JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE a The Theory of Plasticity: A Survey of Recent Achievements By Dr. William Prager, Mem.A.S.M.E.* After a brief historical introduction, recent achievements in the theory of plasticity ae surveyed with ‘emphasis on applications in mechanical enginesring. ‘Kinematic models are presented that indicate the complexities of mechanical behaviour in the plastic range. The fundamental theorems of limit analysis are discussed, and their application to ‘hvo- and three-dimensional problems is illustrated by examples, Shakedown analysis and limit design are defined, Problems involving large plastic deformations are discussed with special reference to metal forming processes. Applicat 8 of the theory of plasticity to impact testing and blast damage are reviewed. Recent changes in the theory of structural stability in the plastic range are ‘mentioned. Throughout the lecture, impending developments ofthe theory of plasticity are indicated. ‘The theory of plasticity is concerned with the analysis of stresses ‘and stains in the platic range of ductile materials, especially ‘metals, Applied to the design of machines and structures, it Fepresents @ necssbary extension of the theory of elasticity in hat it furnishes ‘more realistic estimates of load-carrying capacities. Applied to technological forming processes such a8 imuchining, pressing, extruding, rolling, and drawing, ic provides ‘the basis for improved control through better understanding of the sole of the relevant mechanical variables, ‘The foundations of he then of plac, were id about sighty years ago by Saint Venant (1870a)f, Lévy (1870), ‘Boussinesq (1872). The development of hydrostercodynamics or pPlasticodynamics, a5 the new field was called, was strongly Influenced by the already well-established theory of earth pres~ sure, 0 which Lévy (1869), Saint Venant (1870), and Boussinesq (IPP) wen hen ening compen. Teeny yield concn resca 1868), adopted by these authors, can be regarded as 2 cal case ofthe condition of which Coulomb (1773) had based hls theory of earch pressure nearly a century before, and the important concept of the limiting equilibrium of a continuum hod been established by Rankine's work on such equilibria ia, oose earth (Rankine 1857). Much of the theory of earth pres- sure, however, had been perfected before Cauchy's fundamental invettigations on elasticity (Cauchy 1827, 1828) hed clarified the specifications of stress and strain, and brought out the important rok ofthe stress-strain Flats in any branch of mechanics of ‘continua, In the theory of earth pressure the introduction, ‘Stress-strain relations ‘Was obviated by the restriction to the ‘consideration of limiting equilibria and the appeal to a heuristic ‘extremum principle implied jn Coulomb's work and more clearly formulated by Moