleachers” where other cells can observe chemicals that
their surroundings influence appetite,
use
 BLOOD of nutrients, and
- or vascular tissue, is considered a connective inflammation
Around eyes and
tissue because it consists of blood cells Kidneys
surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix • Cushions
called blood plasma, which is about 52% to Fibrous Mostly collagen Tendons and
62% of the total blood volume in the body fibers (matrix) ligaments (regular)
- the “fibers” of blood are soluble proteins with
few fibroblasts • Strong to
that become visible only during blood withstand forces of
clotting. Still, blood is quite atypical as movement of joints
connective tissues go. Dermis (irregular)
- blood is the transport vehicle for the • The strong inner
cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, layer of the skin
Elastic Mostly elastin Walls of large
wastes, respiratory gases, white blood cells,
fibers (matrix) arteries
 with few - when the skeletal muscles contract, they
fibroblasts • Helps maintain pull on bones or skin. As a result, gross body
blood pressure
Around alveoli in
movements or changes in our facial expressions
lungs occur
• Promotes normal - the cells of skeletal muscle are long,
exhalation cylindrical, and multinucleate, and they have
Bone Osteocytes in a Bones obvious striations (stripes). Because skeletal
matrix of • Support the body
muscle cells are elongated to provide a long axis
calcium • Protect internal
salts and organs from for contraction, they are often called muscle
collagen mechanical injury fibers.
• Store excess
calcium  CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Contain and
- is found only in the heart wall. As it
protect red bone
marrow contracts, the heart acts as a pump to propel
Cartilage Chondrocytes in Wall of trachea blood through the blood vessels.
a flexible protein - like skeletal muscle, it has striations, but
matrix • Keeps airway open cardiac cells have only a single nucleus and are
On joint surfaces of
relatively short, branching cells that fit tightly
bones
• Smooth to prevent together (like clasped fingers) at junctions called
friction intercalated discs.
- Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control,
Tip of nose and which means that we cannot consciously control
outer ear
the activity of the heart.
• Support
Between vertebrae  SMOOTH (VISCERAL) MUSCLE
• Absorb shock - is so called because no striations are visible
- also called as involuntary muscle
- the individual cells have a single nucleus and
3. MUSCLE TISSUE are tapered at both ends.
- are highly specialized to contract, or shorten, - this is found in the walls of hollow organs
which generates the force required to such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
produce movement. - as smooth muscle in its walls contracts,
- There are three types of muscle tissue: the cavity of an organ alternately becomes
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth smaller (constricts when smooth muscle
contracts) or enlarges (dilates when smooth
muscle relaxes) so that substances are mixed
 SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE and/or propelled through the organ along a
- also called as striated or voluntary muscle specific pathway.
- is packaged by connective tissue sheets into - Smooth muscle contracts much more slowly
organs called skeletal muscles, which are than the other two muscle types, and these
attached to the skeleton’ contractions tend to last longer
- these muscles, which can be controlled - Peristalsis, a wavelike motion that keeps
voluntarily or consciously, form the flesh of the food moving through the small intestine, is
body, the so-called muscular system typical of its activity.

4. NERVOUS TISSUE
- All neurons receive and conduct
electrochemical impulses from one part of
the body to another; thus, irritability and
conductivity are their two major functional
characteristics
- the structure of neurons is unique; their
cytoplasm is drawn out into long processes
(extensions), as long as 3 feet or more in the
leg, which allows a single neuron to conduct
an impulse to distant body locations.
- the nervous system is more than just
neurons. A special group of supporting cells
called neuroglia insulate, support, and
protect the delicate neurons in the
structures of the nervous system—the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves.
tissue, that is, by the formation of scar tissue.
- occurs depends on (1) the type of tissue
damaged and (2) the severity of the injury.
- clean cuts (incisions) heal much more
successfully than ragged tears of the tissue.
- Tissue injury sets the following series of
events into motion:
• Inflammation sets the stage
• Granulation tissue forms
• Regeneration and fibrosis effect
permanent repair
REFERENCE
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)

TISSUE REPAIRING (WOUND HEALING) Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition.
- Intact physical barriers such as the skin and Scanlon, V.C. & Sanders, T., 2007. F.A. Davis
mucous membranes, cilia, and the strong Company, Philadelphia. (PDF)
acid produced by stomach glands are just
three examples of body defenses exerted at
the tissue level
- When tissue injury does occur, it stimulates
the body’s inflammatory and immune
responses, and the healing process begins
almost immediately
- Inflammation is a general (nonspecific) body
response that attempts to prevent further
injury
- The immune response, in contrast, is
extremely specific and mounts a vigorous
attack against recognized invaders, including
bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
- Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs in
two major ways:

 REGENERATION
- is the replacement of destroyed tissue by
the same kind of cells, whereas fibrosis
involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective

BODY MEMBRANE
- cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form
protective (often lubricating) sheets around
organs
- fall into two major groups:
A. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
- also called covering and lining membranes
- include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the
mucous membranes, and the serous
membranes
- Although they all do contain an epithelial layer,
it is always combined with an underlying layer
of connective tissue. Hence these membranes
are actually simple organs
1. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
- generally called the skin or integumentary
system
- the outer covering that wee rely on for
protection
- membrane is exposed to air and is a dry
membrane
- composed of two layers:
 Epidermis- composed of stratified
squamous epithelium
 Dermis- mostly dense (fibrous) connective
tissue.
2. MUCOUS MEMBRANES
- composed of epithelium (the type varies with
the site) resting on a loose connective tissue
membrane called a lamina propria
- this membrane type lines all body cavities that
open to the exterior, such as those of the hollow
organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive tracts
- the term mucosa refers only to the location of
the epithelial membranes, not their cellular
makeup, which varies.
- most mucosae contain either stratified
squamous epithelium or simple columnar
epithelium
- In all cases, they are moist membranes that are
almost continuously bathed in secretions or, in
the case of the urinary mucosae, urine.
- The epithelium of mucosae is often adapted
for absorption or secretion. Although many
mucosae secrete mucus, not all do. The
mucosae of the respiratory and digestive tracts
secrete large amounts of protective, lubricating
mucus; that of the urinary tract does not.
3. SEROUS MEMBRANES
- or serosa, is composed of a layer of simple
squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of
areolar connective tissue
- serous membranes line body cavities that
are closed to the exterior (except for the dorsal
body cavity and joint cavities)
- occur in pairs:
 Parietal layer- lines a specific portion of the
wall of the ventral body cavity. It folds in on
itself to form the
 Visceral layer- covers the outside of the
organ(s) in that cavity.
- In the body, the serous layers are separated
not by air but by a scanty amount of thin, clear
fluid, called serous fluid, which is secreted by
both membranes
- Although there is a potential space between the
two membranes, they tend to lie very close to
each other. The lubricating serous fluid allows
the organs to slide easily across the cavity walls
and one another without friction as they carry
out their routine functions
- the specific names of the serous membranes
depend on their locations. The serosa lining the
abdominal cavity and covering its organs is the
peritoneum
- In the thorax, serous membranes isolate the
lungs and heart from one another. The
membranes surrounding the lungs are the pleurae;
those around the heart are the pericardia
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES
1. SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES
- composed of loose areolar connective tissue
and contain no epithelial cells at all
- these membranes line the fibrous capsules
surrounding joints, where they provide a
smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid
- they also line small sacs of connective tissue
called bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- includes body membranes, skin, hair, fingernails,
and sweat and oil glands
- also called the integument which simply means
“covering”
- most, but not all, of which are protective
- It insulates and cushions the deeper body
organs and protects the entire body from
 mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
 chemical damage (such as from acids and
bases)
 thermal damage (heat and cold)
 ultraviolet (UV) radiation (in sunlight), and
 microbes
- the uppermost layer of the skin is hardened, to
help prevent water loss from the body surface
- the skin’s rich capillary network and sweat
glands (both controlled by the nervous system)
play an important role in regulating heat loss
from the body surface
- the skin acts as a mini-excretory system; urea,
salts, and water are lost when we sweat
- a chemical plant; it manufactures several
proteins important to immunity and synthesizes
vitamin D
- also produces acidic secretions, called the acid
mantle, that protect against bacterial invasion.
SKIN
- has multiple layers that protect the body, help
regulate body temperature, and help excrete
wastes via sweat
- is the first barrier to keep good things such as
water in, and bad things such as harmful
bacteria out
- absolutely essential because it keeps water and
other precious molecules in the body
- it keeps excess water (and other things) out
- structurally, the skin is a marvel. It is pliable yet
tough, which allows it to take constant
punishment from external agents
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
A. EPIDERMIS
- made up of stratified squamous epithelium
that is capable of becoming hard and tough
- Most of its cells are keratinocytes which
produce keratin, the fibrous protein that makes
the epidermis a tough protective layer in a
process called keratinization. These
keratinocytes are connected by desmosomes
throughout the epidermis
- is avascular; that is, it has no blood supply of its
own
- composed of up to five layers, or strata
- From the inside out these are the stratum
basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and
corneum
1. STRATUM BASALE
- deepest cell layer of epidermis
- lies closest to the dermis and is connected
to it along a wavy border that resembles
corrugated cardboard
- contains the most adequately nourished of
the epidermal cells because nutrients
diffusing from the dermis reach them first
- stem cells in this layer are constantly
dividing, and millions of new cells are
produced daily; hence its alternate name,
stratum germinativum
- of the new cells produced, some become
epidermal cells, and others maintain the
population of stem cells by continuing to
 divide. The daughter cells destined to
become epidermal cells are pushed upward,
away from the source of nutrition, to
become part of the epidermal layers closer
to the skin surface.
2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
- the cells which is move away from the
dermis become part of this layer
3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM
- epidermis cells becomes flatter and
increasingly keratinized
4. STRATUM LUCIDUM
- as the cells leave the stratum granulosum,
they die, then form the clear stratum
lucidum
- not present in all skin regions. It occurs only
where the skin is hairless and extra thick,
that is, on the palms of the hands and soles
of the feet
- the combination of accumulating keratin
inside them, secreting a water-repellent
glycolipid into the extracellular space, and
their increasing distance from the blood
supply (in the dermis) effectively dooms the
stratum lucidum cells and the more
superficial epidermal cells because they are
unable to get adequate nutrients and
oxygen.
5. STRATUM CORNEUM
- is 20 to 30 cell layers thick, but it accounts
for about three-quarters of the epidermal
thickness
- the shinglelike dead cell remnants,
completely filled with keratin, are referred
to as cornified or horny cells
- the abundance of the tough keratin protein
in the stratum corneum allows that layer to
provide a durable “overcoat” for the body,
which protects deeper cells from the hostile
external environment and from water loss,
and helps the body resist biological,
chemical, and physical assaults
- it rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily as
the dandruff familiar to everyone
- this layer is replaced by cells produced by
the division of the deeper stratum basale
cells
- we have totally “new” epidermis every 25
to 45 days.
*Melanin - a pigment that ranges in color from
yellow to brown to black
- is produced by special spider-shaped cells
called melanocytes found chiefly in the stratum
basale
- Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is
concentrated in one spot.
*Epidermal dendritic cells- scattered in the
epidermis which are important “sentries” that
alert and activate immune system cells to a threat
such as bacterial or viral invasion
*Merkel cells- seen here and there at the
epidermal-dermal junction which are associated
with sensory nerve endings and serve as touch
receptors called Merkel discs
B. DERMIS
- made up mostly of dense connective tissue
- varies in thickness
- a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind
the body together
- the epidermis and dermis are firmly connected
and the dermis is fairly tear resistant. However,
a burn or friction may cause them to separate,
allowing interstitial fluid to accumulate in the
cavity between the layers, which results in a
blister
- is abundantly supplied with blood vessels that
play a role in maintaining body temperature
homeostasis
- When body temperature is high, the capillaries
of the dermis become engorged, or swollen,
with heated blood, and the skin becomes
reddened and warm. This allows body heat to
radiate from the skin surface. If the
environment is cool and body heat must be
 conserved, blood bypasses the dermis
capillaries temporarily, allowing internal body
temperature to remain high.
- has a rich nerve supply
- made up of dense connective tissue which are
composed of areolar and dense irregular
connective tissue, respectively, and has 2
regions:
1. PAPILLARY
- the superficial dermal region
- It is uneven and has peglike projections from its
superior surface, called dermal papillae which
indent the epidermis above. Many of the dermal
papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish
nutrients to the epidermis
- On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet,
the papillae are arranged in definite patterns
that form looped and whorled ridges on the
epidermal surface that increase friction and
enhance the gripping ability of the fingers and
feet
- Papillary patterns are genetically determined.
The ridges of the fingertips are well provided
with sweat pores and leave unique, identifying
films of sweat called fingerprints on almost
anything they touch
2. RETICULAR
- the deepest skin layer
- It contains dense irregular connective tissue, as
well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and
deep pressure receptors called lamellar
corpuscles
- Other cutaneous sensory receptors, which are
actually part of the nervous system, are also
located in the skin. These tiny sensors, which
include touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
receptors, provide us with a great deal of
information about our external environment
- Phagocytes found here act to prevent microbes
that have managed to get through the
epidermis from penetrating any deeper into the
body
- both collagen and elastic fibers are found
throughout the dermis.
*Collagen fibers- are responsible for the toughness
of the dermis; they also attract and bind water and
thus help to keep the skin hydrated.
*Elastic fibers- give the skin its elasticity when we
are young. As we age, the number of collagen and
elastic fibers decreases, and the subcutaneous tissue
loses fat. As a result, the skin loses its elasticity and
begins to sag and wrinkle.
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE, or HYPODERMIS
- the deep part of the dermis which essentially is
adipose (fat) tissue. It is not considered part of
the skin, but it does anchor the skin to
underlying organs and provides a site for
nutrient storage.
SKIN COLOR
- three pigments:
1. MELANIN
- the amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown,
or black) of melanin in the epidermis
- skin exposure to sunlight stimulates
melanocytes to produce more melanin pigment,
resulting in tanning of the skin.
- People who produce a lot of melanin have
brown-toned skin, whereas people with less
melanin are light skinned.
2. CAROTENE
- the amount of carotene deposited in the
stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue
- is an orange-yellow pigment plentiful in carrots
and other orange, deep yellow, or leafy green
vegetables
- In people who eat large amounts of carotene
-rich foods, the skin tends to take on a
yellow-orange cast.
3. HEMOGLOBIN
- the amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the
dermal blood vessels
- In light-skinned people, the crimson color of
oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood
supply flushes through the transparent cell
layers above and gives the skin a rosy glow
- Emotions also influence skin color, and many
alterations in skin color signal certain disease
states:
1. REDNESS, OR ERYTHEMA
- may indicate embarrassment (blushing),
fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.
2. PALLOR, OR BLANCHING (PALE)
- Under certain types of emotional stress (fear,
anger, and others), some people become pale.
- may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or
impaired blood flow into the area
3. JAUNDICE OR A YELLOW CAST
- an abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a
liver disorder in which excess bile pigments
accumulate in the blood, circulate throughout
the body, and become deposited in body
tissues
4. BRUISES
- the black-and-blue marks of bruising
reveal sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted in the tissue spaces.
- Such clotted blood masses are called
hematomas
- an unusual tendency to bruise may signify a
deficiency of vitamin C in the diet or hemophilia
(bleeder’s disease)
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
- include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicles,
and nails
- each of these appendages arises from the
epidermis and plays a unique role in maintaining
body homeostasis.
1. CUTAENOUS GLANDS
- are all exocrine glands that release their
secretions to the skin surface via ducts
- as these glands are formed by the cells of the
stratum basale, they push into the deeper skin
regions and ultimately reside almost
entirely in the dermis.
- they fall into two groups: sebaceous glands
and sweat glands
A. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS
- or oil glands
- are found all over the skin, except on the palms
of the hands and the soles of the feet.
- their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle but
some open directly onto the skin surface
- becomes very active when androgens (male sex
hormones) are produced in increased amounts
(in both sexes) during adolescence. Thus, the
skin tends to become oilier during this period of
life.
*Sebum- product of the sebaceous glands
- is a mixture of oily substances and
fragmented cells
- it is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and
moist and prevents the hair from becoming
brittle
- contains chemicals that kill bacteria, so it
is important in preventing bacterial
infection of the skin.
B. SWEAT GLANDS
- also called sudoriferous glands
- are widely distributed in the skin
- their number is staggering—more than 2.5
million per person.
- there are two types of sweat glands:
1. ECCRINE GLANDS
- are far more numerous and are found all over
the body
- they produce sweat, vitamin C, traces of
metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid),
and lactic acid (a chemical that accumulates
during vigorous muscle activity)
*sweat is acidic (pH from 4 to 6), a
characteristic that inhibits the growth of
certain bacteria, which are always present
 on the skin surface. Typically, sweat reaches
the skin surface via a duct that opens
externally as a funnel-shaped sweat pore
- are an important and highly efficient part of the
body’s heat-regulating equipment. They are
supplied with nerve endings that cause them to
secrete sweat when the external temperature
or body temperature is too high
2. APOCRINE GLANDS
- are largely confined to the axillary (armpit) and
genital areas of the body
- usually larger than eccrine glands, and their
ducts empty into hair follicles
- their secretion contains fatty acids and proteins,
as well as all the substances present in eccrine
sweat; consequently, it may have a milky or
yellowish color. The secretion is odorless, but
when bacteria that live on the skin use its
proteins and fats as a source of nutrients for
their growth, it can take on a musky, sometimes
unpleasant odor
- it begins to function during puberty under the
influence of androgens. They play a minimal role
in thermoregulation
- their precise function is not yet known, but they
are activated by nerve fibers during pain and
stress and during sexual arousal
2. HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES
A. HAIR
- millions of hairs, produced by hair follicles, are
found all over the body surface except on the
palms of the hands, soles of the feet, nipples,
and lips
- hairs are among the fastest growing tissues in
the body
- serves a few minor protective functions, such as
guarding the head against bumps, shielding the
eyes (via eyelashes), and helping to keep foreign
particles out of the respiratory tract (via nose
hairs)
- may also help to attract sexual partners
- hormones account for the development of hairy
regions—the scalp and, in the adult, the pubic
and axillary areas
- is a flexible epithelial structure
- Root = part of the hair enclosed in the hair
follicle
- Shaft = the part projecting from the
surface of the scalp or skin
- a hair forms by division of the well-nourished
stratum basale epithelial cells in the matrix of
the hair bulb at the deep end of the follicle
- Medulla = where each hair is made up of, is a
central core consisting of large cells and air
spaces, surrounded by a bulky cortex layer
composed of several layers of flattened cells
- Cortex = enclosed by an outermost cuticle
formed by a single layer of cells that overlap one
another like shingles on a roof
- Cuticle = is the most heavily keratinized region;
it provides strength and helps keep the inner
hair layers tightly compacted. Because it
is most subject to abrasion, the cuticle tends to
wear away at the tip of the shaft, allowing the
keratin fibrils in the inner hair regions to frizz
out, a phenomenon called “split ends
- Hair pigment is made by melanocytes in the hair
bulb, and varying amounts of different types of
melanin combine to produce all varieties
of hair color from pale blond to red to pitch
black
- comes in a variety of sizes and shapes
B. HAIR FOLLICLES
- are actually compound structures
- the inner epithelial root sheath is composed of
epithelial tissue and forms the hair
- the outer fibrous sheath is actually dermal
connective tissue. This dermal region supplies
blood vessels to the epidermal portion and
reinforces it
- Arrector pili = small bands of smooth muscle
cells connect each side of the hair follicle to the
dermal tissue
3. NAILS
- a scalelike modification of the epidermis that
corresponds to the hoof or claw of other
animals
- each nail has a free edge, a body, and a root
- Nail folds = folds of skin that overlapped the
borders of the nail
- Cuticle = the edge of the thick proximal nail fold
- Nail Bed = beneath the nail where the stratum
basale of the epidermis extends
- Nail matrix = the thickened proximal area; is
responsible for nail growth. As the matrix
produces nail cells, they become heavily
keratinized and die.
- are mostly nonliving material
- are transparent and nearly colorless, but
they look pink because of the rich blood supply
in the underlying dermis. The exception to this
is the region over the thickened nail matrix that
appears as a white crescent and is called the
lunule
- when the supply of oxygen in the blood is low,
the nail beds take on a cyanotic (blue) cast.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
- skin can develop more than 1,000 different
ailments
- most common skin disorder are infections with
pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi
- Allergies = caused by abnormally strong
immune responses; commonly seen in the skin
- Burns and skin cancers = less common but far
more damaging to body well-being
1. INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
A. ATHLETE’S FOOT
- an itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin
between the toes, resulting from an
infection with the fungus Tinea pedis
B. BOILS AND CARBUNCLES
- Boils are caused by inflammation of hair
follicles and surrounding tissues, commonly on
the dorsal neck
- Carbuncles are clusters of boils often caused by
the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus
C. COLD SORES (FEVER BLISTERS)
- small fluid-filled blisters that itch and sting,
caused by human herpesvirus 1 infection. The
virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve, where it
remains dormant until activated by emotional
upset, fever, or UV radiation. It usually occur
around the lips and in the oral mucosa of the
mouth and nose
D. CONTACT DERMATITIS
- Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin,
progressing to blistering
- It is caused by exposure of the skin to
chemicals
that provoke allergic responses in sensitive
individuals
E. IMPETIGO
- pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (commonly
around the mouth and nose) that develop a
yellow crust and eventually rupture caused by
highly contagious staphylococcus or
streptococcus infections
F. PSORIASIS
- characterized by reddened epidermal lesions
covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn,
crack, and sometimes bleed
- a chronic condition; it is believed to be an
autoimmune disorder in which the immune
system attacks a person’s own tissues, leading
to the rapid overproduction of skin cells. Attacks
are often triggered by trauma, infection,
hormonal changes, or stress.
- when severe, psoriasis may be disfiguring
2. BURNS
- is tissue damage and cell death caused by
intense heat, electricity, UV radiation (sunburn),
or certain chemicals (such as acids), which
denature proteins and cause cell death in the
affected areas
- when the skin is burned and its cells are
destroyed, two life-threatening problems result:
1st = Without an intact boundary, the body loses
its precious supply of fluids containing
proteins and electrolytes as these seep
from the burned surfaces
2 = Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
nd
follow and can lead to a shutdown of the
kidneys and circulatory shock
- to save the patient, lost fluids must be replaced
immediately. The volume of fluid lost can be
estimated indirectly by determining how much
of the body surface is burned (extent of burns),
using the rule of nines
- infection becomes the most important
threat and is the leading cause of death in burn
victims. Burned skin is sterile for about 24
hours. After that, pathogens easily invade areas
where the skin has been destroyed and multiply
rapidly in the nutrient-rich environment of dead
tissues. The patient’s immune system becomes
depressed within one to two days after severe
burn injury
- burns are classified according to their severity
(depth) as:
A. FIRST-DEGREE (SUPERFICIAL)
- only the superficial epidermis is damaged
- the area becomes red and swollen
- It’s not usually serious and generally heal in
two to three days
- Sunburn without blistering is a first-degree burn
B. SECOND-DEGREE (SUPERFICIAL PARTIAL
-THICKNESS BURNS)
- involve injury to the epidermis and the
superficial part of the dermis
- the skin is red, painful, and blistered
- because sufficient numbers of epithelial cells
are still present, regrowth of the epithelium can
Occur
- ordinarily, no permanent scars result if care
is taken to prevent infection.
C. THIRD-DEGREE (FULL-THICKNESS BURNS)
- often extend into the subcutaneous tissue,
reflecting their categorization as full thickness
burns
- blisters are usually present, and the burned area
appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened
- because the nerve endings in the area are
destroyed, the burned area is not painful
- regeneration is not possible, and skin grafting
must be done to cover the underlying exposed
tissues.
D. FOURTH-DEGREE (FULL-THICKNESS BURNS WITH
DEEP-TISSUE INVOLVEMENT)
- are also full-thickness burns, but they extend
into deeper tissues such as bone, muscle, or
tendons
- these burns appear dry and leathery, and they
require surgery and grafting to cover exposed
tissue
- in severe cases, amputation may be required to
save the patient’s life
CONSIDERED CRITICAL
• Over 30 percent of the body has second-degree
burns
• Over 10 percent of the body has third- or
fourth-degree burns
• There are third- or fourth-degree burns of the
face, hands, feet, or genitals
• Burns affect the airway
• Circumferential (around the body or limb)
burns have occurred.
- Facial burns are particularly dangerous
because of the possibility of burns in respiratory
passageways, which can swell and cause
suffocation
- Joint injuries are troublesome because the
scar tissue that eventually forms can severely
limit joint mobility
- Circumferential burns can restrict movement,
and depending on location, can interfere with
normal breathing
3. SKIN CANCER
- numerous types of neoplasms (tumors) arise in
the skin. Most are benign and do not spread
(metastasize) to other body area
- is the single most common type of cancer in
humans
- Frequent irritation of the skin by infections,
chemicals, or physical trauma also seems to be a
predisposing factor
- three most common types of skin cancer:
A. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
- is the least malignant and most common skin
cancer
- Cells of the stratum basale, no longer honor the
boundary between epidermis and dermis. They
proliferate, invading the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue
- Cancerous lesions occur most often on sun
-exposed areas of the face and often appear as
shiny, dome-shaped nodules that later develop
a central ulcer with a “pearly” beaded edge
- is relatively slow-growing, and metastasis
seldom occurs before the lesion is noticed.
When the lesion is removed surgically, 99
percent of cases are completely cured.
B. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
- arises from the cells of the stratum spinosum
- the lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules
(small, rounded swellings) that gradually
form shallow ulcers with firm, raised borders
- appears most often on the scalp, ears, back of
the hands, and lower lip, but can appear
anywhere on the skin
- it grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent
lymph nodes if not removed
- it is also believed to be induced by UV exposure.
If it is caught early and removed surgically or by
radiation therapy, the chance of complete cure
is good
C. MALIGNANT MELANOMA
- is a cancer of melanocytes
- It accounts for only about 5 percent of skin
cancers, but it is often deadly
- can begin wherever there is pigment; most such
cancers appear spontaneously, but some
develop from pigmented moles
- It arises from accumulated DNA damage in
a skin cell and usually appears as a spreading
brown to black patch that metastasizes rapidly
to surrounding lymph and blood vessels
- the chance for survival is about 50 percent,
and early detection helps
- the American Cancer Society suggests that
people who sunbathe frequently or attend
tanning parlors examine their skin periodically
for new moles or pigmented spots and apply the
ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma:
(A) Asymmetry = Any two sides of the pigmented
spot or mole do not match
(B) Border irregularity = The borders of the
lesion are not smooth but exhibit
indentations
(C) Color = The pigmented spot contains areas
of different colors (black, brown, tan, and
sometimes blue or red)
(D) Diameter = The lesion is larger than 6
millimeters (mm) in diameter (the size of a
pencil eraser)
(E) Evolution = One or more of these characteristics
(ABCD) is evolving, or changing
- the usual therapy for malignant melanoma is
wide surgical excision along with
immunotherapy, a treatment that involves the
patient’s immune system. Large lesions may
also require radiation or chemotherapy after
surgical removal
REFERENCE:
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)
NOTE: Some information were gathered online and
others were from PDFs downloaded years ago

SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Skeleton = from Greek word meaning “dried-up
body”
- includes bones, cartilages, joints, and ligaments
- the internal frame of the body (is beautifully formed
and proportioned)
- strong yet light, perfectly adapted for its functions of
protecting the body and allowing motion
- is essential for protecting organs, producing blood
cells, storing essential minerals, and anchoring
skeletal muscles so that their contractions
cause body movements
2 SUBDIVISIONS OF SKELETON:
- joints give these parts of the skeleton flexibility
and allow movement to occur.
A. AXIAL SKELETON
- bones that form the longitudinal aspect of the body
B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- bones of the limbs and girdles attached to axial
skeleton
COMPONENTS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
A. BONES
- contributes to body structure
- “steel girders” and “reinforced concrete” of the
body
- adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones
B. JOINTS
- sites where two or more bones meet and holds the
bone together securely
C. CARTILAGE
- reduce friction and model for bone formation
D. LIGAMENTS
- fibrous cords that bind the bones together at joints
FUNCTIONS OF BONES
A. SUPPORT
- form the internal framework and cradles soft organs
of the body and cradles its soft organs.
- the bones of the legs act as pillars to support the
body trunk when we stand
- the rib cage supports the thoracic wall
B. PROTECTION
- bones protect soft body organs
- skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
- rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
C. ALLOW MOVEMENTS
- skeletal muscle, attached to bones by tendons
(breath, walk, swim, throw a ball)
D. STORAGE
- bone itself serves as a storehouse for minerals
(Calcium and Phosphorus)
- Fat is stored the internal marrow cavities of bone
E. BLOOD CELL FORMATION (HEMATOPOIESIS)
- occurs within the marrow cavities of certain bones
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
A. COMPACT BONE
- dense, looks smooth and homogeneous
B. SPONGY BONE
- has spiky, open appearance like a sponge
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON SHAPES C. FLAT BONES
- thin, flattened, and usually curved
A. Long - have two thin layers of compact bone surround a
B. Short later of spongy bone
C. Flat - Ex: Skull, ribs, and Sternum (breastbone)
D. Irregular
D. IRREGULAR BONES
- irregular shape
- mainly spongy bone with outer layer of compact
bone
- Ex: Vertebrae and hip bones

ANATOMY OF LONG BONE

1. DIAPHYSIS (SHAFT)
- makes up most of the bone’s lengths
- composed of compact bone
- is covered and protected by Periosteum =a fibrous
connective tissue membrane
- Perforating fibers or Sharpeys fibers = hundreds of
connective tissue fibers which secures the
periosteum to the underlying bone

A. LONG BONES
- typically longer than they are wide
- have shaft with enlarged ends
- contain mostly compact bones; spongy bone at the
ends
- all of the bones of the limbs except the Patella
(kneecap), wrist, and ankle bone
- Ex: Femur and Humerus
2. EPIPHYSES
- ends of the bone
- each consists of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled of spongy bone
- Articular Cartilage = covers its external surface;
glassy hyaline cartilage; it provides a smooth surface
that decreases friction at the joint when covered by
lubricating fluid
- Epiphyseal line = a thin line of bony tissue spanning
the epiphysis that looks a bit different from the rest
of the bone in that area; remnant of the Epiphyseal
plate
- Epiphyseal plate = a flat plate of hyaline cartilage

B. SHORT BONES
- generally cube-shaped
- contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer if
compact bone
- includes bones of the wrist and ankle
- Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone which
form within tendols (Patella)
- Ex: Carpals and Tarsals
3. MEDULLARY CAVITY
- cavity of the shaft on infants
- storage are for red marrow which produce blood cell
formation in infants; which gradually replaced by
yellow marrow
- Endosteum = a delicate connective tissue that
covers the inner bony surface of the shaft

4. BONE MARKINGS
- surfaces are not smooth but scarred with
bumps, holes and ridges
- sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
- passages for nerves and blood vessels
- two categories:

A. PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES
- grow out from the bone surface
- terms often begin with “T”

B. DEPRESSIONS OR CAVITIES
- indentations in the bone
- terms often begin with “F” except facet

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE

1. OSTEON (HAVERSIAN SYSTEM)

- a unit of bone containing central canal and matrix
rings

2. OSTEOCYTES
- found within the bone matrix in tiny cavities called
Lacunae

3. CENTRAL (HAVERSIAN) CANAL

- opening in the center of an osteon
- carries blood vessels and nerves

4. LACUNAE
- cavities containing bone cells (Osteocytes)
-arranged in concentric rings called Lamellae

5. LAMELLAE
- rings around the central canal
- sites of Lacunae

6. CANALICULI
- tiny canals
- radiate from the central canal to lacunae BONE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING
- form a transport system connecting all bone cells to
a nutrient supply - Skeletons’ strongest and most supportive tissues
 Cartilage
7. PERFORATING CANALS (VOLKMANN’S CANALS)  Bone
- communication pathway from the outside of the - In embryos, the skeleton is primarily made of
bone to its interior hyaline cartilage. During development, much of this
- run in the compact bone at right angles to the shaft cartilage is replaced by bone
(diaphysis) and central canals - Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints

BONE GROWTH (OSSIFICATION)

- also called as bone formation
- a process where most bones are develop using
hyaline cartilage structures as their “models.”

- Epiphyseal plates- allow for lengthwise growth of

long bones during childhoof
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Enclosed cartilage is digested
away, opening up a medullary
cavity
 Bone replaces cartilage through
the action of Osteoblasts
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
 Bones are remodeled in response
to two factors:
1. Blood calcium levels
2. Pull gravity and muscles on the
skeleton
 Bones grow in diameter/ width
(called appositional growth)
 FRACTURE
- break in a bone
- two kinds:
 CLOSED (SIMPLE) FRACTURE
- break that does not penetrate the skin

 OPEN (COMPOUND) FRACTURE

- broken bone penetrates through the skin

COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURE

1. Comminuted
- bone breaks into 3 or more fragments
2. Compression
- bone is crushed
3. Depressed
- broken bone portion is pressed inward
TYPE OF BONE CELLS 4. Impacted
- broken bone ends are forced into each other
1. OSTEOCYTES 5. Spiral
- mature bone cells - ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces
are applied to a bone
2. OSTEOBLASTS 6. Greenstick
- bone-forming cells - bone breaks incompletely
- a bone-building cell which covered the hyaline
cartilage model with bone matrix (a bone “collar”)

3. OSTEOCLASTS
- giant bone- destroying cells
- breaks down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium in response to parathyroid
hormone

BONE REMODELING
- is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- is essential if bones are to retain normal proportions
and strength during long-bone growth as the body
increases in size and weight

BONE FRACTURES
- bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES
 CLOSED REDUCTION- the bone ends are coaxed 1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
back into their normal position by the 2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
physician’s hands 3. Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
 OPEN REDUCTION- surgery is performed, and 4. Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
the bone ends are secured together with pins or
wires
AXIAL SKELETON
- forms the longitudinal axis of the body
-divided into three parts:
 Skull
 Vertebral Column
 Thoracic Cage

SKULL
- formed by two sets of bones
 Cranium- encloses and protects the fragile
brain tissue
 Facial bones- form a cradle for the eyes that is
open to the anterior and allow the facial
muscles to show our feelings through smiles
and frowns
- Only the mandible is attached freely movable joint
CRANIUM
- composed of eight large flat bones
- except for two sets of paired bones (the
parietal and temporal), they are all single bones
 FRONTAL BONE
- forms the forehead, the bony projections under
the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s
orbit
 PARIETAL BONES
- the paired parietal bones form most of the
superior and lateral walls of the cranium
- the sagittal suture is formed at the midline
where the two parietal bones meet and the
coronal suture is formed where the paired
parietal bones meet the frontal bone
 TEMPORAL BONES
- lie inferior to the parietal bones and join them
at the squamous sutures
- several important bone markings appear here
 External acoustic meatus- a canal that
leads to the eardrum and the middle ear. It is
the route by which sound enters the ear.
 Styloid process- a sharp, needlelike projection,
is just inferior to the external auditory meatus.
Many neck muscles use the styloid process as
an attachment point
 Zygomatic process- a thin bridge of bone that
joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic bone)
anteriorly
 Mastoid process- full of air cavities (the mastoid
sinuses), is a rough projection posterior and
inferior to the external
acoustic meatus. It provides an attachment
site for some muscles of the neck.
- the mastoid sinuses are so close to the middle
ear—a high-risk spot for infections— that they
may become infected too, a condition called
mastoiditis. It is so close to the brain that
mastoiditis may spread to the brain.
 Jugular foramen- at the junction of the
occipital and temporal bones, allows passage of
the jugular vein, the largest vein of the head,
which drains blood from the brain
 OCCIPITAL BONE
- is the most posterior bone of the cranium
- It forms the base and back wall of the skull
- joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid
suture
- In the base is a large opening, the foramen magnum,
which surrounds the lower part of the brain and
allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain
- Lateral to the foramen magnum on each side are the
rockerlike occipital condyles, which rest on the first
vertebra of the spinal column
 SPHENOID BONE
- the butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width
of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial
cavity
- in the midline is a small depression, the sella turcica
or Turk’s saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for
the pituitary gland
- Foramen ovale, a large oval opening in line with the
posterior end of the sella turcica allows fibers of
cranial nerve V (the trigeminal nerve) to pass to the
chewing muscles of the lower jaw (mandible)
- part of the eye orbits have two important openings
 Optic canal- allows the optic nerve to pass to
the eye,
 Superior orbital fissure- through which the
cranial nerves controlling eye movements (III,
IV, and VI) pass
- Sphenoidal sinuses- the central part is riddled with
air activities
 ETHMOID BONE
- is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the
sphenoid
- It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the
medial walls of the orbits
- Crista Galli- Projecting from its superior surface; on
each side of it are many small holes. These holey
areas, the cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers
carrying impulses from the olfactory (smell)
receptors of the nose to reach the brain
FACIAL BONES
- 14 bones make up the face
- 12 are paired; only the mandible and vomer are
single
 MAXILLAE
- two maxillae or maxillary bones, fuse to form the
upper jaw
- all facial bones except the mandible join the
maxillae
- maxillae carry the upper teeth in the alveolar - the lower teeth lie in alveoli (sockets) in the alveolar
process process at the superior edge of the mandibular
- extensions of the maxillae called the palatine body
processes form the anterior part of the hard palate
of the mouth ADDITIONAL:
- maxillae contain sinuses, which drain into the nasal
passages  PARANASAL SINUSES
- hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
 PALATINE BONES cavity
- lie posterior to the palatine processes of the - functions of paranasal sinuses
maxillae 1. Ligthen the skull
- forms the posterior part of the hard palate 2. Give resonance and amplification to voice

 ZYGOMATIC BONES
- commonly referred to as the cheekbones
- form a good-sized portion of the lateral walls
of the orbits

 LACRIMAL BONES
- are fingernail-sized bones forming part of the medial
wall of each orbit
- each has a groove that serves as a passageway for
tears

 NASAL BONES
- the small rectangular bones forming the bridge of
the nose are
- the lower part of the skeleton of the nose
is made up of hyaline cartilage

 VOMER BONE
- the single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity
- vomer forms the inferior part of the bony nasal
septum, which separates the two nostrils

 INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE

- are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity
 MANDIBLE
- or lower jaw
- is the largest and strongest bone of the face
- it joins the temporal bones on each side of the face,
forming the only freely movable joints in the skull
- the horizontal part of the mandible forms the chin. -
two upright bars of bone (the rami) extend from the
body to connect the mandible with the temporal
bone
HYOID BONE
- serve as a moveable base for the tongue
- aids in swallowing and speech
- not really part of the skull
- it is the only bone of the body that does not
articulate (form a joint) with any other bone
- it is suspended in the midneck region about 2 cm (1
inch) above the larynx (voicebox), where it is
anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of
the temporal bones
- horseshoe-shaped, with a body and two pairs of
horns
- serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an
attachment point for neck muscles that raise and
lower the larynx when we swallow and speak

THE FETAL SKULL

- large compare to the infant’s total body length
- Fetal skulls is 1/4 body length compared to adult
skull which is 1/8 body length

FONTANELS
- fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy
and infancy
 Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
- also known as Spine
- each vertebrae is given a name according to its
location
- There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by
intervertebral discs
 seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
 twelve thoracic vertebrae are in chest
region
 five lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
- extends from the skull, which it supports, to the
pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to
the lower limbs

 Sacrum- formed in the fusion of 5 vertebrae

 Coccyx- formed in the fusion of 3-4 tiny
irregular shaped vertebrae
 Primary curvatures- spinal curvatures of the
thoracic and sacral regions
-form a C- shaped curvature as in
newborns
 Secondary curvatures- spinal curvatures of the
cervical and lumbar regions
-develop after birth
-form an S- shaped curvature as in
adults
TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
REGIONS
1. BODY OR CERTRUM
- weight bearing part of the vertebra facing anteriorly
1. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
in the vertebral column
- seven cervical vertebrae (identified as C1 to
- disclike
C7) form the neck region of the spine
- Atlas and Axis - first two vertebrae; are different
2. VERTEBRAL ARCH
because they perform functions not shared by the
- arch formed from the joining of all posterior
other cervical vertebrae
extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the
vertebral body
2. THORACIC VERTEBRAE
- 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical
3. VERTEBRAL FORAMEN
- they are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are
- canal through which the spinal cord passes.
distinguished by the fact that they are the only
vertebrae to articulate with the ribs.
4. TRANSVERSE PROCESSES
- the body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two
- two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
costal facets (articulating surfaces) on each side,
which receive the heads of the ribs
5. SPINOUS PROCESS
- transverse processes of each thoracic vertebra
- single projection arising from the posterior aspect of
articulate with the knoblike tubercles of the ribs
the vertebral arch
- the spinous process is long and hooks sharply
downward, causing the vertebra to look like a
6. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR ARTICULAR PROCESSES
giraffe’s head viewed from the side
- paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen,
allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent
3. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
vertebrae
- five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have massive,
blocklike bodies that are somewhat kidney
bean–shaped
- their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes make
them look like a moose head from the lateral aspect
- because most of the stress on the vertebral column
occurs in the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest
of the vertebrae

4. SACRUM
- is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
- it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it connects with
the coccyx
- forms the posterior wall of the pelvis
- its posterior midline surface is roughened by the
median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of
the sacral vertebrae
5. COCCYX
- is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny,
irregularly shaped vertebrae
- it is the human “tailbone,” a remnant of the
tail that other vertebrate animals have
BONY THORAX
- forms a cage to protect major organs
- routinely called the thoracic cage because it
forms a protective cage of slender bones and
cartilages around the organs of the thoracic cavity
(heart, lungs, and major blood vessels).
- consists of three parts:
1. STERNUM (BREASTBONE)
- flat bone
- the result of the fusion of three bones—the
manubrium, body, and xiphoid process
- it is attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs
via costal cartilages
- has three important bony landmarks:
blood-forming (hematopoietic) tissue for the
diagnosis of suspected blood diseases
2. RIBS
- True ribs (pairs 1-7); attach directly to the sternum
by costal cartilages
- False ribs (pairs 8-12) the next five pairs ,either
attach indirectly to the sternum or are not attached
to the sternum at all
- Floating ribs (pairs 11-12); lack the sternal
attachments
- twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony
Thorax
- all the ribs articulate with the vertebral
column posteriorly and then curve downward and
toward the anterior body surface
- Intercostal spaces- spaces between the ribs; are
filled with the intercostal muscles, which aid in
breathing
3. THORACIC VERTEBRAE

 JUGULAR NOTCH
- can be palpated easily
- it is at the level of the third thoracic
vertebra

 STERNAL ANGLE
- results where the manubrium and body meet at
a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse
ridge is formed at the level of the second ribs
- It provides a handy reference point for counting APPENDICULAR SKELETON
ribs to locate the second intercostal space for - composed of 126 bones
listening to certain heart valves
1. PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE
 XIPHISTERNAL JOINT
- composed of two bones:
- the point where the sternal body and xiphoid
process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth a. CLAVICLE
thoracic vertebra - collarbone
- slender, doubly curved bones
- because the sternum is so close to the body - articulates with the ternum medially and with
surface, it is easy to obtain samples from it of the scapula laterally
 b. SCAPULA
- or as shoulder blade
- commonly called as “wings”
- articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint
- articulates with the arm bone at the glenoid
cavity

- these bones allow the upper limb to have

exceptionally free movement

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

C. HAND
1. ARM
A. HUMERUS
- forms the arm
- single bone
- proximal end articulation (head articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula)
- distal end articulation (trochlea and capiulum
articulate with the bones of the forearm)
B. FOREARM
- has two bones:
 Ulna- medial bone in anatomical position
- proximal end articulation (coronoid
process and olecranon articulate with the
humerus)
 Radius- lateral bone in anatomical position
- proximal end articulation (head articulates
with the capitulum of the humerus)
 Carpals- forms the wrist
- 8 bones arranged in two irregular rows of
four bones in each hand
- are bound together by ligaments that
restrict movements between them
 Metacarpals- palm
- are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side
of the hand toward the little finger
- when the fist is clenched, the heads of the
metacarpals become obvious as the
“knuckles”
 Phalanges- bones of fingers and thumb
- 14 phalanges in each hand
- in each finger, there are 3 bones
- in each thumb, there are 2 bones

BONES OF PELVIC GIRDLE
- formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones, commonly
called hip bones, and the sacrum
- Pelvis = Coccyx + pelvic girdle
- the total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
- composed of three pairs of fused bones:
1. ILIUM
- which connects posteriorly with the sacrum at
the sacroiliac joint
- a large, flaring bone that forms most of the hip
bone
- when you put your hands on your hips, they are
resting over the alae, or winglike portions, of
the ilia
- Iliac crest = is an important anatomical
landmark
2. ISCHIUM
- is the “sit-down bone,” so called because it
forms the most inferior part of the coxal bone
3. PUBIS
- is the most anterior and inferior part of a coxal
bone
- it protects several organs:
1. Reproductive system
2. Urinary bladder
3. Part of the large intestine
- bony pelvis is divided into two regions:
1. FALSE PELVIS
- is superior to the true pelvis
- it is the area medial to the flaring portions of
the ilia
2. TRUE PELVIS
- is surrounded by bone and lies inferior to the
flaring parts of the ilia and the pelvic brim
GENDER DIFFERENCES OF THE PELVIS
1. The female inlet is larger and more circular
2. The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the
bones are lighter and thinner
3. The female ilia flare more laterally
4. The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
5. The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart,
thus the outlet is larger
6. The female pubic arch is more rounded because the
angle of the pubic arch is greater
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
- carry our total body weight when we are erect
- three segments:
1. FEMUR
- or thigh bone; the only bone in the thigh
- heaviest, strongest bone in the body
- proximal end articulation (head articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone)
- distal end articulation (lateral and medial condyles
articulate with the tibia in the lower leg)
 3. FOOT
- supports our body weight and serves as a lever that
allows us to propel our bodies forward when we
walk run
- composed of:

1. TARSALS
- forms the posterior half of foot
- composed of 7 tarsal bones
- Calcaneus (heel bone) and Talus = two largest
tarsals which carries our body weight the most

2. METATARSALS
- 5 bones form the sole of the foot

3. PHALANGES
- 14 bones which form the toes
- each toe has three phalanges, except the great
toe, which has two

2. LEG
- connected along their length by an interosseous
membrane
- has two bones:

1. TIBIA
- or shinbone
- larger and medially oriented
- proximal end articulation (medial and lateral
condyles articulate with the femur to form the
knee joint)

2. FIBULA
- thin and sticklike, lateral to the tibia
- has no role in forming the knee joint

ARCHES OF THE FOOT

-bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong
arches:

1. Two longitudinal
2. One transverse

 Ligaments - which bind the foot bones together

 Tendons - of the foot muscles help to hold the bones
firmly in the arched position but still allow a certain
amount of give, or springiness
JOINTS
- also called articulations
- with one exception (the hyoid bone of the neck),
every bone in the body forms a joint with at least 2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
one other bone - immovable or slightly moveable
- hold bones together - bones connected by cartilage
- allow for mobility - types:
- two ways to classify:
a. SYNCHONDROSES (SYNARTHROTIC)
1. FUNCTIONALLY - immovable joints (ex: bones on ribs 1-7 and
- focuses on the amount of movement the joint sternum)
allow
b. SYMPHYSES (AMPHIARTHROTIC)
2. STRUCTURALLY - slightly movable
- there are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial - ex: pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
joints
- are based on whether fibrous tissue, cartilage,
or a joint cavity separates the bony regions
at the joint

STRCUTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

1. FIBROUS JOINTS
- generally immovable
- bones united by collagenic fibers
- types:
a. SUTURES
- immobile
 Syndesmoses - allows more movement than
sutures but still immobile ex: Distal end of
tibia nad fibula

 Gomphosis- immobile
 c. JOINT CAVITY
- is filled with synovial fluid

d. REINFORCING LIGAMENTS
- the fibrous layer of the capsule is usually
reinforced with ligaments

3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
- freely moveable
- articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
- synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
- features:

a. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE (HYALINE CARTILAGE)

- covers the ends of bones

b. ARTICULAR CAPSULE
- encloses joint surfaces and lined with synovial
membrane
 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON SHAPES

STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SYNOVIAL JOINT - shapes of the articulating bone surfaces determine
what movements are allowed at a joint
1. BURSAE
- flattened fibrous sacs 1. PLANE JOINT
 Lined with synovial membranes - the articular surfaces are essentially flat, and only
 Filled with synovial fluid short slipping or gliding movements are allowed
 Not strictly part of the synovial joint but often - movements are nonaxial (gliding back and forth does
found closely associated not involve rotation around any axis
- ex: intercarpal joints of the wrist
2. TENDON SHEATH
- elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon 2. HINGE JOINT
- the cylindrical end of one bone fits into a
trough-shaped surface on another bone
INFALAMMATORY CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH - angular movement is allowed in just one plane
JOINTS - ex: elbow joint, ankle joint, and the joints between
the phalanges of the fingers
1. BURSITIS - classified as uniaxial ( movement around one axis
- inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or only)
friction
3. PIVOT JOINT
2. SPRAIN - the rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or
- ligaments or tendons are damaged ring of bone (and possibly ligaments
- classified as uniaxial
3. ARTHRITIS
- inflammatory or degenerative disease of joints 4. CONDYLAR JOINT
- over 100 different types - “knucklelike”
- most widespread crippling disease in the US - the eggshaped articular surface of one bone fits into
- Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint an oval concavity in another
- both of these articular surfaces are oval
- movement occurs around two axes; hence, these
joints are biaxial as in knuckle (metacarpophalangeal)
joints

5. SADDLE JOINTS
- each articular surface has both convex and concave
areas, like a saddle for a horse
- biaxial joints
- ex: carpometacarpal joints in the thumb, which are
responsible for our opposable thumbs

6. BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
- the spherical head of one bone fits into the round
socket in another
- multiaxial joints allow movement in all axes,
including rotation,and are the most freely moving
synovial joints
- ex: shoulder and hip

REFERENCE:

Essentials of Human Anatomy, 12th Edition. Marieb,

E.N. & K. S.M., 2016. Pearson, NY. (PDF)

NOTE: Some information were gathered online and

others were from PDFs downloaded years ago
 COMPARISON OF SKELETAL, CARDIAC, AND
SMOOTH

CHARACTERISTICS SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH

Body location Attached to Walls of the Mostly in walls

MUSCULAR SYSTEM bone or skin heart of visceral
(for some organs (other
facial muscles) than the
FUNCTIONS: heart)

1. Responsible for body movement

2. Maintain posture Cell shape and Single, very Branching Single,
3. Respiration appearance long, chains of cells, fusiform,
4. Production of body heat cylindrical uninucleate, uninucleate,
multinucleate strations, no striations
5. Communication
cells with very intercalated
6. Heartbeat obvious discs
7. Contraction of organs and vessels striations
8. Muscles are responsible for all types of
body movement

Connective Endomysium, Endomysium Endomysium

3 TYPES: tissue Perimysium,
components and
1. Skeletal Epimysium
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth
Regulation of Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
SIMILARITIES OF THESE 3 TYPES: contraction
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are
Speed of Slow to fast Slow Very slow
elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber) contraction
- the ability of muscle to shorten, or
contract, depends on two types of Rhythmic No Yes Yes, in some
myofilaments, the muscle cell equivalents contractions
of the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
- share some terminology
 Prefixes myo- and mys refer to “muscle”
 Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh” 1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Muscle fibers, which are large,
cigar-shaped, multinucleate cell, are packed
into organs that attach to the skeleton
- most are attached by tendons to bones
- also known as:
  Striated— its fibers have obvious stripe/
have visible banding
 Voluntary—subject to conscious control
- can be activated by reflexes (without our
“willed command
- covers our bone and cartilage framework
- helps form the smooth contours of the body
- its tissue can contract rapidly and with great
force, but it tires easily and must rest after
short periods of activity
- its fibers are soft and fragile
- produce movement
- maintain Posture and Body Position
- Generate Heat
CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
- Cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue:
1. ENDOMYSIUM
- encloses a single muscle fiber
2. PERIMYSIUM
- wraps around a several sheathed muscle
fibers
3. EPIMYSIUM
- covers the entire skeletal muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
- the ends of Epimysium blends into a
connective tissue attachment
1. TENDONS
- cord-like structures
- provides durability and conserving
space
- are mostly tough collagen fibers
2. APONEUROSES
- sheet-like structures
- Attach muscles indirectly to bones,
cartilages, or connective tissue covering
SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
- Sites of muscle attachment
1. Bones
2. Cartilages
3. Connective tissue coverings
2. SMOOTH MUSCLE
- no striations
- Involuntary—no conscious control
- found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
- fibers are spindle-shaped cells, uninucleate,
and surrounded by scant endomysium
- fibers are arranged in layers, and most often
there are two such layers, one running
circularly and the other longitudinally
- contraction is slow and sustained
3. CARDIAC MUSCLE
- Found only in the walls of the heart
- striated, uninucleate, and involuntary
- cardiac cells are cushioned by small amounts
of endomysium and are arranged in spiral or
figure 8–shaped bundles
- fibers are branching cells joined by special
gap junctions called intercalated discs
- usually contracts at a fairly steady rate set
by the heart’s “in-house” pacemaker
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
SARCOLEMMA
- A specialized plasma membrane where
many oval nuclei can be seen beneathe it
MYOFIBRILS
- long ribbonlike organelles inside muscle cell
- pushes nuclei aside
- are aligned to give distinct bands
 I band = light band
- Contains only thin filaments
  A band = dark band
- Contains the entire length of the
thick filaments
SARCOMERE
- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
MYOFILAMENTS
- two types:
1. THICK FILAMENTS
- made mostly of bundled molecules of
myosin filaments
- has ATPase enzymes
- have heads (extensions, or cross bridges)
- Myosin and actin overlap somewhat
2.THIN FILAMENTS
- composed of actin filaments
- anchored to the Z disc
- at rest, within the A band there is a zone
that lacks actin filaments
- called either the H zone or bare zone
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- stores and releases calcium
- surrounds the myofibril
SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY
STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION OF SINGLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
IRRITABILITY
- responsiveness; the ability to receive and
respond to a stimulus
CONTRACTILITY
- ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate
stimulated
EXTENSIBILITY
- ability of muscle cells to be stretched
ELASTICITY
- ability to recoil and resume resting length
after being stretched
NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION POTENTIAL
- Skeletal muscle fibers must be stimulated by
a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
- Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the
skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that
neuron
- Neuromuscular junction - association site of
axon terminal of the motor neuron and
muscle
- Synaptic cleft - gap between nerve and
muscle
- area between nerve and muscle is
filled with interstitial fluid
- action potential reaches the axon terminal
of the motor neuron
- Calcium channels open and calcium
ions enter the axon terminal
TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE TO MUSCLE
- Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
vesicles to release their content
(acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter) by
exocytosis
- Neurotransmitter—chemical released by
nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the
axon terminal
- neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
acetylcholine (ACh)
- Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma of the muscle cell
- In response to the binding of ACh to a
receptor, the sarcolemma becomes
permeable to sodium (Na+)
- Sodium rushes into the cell generating an
action potential and potassium leaves the
cell
- Once started, muscle contraction cannot be
stopped
THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
- Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites on
the thin filament
- Myosin heads then bind to the next site of
the thin filament and pull them toward the
center of the sarcomere
- This continued action causes a sliding of the
myosin along the actin
- The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
GRADED RESPONSES
- different degrees of shortening, which
generate different amounts of force
- can be produced in two ways:
 Changing the he frequency of muscle
stimulation
 Changing the number of muscle cells
being stimulated at one time
- types of graded responses
1. MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID
STIMULATION
- Muscle twitches = Single, brief contraction
- sometimes result from certain nervous
system problems
- not a normal muscle function
- Summing of contractions = one contraction
is immediately followed by another
- the muscle does not completely return
to a resting state due to more frequent
stimulations
- the effects are added
- Unfused (incomplete) tetanus - some
relaxation occurs between contractions but
nerve stimuli arrive at an even faster rate
than during summing of contractions
- Unless the muscle contraction is
smooth and sustained, it is said to
be in unfused tetanus
- Fused (complete) tetanus - no evidence of
relaxation before the following contractions
- Frequency of stimulations does not
allow for relaxation between
contractions
- the result is a smooth and sustained
muscle contraction
2. MUSCLE RESPONSE TO STRONG STIMULI
- Muscle force depends upon the number of
fibers stimulated
- More fibers contracting results in greater
muscle tension
- Muscles can continue to contract unless
they run out of energy
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
1. ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS
- Myofilaments are able to slide past each
other during contractions
- The muscle shortens and movement occurs
- Example: bending the knee; rotating the arm
2. ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS
- contraction in which the muscles do not
shorten
- Tension in the muscles increases
- Example: push against a wall with bent
elbows
MUSCLE TONE
- some of the fibers are contracted even in a
relaxed muscle
- Different fibers contract at different times to
provide muscle tone and to be constantly
ready

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES

- it increases muscle size, strength, and
endurance
1. AEROBIC/ ENDURANCE EXERCISE
- results in stronger, more flexible muscles
with greater resistance to fatigue
- makes body metabolism more efficient
- Improves digestion, coordination
- helps us reach a steady rate of ATP
production and improves the efficiency of
aerobic respiration
2. RESISTANCE/ ISOMETRIC EXERCISE
- increases muscle size and strength
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS
- Movement is attained due to a muscle
moving an attached bone
- Muscles are attached to at least two points
1. ORIGIN
- attachment to the immovable or less
movable bone
2. INSERTION
- attachment to an movable bone. When the
muscle contracts, the insertion moves
toward the origin
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
1. FLEXION
- Decreases the angle of the joint
- Brings two bones closer together
- Typical of bending hinge joints or
ball-and-socket joints
2. EXTENSION
- Opposite of flexion
- movement that increases the angle or
distance between two bones or parts of the
body
- Typical of straightening the elbow or knee
- Extension beyond 180° is hypertension
3. ROTATION
- Movement of a bone around its longitudinal
axis
- Common in ball-and-socket joints
- Ex: when you move atlas around the dens
of axis (shake your head “no”)
4. ABDUCTION
- movement of a limb away from the midline
of the body

5. ADDUCTION
- Opposite of abduction
- Movement of a limb toward the midline
6. CIRCUMDUCTION
- Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction
- Commonly seen n in ball-and-socket joints
 INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE
BODY (TYPES OF MUSCLES)

1. PRIME MOVER
- muscle that has the major responsibility for
a certain movement (agonist)

2. ANTAGONIST
- muscle that opposes or reverses a prime
move
- can be prime movers in their own right
SPECIAL MOVEMENT
3. SYNERGISTS
1. DORSIFLEXION
- help prime movers by producing the same
- Lifting the foot so that the superior surface
movement or by reducing undesirable
approaches the shin (toward the dorsum)
movements
- corresponds to extension and
hyperextension of the hand at the wrist
4. FIXATOR
- specialized synerigists
2. PLANTAR FLEXION
- stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
- pointing the toes away from your head
- “Planting” the foot toward the sole
- corresponds to flexion of the hand
NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES
3. INVERSION
1. BY DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS
- Turn sole of foot medially
- Example: Rectus (straight)
- When a muscle’s name includes the term
4. EVERSION
rectus (straight), its fibers run parallel to
- Turn sole of foot laterally
that imaginary line
5. SUPINATION
- forearm rotates laterally so palm faces
2. BY RELATIVE SIZE OF THE MUSCLE
anteriorly
- Such terms as maximus (largest), minimus
- Radius and ulna are parallel
(smallest), and longus (long)
6. PRONATION
- Forearm rotates medially so palm faces
3. BY LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE
posteriorly
- Example: Temporalis (temporal bone)
- Radius and ulna cross each other like an X
4. BY NUMBER OF ORIGINS
7. OPPOSITION
- Example:the biceps muscle of the arm has
- Move thumb to touch the tips of other
two heads, or origins, and the triceps muscle
fingers on the same hand
has three
5. BY LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE’S ORIGIN AND
INSERTION
- Example: Sterno (on the sternum) clavicle
(cleido) and inserts on the mastoid process
of the temporal bone
6. BY SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE
- Example: Deltoid (triangular)
7. BY ACTION OF THE MUSCLE
- Example: Flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone)
GROSS ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
FACIAL MUSCLES
1. FRONTALIS
- covers the frontal bone
- raises eyebrows and wrinkle your forehead
2. ORBICULARIS OCULI
- run in circles around the eyes
- closes eyes, squints, blinks, winks
3. ORBICULARIS ORIS
- the circular muscle of the lips
- Often called the “kissing” muscle
- closes mouth and protrudes the lips
4. BUCCINATOR
- muscle runs horizontally across the cheek
and inserts into the orbicularis oris
- flattens the cheek, chews
5. ZYGOMATICUS
- extends from the corner of the mouth to the
cheekbone
- raises corners of the mouth
CHEWING MUSCLES
1. MASSETER
- covers the angle of the lower jaw
- closes the jaw and elevates mandible
2. TEMPORALIS
- fan-shaped muscle overlying the temporal
bone
- It inserts into the mandible
- synergist of the masseter, closes jaw
NECK MUSCLES
1. PLATYSMA
- a single sheetlike muscle that covers the
anterolateral neck
- pulls the corners of the mouth inferiorly
2. STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
- two-headed muscles, one found on each
side of the neck
- of the two heads of each muscle, one arises
from the sternum, and the other arises from
the clavicle
- flexes the neck, rotates the head
MUSCLES OF TRUNK, SHOULDER, ARM
ANTERIOR MUSCLES
1. PECTORALIS MAJOR
- major is a large fan-shaped muscle covering
the upper part of the chest.
- adducts and flexes the humerus
INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
1. EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS
- raise rib cage during inhalation
2. INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS
- depress the rib cage to move air out of the
lungs when you exhale forcibly
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL GIRDLE
1. RECTUS ABDOMINIS
- paired straplike rectus abdominis muscles
- flexes vertebral column and compresses
abdominal contents (defecation, childbirth,
forced breathing)
2. EXTERNAL OBLIQUE
- paired superficial muscles that make
up the lateral walls of the abdomen
- flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend
it laterally
3. INTERNAL OBLIQUE
- paired muscles deep to the external
obliques
- flex vertebral column; rotate trunk and bend
it laterally
4. TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS
- the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall
- compresses abdominal contents
POSTERIOR MUSCLES
1. TRAPEZIUS
- the most superficial muscles of the posterior
neck and upper trunk
- elevates, depresses, adducts, and stabilizes
the scapula
2. LATISSIMUS DORSI
- two large, flat muscles that cover the lower
back
- extends and adducts the humerus
3. ERECTOR SPINAE
- Each erector spinae is a composite muscle
consisting of three muscle columns
(longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis) that
collectively span the entire length of the
vertebral column
- back extension
4. QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
- form part of the posterior abdominal wall
- flexes the spine laterally
5. DELTOID
- fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles that form
the rounded shape of your shoulders
- arm abduction
- Muscles that arise from the shoulder girdle
and cross the shoulder joint to insert into
the humerus include:
 Pectoralis major
 Latissimus dorsi
 Deltoid
MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
1. BICEPS BRACHII
- the most familiar muscle of the arm because
it bulges when you flex your elbow
- supinates forearm, flexes elbow
2. BRACHIALIS
- lies deep to the biceps brachii and, like the
biceps, is a prime mover in elbow flexion
- lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts the radius
3. BRACHIORADIALIS
- a fairly weak muscle that arises on the
humerus and inserts into the distal forearm
- it resides mainly in the forearm
4. TRICEPS BRACHII
- the only muscle fleshing out the posterior
humerus
- elbow extension (antagonist to biceps
brachii)
- straightens the arm—for instance, to
deliver a strong jab in boxing
Muscles of the forearm, which insert on the
hand bones and cause their movement include:
2. GLUTEUS MEDIUS
- runs from the ilium to the femur, beneath
the gluteus maximus for most of its length
- hip abduction, steadies pelvis when walking
3. ILIOPSOAS
- a fused muscle composed of two muscles,
the iliacus and the psoas major
- hip flexion, keeps the upper body from
falling backward when standing erect
4. ADDUCTOR MUSCLES
- forms the muscle mass at the medial side of
each thigh
- adduct the thighs
Muscles causing movement at the knee joint:

1. FLEXOR CARPI 1. HAMSTRING GROUP

- wrist flexion - muscles forming the muscle mass of the
posterior thigh
2. FLEXOR DIGITORUM - thigh extension and knee flexion
- finger flexion - consists of three muscles:
 biceps femoris
3. EXTENSOR CARPI  Semimembranosus
- wrist extension  Semitendinosus
which originate on the ischial tuberosity and
4. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM run down the thigh to insert on both sides of
- finger extension the proximal tibia

MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMB
Muscles causing movement at the hip joint
include:
1. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
- superficial muscle of the hip that forms most
of the flesh of the buttock
- It is a powerful hip extensor that acts to
bring the thigh in a straight line with the
pelvis
- hip extension
2. SARTORIUS
- . It runs obliquely across the thigh from the
anterior iliac crest to the medial side of the tibia
- It is a weak thigh flexor
- commonly referred to as the “tailor’s”
muscle because it acts as a synergist to help
tailors sit with both legs crossed in front of
them
3. QUADRICEPS GROUP
- group consists of four muscles:
 rectus femoris
 three vastus muscles
that flesh out the anterior thigh
- extends the knee
Muscles causing movement at ankle and foot: REFERENCE:

1. TIBIALIS ANTERIOR Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th

- a superficial muscle on the anterior leg Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
- It arises from the upper tibia and then Pearson. (PDF)
parallels the anterior crest as
- it runs to the tarsal bones, where it inserts
by a long tendon
- dorsiflexion, foot inversion

2. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS

- arises from the lateral tibial condyle and
proximal three-quarters of the fibula and
inserts into the phalanges of toes 2 to 5
- toe extension and dorsiflexion of the foot

3. FIBULARIS MUSCLES
- The three fibularis muscle:
 Longus
 Brevis
 Tertius
are found on the lateral part of the leg
- They arise from the fibula and insert into the
metatarsal bones of the foot
- plantar flexion, foot eversion

4. GASTROCNEMIUS
- a two-bellied muscle that forms the curved
calf of the posterior leg
- a prime mover for plantar flexion of the
foot
- often called the “toe dancer’s” muscle.

5. SOLEUS
- Deep to the gastrocnemius
- it does not affect knee movement
- it inserts into the calcaneal tendon
- plantar flexion
NERVOUS SYSTEM

- provides for higher mental function and

emotional expression
- maintains homeostasis
- regulates the activities of muscles and
glands
- communication by this involves a
combination of electrical and chemical
signals
- all body systems are under control or
regulation of this system
- works with endocrine system in maintaining
homeostasis and regulating systems
- has three overlapping functions:

1. It uses millions of sensory receptors to

monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body
 Stimuli = the changes
 Sensory input = gathered information

2. It processes and interprets the sensory input

and decide what should be done at each
moment = Integration
3. It then causes a response or effect by
activating muscles or glands via Motor Input
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
- has two subdivisions:
1.CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
- consists of the brain and spinal
- occupies the dorsal body cavity
- act as the integrating and command
centers of nervous system
- interprets incoming sensory information
- issues instructions based on past
experience and current conditions
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
- includes all parts of nervous system outside
the CNS (nerves that extend from spinal
cord and brain)
 Spinal nerves
- carry impulses to and from the spinal
cord
 Cranial nerves
- carry impulses to and from the brain
- both serve as communication lines
PNS FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
- divides into two principal subdivisions:
1. SENSORY/ AFFERENT DIVISION
- consists of nerves that convey carries
impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors
- keeps the CNS constantly informed of events
going inside and outside the body
 Somatic Sensory Fibers
- delivers impulses from the skin, skeletal
muscles, and joints
 Visceral Sensory Fibers
- transmit impulses from the visceral
organs
2. MOTOR/ EFFERENT DIVISION
- carries impulses from CNS to effector organs
(muscles and glands)
- impulses causes a motor response
- has two subdivisions:
 Somatic/ Voluntary Nervous System
- allows us to voluntarily control our
skeletal muscles
- not all skeletal muscle activity
controlled by this is voluntary
 Autonomic/ Involuntary Nervous
System
- regulates events that are involuntary
- has two parts:
 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic
- what one stimulates, the other
inhibits
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- has two principal types of cells
1. SUPPORTING CELLS
- has two major varieties:
 Schwann Cells
- form the myelin sheathes around nerve
fibers in the PNS
 Satellite Cells
- act as protective, cushioning cells for
peripheral neuron cell bodies
NEUROGLIA
- also called as glial cells or glia
- supporting cells in CNS that are “lumped
together”
- not able to transmit nerve impulses
- include many types of cells:
 Astrocytes
- abundant star -shaped cells that
account for nearly half of neural tissue
- form a living barrier between capillaries
and neurons
- help determine capillary permeability
- play a role in making exchanges
between capillaries and neurons
- helps control the chemical environment
in the brain
  Microglia
- spinderlike phagocytes that monitor
the health of nearby neurons dispose of
debris
 Ependymal cells
- lines the central cavities of the brain
and spinal cord
 Oligodendrocytes
- wraps their flat extensions tightly
around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating coverings called Myelin
Sheaths
2. NEURONS
- also called as nerve cells
- highly specialized to transmit message/
nerve impulses from one part of the body to
another
- differ structurally from one another but all
have cell body
 Cell body
- the metabolic center of the neuron
- cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus
contains the usual organelles, except
that it lacks centrioles
- abundant in cell body:
 Nissl Bodies - rough ER
 Neurofibrils - intermediate
filaments that are important in
maintaining cell shape
 Processes
- armlike fibers very in length
 Dendrites - conveys incoming
messages toward the cell body
 Axons - generates nerve impulses
and conduct them away from the
cell body
 Axon Hillock - conelike region of
the cell body where axon arises
 Axon terminals - contains hundreds
of tiny vesicles, or membranous
sacs, that
contain chemicals called
neurotransmitters
 Synaptic cleft - a tiny gap which
separates each axon terminal from
the next neuron
 Synapse - a functional junction
where an impulse is transmitted
from one neuron to another
 Myelin Sheaths
- a whitish, fatty material which has a
waxy appearance, covers most of the
long fibers
- protects and insulates the fibers
- increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses
 Terminology
- Nuclei - clusters in CNS where cell
bodies are found
- Ganglia - small collections of cell bodies
that are found in a few sites outside the
CNS in the PNS
- Tracts - bundles of nerve fibers running
through the CNS
- Nerves - bundles of nerve fibers running
through the PNS
 Functional Classification
 - Sensory/ Afferent neurons - neurons
carrying impulses from sensory
receptors to the CNS
- Cutaneous Sense Organs - simpler
types of sensory receptors in the skin
- Proprioceptors - simpler types of
sensory receptors in the muscles and
tendons that detects the amount of
stretch or tension in skeletal muscles
- Motor/ Efferent neurons - neurons
carrying impulses from the CNS to the
viscera and/or muscles and glands
- Interneurons/ Association neurons -
connects the motor and sensory
neurons in neural pathways
 Structural Classification
- based on the number of processes,
including both dendrites and axons,
extending from the cell body
- Multipolar neuron - several process
- Bipolar neurons - with two process
—one axon and one dendrite
- Unipolar neurons - single process
emerging from the cell body
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTION ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
- has four major regions:
1. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
- collectively called as Cerebrum
- the most superior part of the brain
- as this develop and grow, they enclose and
obscure most of the brain, so many brain
stem structures cannot normally be seen
unless a sagittal section is made
- Gyri - elevated ridges of tissue that exhibits
the entire surface of cerebrum
- Sulci - shallow grooves that separates gyri
 Cerebral Cortex
- speech, memory, logical and emotional
responses, consciousness, the
interpretation of sensation, and
voluntary movement
 Cerebral White Matter
- most of the remaining cerebral
hemisphere tissue
- composed of fiber tracts carrying
impulses to, from, or within the cortex
 Basal Nuclei
- several “islands” of gray matter
- buried deep within the white matter of
the cerebral hemispheres
- help regulate voluntary motor activities
2. DIENCEPHALON/ INTERBRAIN
- sits atop the brain stem
- enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
- major structures are:
 Thalamus - encloses the shallow third
ventricle of the brain
- relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the sensory
cortex
 Hypothalamus - makes up the floor of
the diencephalon
- important autonomic center
- has a role in regulating body
temperature, water balance, and
metabolism
- center for many drives and
emotions
  Epithalamus - forms the roof of the
third ventricle
- Pineal gland and Choroid plexus
are the important parts of
epithalamus

3. BRAIN STEM
- about the size of a thumb in diameter and
approximately 3 inches long
- has many small gray matter areas
- its structures are:
 Midbrain - a relatively small part of the
brain stem
- extends from the mammillary
bodies to the pons inferiorly
 Pons - a rounded structure that
protrudes just below the midbrain
- have important nuclei involved in
the control of breathing
 Medulla Oblongata - the most inferior
part of the brain stem
- contains centers that control heart
rate, blood pressure, breathing, - provides the precise timing for skeletal
swallowing, and vomiting muscle activity and controls our balance
- an important fiber tract area
- the area where important SPINAL CORD
pyramidal tracts cross over to the - a glistening white continuation of the brain
opposite side stem
- provides a two-way conduction pathway to
 Reticular Formation - a diffuse mass of and from the brain
gray matter that extends the entire - a major reflex center
length of the brain stem - extends from the foramen magnum of the
- neurons of this are involved in skull to the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra
motor control of the visceral organs - cushioned and protected by meninges

GRAY MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD AND

4. CEREBELLUM SPINAL ROOTS
- large, cauliflower-like that projects dorsally - looks like a butterfly or letter H in cross
from under the occipital lobe of the section
cerebrum - Dorsal/ Posterior Horns - two posterior
- has two hemispheres and a convoluted projections
surface - Ventral/ Anterior Horns - two anterior
projections
- gray matter surrounds the central canal of
the cord which contains CSF

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- consists of nerves and scattered ganglia

STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
- Nerve - a bundle of neuron fibers found
outside the CNS
- Endoneurium - a delicate connective tissue
sheath that surrounds each fiber
- Perineurium - a coarser connective tissue
that wrap groups of fibers to form Fascicles
(fiber bundles)
- Epineurium - a tough fibrous sheath that
bound all the fascicles together to form the
cordlike nerve

CRANIAL NERVES
- 12 pairs of this primarily serve the head and
neck
- only the vagus nerves extends to the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
- most of it are mixed nerves
- Optic, Olfactory, & Vestibulocohlear nerves -
purely sensory in function

SPINAL NERVES AND NERVE PLEXUSES

- each spinal nerve divides into
 Dorsal Ramus
 Ventral Ramus
- rami contain both motor and sensory
fibers
 Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology 12th
Edition. Marieb, E.N & Keller, 2016. S.M. Boston :
Pearson. (PDF)
AUTONOMIC/ INVOLUNTARY NERVOUS
SYSTEM
- the motor subdivision of the PNS that
controls body activities automatically
- composed of a specialized group of neurons
that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth
muscles, and glands
- signals flood from the visceral organs into
the CNS, and the ANS makes adjustments as
necessary to best support body activities
- has two arms:

 Sympathetic/ Thoracombular Division

- “fight-or-flight” system
- mobilizes the body during extreme
situations
- working at full speed not only when you
are emotionally upset but also when
you are physically stressed

 Parasympathetic/ Craniosacral Division

- ”rest-and-digest”
- allows us to unwind and conserve
energy
- neurons of the cranial region send their
axons out in cranial nerves to serve the
head and neck organs
- chiefly concerned with promoting
normal digestion

- serves body organs by receiving fibers from

both divisions
- exceptions are most blood vessels and most
structures of the skin, some glands, and the
adrenal medulla (only receive sympathetic
fibers)

REFERENCE:
SPECIAL SENSES
- respond to stimuli involved in vision, hearing, balance,
smell, and taste
- a variety of receptors, housed in special senses
organs such as the eye, ear, and nose, help detect stimuli
in your surroundings
- four traditional senses: smell, taste, sight, and hear
- Equilibrium = housed in the ear; fifth special sense
- Special sense receptors = either large,complex
sensory organs (eyes and ears) or localized clusters of
receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium)

 Eyelids - protects the eye

- Eyelashes - projecting from the
border of each eyelid

- Tarsal Glands - modified sebaceous

glands associated with the eyelid
edges; produce an oily secretion
that lubricates the eye

 Conjunctiva
EYE AND VISION - delicate membrane; lines the eyelids
- nearly 70% of all sensory receptors in the body are
and covers part of the outer surface
here
of the eyeball
- secretes mucus which helps to
EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist
- Adult eye - 1 inch in diameter
- 1/6 of the eye’s surface is normally seen
 Lacrimal apparatus
- Accessory structures:
- consists of the lacrimal gland and a
number of ducts that drain lacrimal
 6 Extrinsic eye muscles - attached to the
secretions into the nasal cavity
outer surface of each eye
- Lacrimal Glands - release a dilute salt
- produce gross eye movements and make it
solution/ tears onto the anterior
possible for the eyes to follow a moving surface of the eyeball through several
object
small ducts
- Lacrimal canaliculi - tears flush across
the eyeball into here medially
 - Lacrimal sac - provides passage of
lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity
- Nasolacrimal duct - empties lacrimal
fluid into the nasal cavity
- Tears - contains mucus, antibodies,
and lysozyme
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
EYEBALL
- a hallow sphere where its wall is composed of three
layers and its inferior is filled with humors, a fluid that help
to maintain its shape
- Lens - main focusing apparatus of the eye; supported
upright within the eye cavity dividing it into two chambers
A. LAYERS FORMING THE WALL:
1. FIBROUS LAYER
- outermost layer
- consists of the sclera and cornea
 Schlera
- thick white connective tissue
- seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
 Cornea
- well supplied with nerve endings
- where light enters the eye
- most exposed and very vulnerable to damage
- has the ability to repair itself
- beyond the reach of immune system
2. VASCULAR LAYER
- middle of the the eyeball
- has three distinguish regions
 Choroid
- a blood-rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark
pigment, which prevents light from scattering
inside the eye
- modified to form two smooth muscle structures:
 Ciliary body
- attached to the lens by ciliary zonule
 Iris
- has pupil through which light passes
3. SENSORY LAYER
- innermost of the eye
- delicate two-layered retina, which extends anteriorly
only to the ciiary body
- Outer pigment layer - composed of pigmented cells
that absorb light and prevent light from scattering
inside the eye
- Inner neural layer - contains millions of receptor cells
- Photoreceptors - responds to light
 Rods
 Cones
- two neuron chain where electrical signals pass from
the photoreceptors:
 Bipolar cells
 Ganglion cells
- Optic nerve - where electric signals pass to leave the
retina
B. LENS
- divides the eye into two segments or chambers:
1. ANTERIOR (AQUEAOUS) SEGMENT
- anterior to the lens
- contains Aqueous humor (clear watery fluid) which is
similar to blood plasma and is continually secreted by a
special area of the choroid
2. POSTERIOR (VITREOUS) SEGMENT
- posterior to the lens
- filled with Vitreous humor or vitreous body (gel-like
substance) which helps prevent the eyeball from
collapsing inward by reinforcing it internally
OPHTHALMOSCOPE
- an instrument that illuminates the interior of the
eyeball, allowing the retina, optic disc, and internal
blood vessels at the fundus, or posterior wall of
the eye, to be viewed and examined
PATHWAY OF LIGHT
REFRACTED
- when light passes from one substance to another
substance that has a different density, its speed
changes and its rays are bent
- Light rays are bent in the eye as they encounter the
cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor
ACCOMMODATION
- ability of the eye to focus specifically for close objects
REAL IMAGE
- image formed on the retina as a result of the
light-bending activity of the lens, that is reversed
 from left to right, inverted, and smaller than the accommodation pupillary reflex
object - the pupils also constrict reflexively when we view
close objects
OVERCONVERGING - provides more acute vision
- vision problems when lens is too strong

UNDERCONVERGING EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE

- vision problems when lens is too week
MECHANORECEPTORS
- receptors that respond to physical forces such as
VISION FIELDS AND VISUAL PATHWAYS TO THE BRAIN sound vibrations

- Axons carrying impulses from the retina are bundled
together at the posterior aspect of the eyeball
and leave the back of the eye as the optic nerve
OPTIC CHIASMA
- fibers from the medial side of each eye cross
over to the opposite side of the brain
HEARING APPARATUS
- allows us to hear an extraordinary range of sound
HIGHLY SENSITIVE EQUILIBRIUM RECEPTORS
- keep our nervous system continually up to date on
the position and movements of the head

OPTIC TRACTS ANATOMY OF THE EAR

- the fiber tracts that result are the optic tracts. - divided into three major areas

- the optic tract fibers synapse with neurons in the 1. EXTERNAL (OUTER) EAR
thalamus, whose axons form the optic radiation, - involved with hearing only
which runs to the occipital lobe of the brain. There - composed of:
they synapse with the cortical cells, and visual
interpretation, or seeing, occurs A. AURICLE/ PINNA
- what most people call the “ear”
- Each side of the brain receives visual input from both - shell-shaped structure surrounding the auditory
eyes. Each eye “sees” a slightly different view but canal opening
that their visual fields overlap quite a bit. As a result
of these two phenomena, humans have binocular B. EXTERNAL ACOUSTIC MEATUS
vision (two-eyed vision) provides for depth - or auditory canal
perception, also called “three-dimensional” vision, as - short, narrow chamber carved into the temporal
our visual cortex fuses the two slightly different bone of the skull
images delivered by the two eyes into one “picture.”  Ceruminous gland - secretes earwax,
which provides a sticky trap for foreign
bodies and repels insects

EYE REFLEXES TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (EARDRUM)

- hit by sound waves after entering the auditory canal,
CONVERGENCE that will cause it to vibrate
- the reflexive movement of the eyes medially when - canal ends of this separates the external from the
we view close objects middle ear

PHOTOPUPILLARY REFLEX
- when the eyes are suddenly exposed to bright light,
the pupils immediately constrict
- prevents excessively bright light from damaging the
delicate photoreceptors

2. MIDDLE EAR
- or tympanic cavity
- small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the
temporal bone
- flanked laterally by the eardrum and medially by a
bony wall with two openings, oval window and the
inferior, membrane-covered round window
PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBE
- auditory tube
- runs obliquely downward to link the middle ear cavity
with the throat, and the mucosae lining the two
regions are continuous
- is normally flattened and closed, but swallowing or
yawning can open it briefly to equalize the pressure
in the middle ear cavity with the external, or
atmospheric, pressure
- when the pressures are unequal, the eardrum bulges
inward or outward, causing hearing difficulty and
sometimes earaches.
TYMPANIC CAVITY
- is spanned by the three smallest bones in the body
- Ossicles = transmit the vibratory motion of the
eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear
A. HAMMER, OR MALLEUS
- when the eardrum moves, it moves the hammer
B. ANVIL, OR INCUS
- vibration from hammer transfers here
C. STIRRUP, OR STAPES
- anvil passes the vibration here, which presses on the
oval window of the inner ear
- movement at the oval window sets the fluids of the
inner ear into motion, eventually exciting the hearing
receptors.
3. INTERNAL (INNER) EAR
- a maze of bony chambers called the bony labyrinth,
or osseous labyrinth
- located deep within the temporal bone behind the
eye socket
- three subdivisions of the bony labyrinth:
A. COCHLEA
- Spiraling, pea-sized
B. VESTIBULE
- situated between the semicircular canals and
the cochlea
C. SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
BONY LABYRINTH
- filled with a plasmalike fluid called Perilymph
membranous labyrinth
- Suspended in the Perilymph
- a system of membrane sacs that more or less follows
the shape of the bony labyrinth
- contains a thicker fluid called Endolymph
EQUILIBRIUM
- equilibrium receptors of the inner ear, collectively
called the vestibular apparatus
- can be divided into two branches:
A. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
- static = rest
MACULAE
- receptors within the membrane sacs of the
vestibule that are essential to our sense of static
equilibrium
- report on changes in the position of the head in
space with respect to the pull of gravity when the
body is not moving
- Because they provide information on which way is up
or down, they help us keep our head erect
- are extremely important to divers swimming in the
dark depths, enabling them to tell which way is up (to
the surface)
- Each macula is a patch of receptor (hair) cells with
their “hairs” embedded in the otolithic membrane (a
gelatinous mass studded with otoliths)
- As the head moves, the otoliths roll in response to
changes in the pull of gravity. Bending activates the
hair cells, which send impulses along the vestibular
nerve to the cerebellum of the brain, informing it of
the position of the head in space
B. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
- found in the semicircular canals, respond to angular
or rotational movements of the head rather than to
straight-line movements
- the semicircular canals are oriented in the three
planes of space
- within the ampullae, swollen regions at the base of
each membranous semicircular canal, are multiple
receptor regions, each called a Crista Ampullaris or
simply Crista, which consists of a tuft of hair cells
covered with a gelatinous cap called the Cupula
- When your head moves in an arclike or angular
direction, the endolymph in the canal lags behind
the movement. Then, as the cupula drags against the
stationary endolymph, the cupula bends with the
body’s motion. This stimulates the hair cells, and
impulses are transmitted up the vestibular nerve to
the cerebellum. Bending the cupula in the opposite
direction reduces impulse generation
- When you are moving at a constant rate, the
receptors gradually stop sending impulses, and you
no longer have the sensation of motion until your
speed or direction of movement changes
- Although the receptors of the semicircular canals and
vestibule are responsible for dynamic and static
equilibrium, respectively, they usually act together. -
sight and the proprioceptors of the muscles and
tendons are also important in providing the
cerebellum with information used to control balance.
HEARING
SPIRAL ORGAN OF CORTI
- the endolymph-containing membranous labyrinth of
the cochlea within the cochlear duct
- contains the hearing receptors, or hair cells
- the chambers (scalae) above and below the cochlear
duct contain perilymph
- sound waves that reach the cochlea through
vibrations of the eardrum, ossicles, and oval window
set the cochlear fluids into motion
- As the sound waves are transmitted by the ossicles
from the eardrum to the oval window, their force
(amplitude) is increased by the lever activity of
the ossicles
- nearly the total force exerted on the much larger
eardrum reaches the tiny oval window, which in turn
sets the fluids of the inner ear into motion, and these
pressure waves set up vibrations in the basilar
membrane
- The receptor cells, positioned on the basilar
membrane in the spiral organ of Corti, are stimulated
by the vibrating movement of the basilar membrane
against the gel-like tectorial membrane that lies over
them
- The “hairs” of the receptor cells are embedded
in the stationary tectorial membrane such that when
the basilar membrane vibrates against it, the “hairs”
bend
- Because sound usually reaches the two ears at
different times, we could say that we hear “in
stereo.” Functionally, this helps us to determine
where sounds are coming from in our environment.
- When the same sounds, or tones, keep reaching the
ears, the auditory receptors tend to adapt,or stop
responding, to those sounds, and we are no longer
aware of them
- hearing is the last sense to leave our awareness
when we fall asleep or receive anesthesia and is the
first to return as we awaken.
SMELL AND TASTE
CHEMORECEPTORS
- the receptors for taste and olfaction are classified
because they respond to chemicals in solution
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS AND THE SENSE OF SMELLS
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
- receptors for the sense of smell
- occupy a postage stamp–sized area in the roof of
each nasal cavity
- air entering the nasal cavities must make a 90° turn
to enter the respiratory passageway below, so
sniffing, which causes more air to flow superiorly
across the olfactory receptors, intensifies the sense
of smell
- olfactory receptor cells are neurons equipped with
olfactory hairs, long cilia that protrude from the nasal
epithelium and are continuously bathed by a layer of
mucus secreted by underlying glands
- olfactory nerve conducts the impulses to the
olfactory cortex of the brain
- olfactory pathways are closely tied into the limbic
System, thus, olfactory impressions are long-lasting
and very much a part of our memories and emotions
- olfactory receptors are exquisitely sensitive—just a
few molecules can activate them.
- olfactory neurons tend to adapt rather quickly when
they are exposed to an unchanging stimulus, in this
case, an odor

TASTE BUDS AND THE SENSE OF TASTE

- word taste comes from the Latin word taxare,

which means “to touch, estimate, or judge.”

TASTE BUDS
- receptors for the sense of taste, are widely scattered
in the oral cavity
- of the 10,000 or so taste buds that we have, most are
on the tongue. A few are scattered on the soft palate,
superior part of the pharynx, and inner surface of
the cheeks
- The taste buds are found on the sides of the large
round vallate papillae, or Circumvallate Papillae, on
the tops of the more numerous Fungiform Papillae
and in the Foliate Papillae on the sides of the tongue
- specific receptor cells that respond to chemicals
dissolved in the saliva are epithelial cells called
Gustatory cells
- The dorsal tongue surface is covered with small
peglike projections, or papillae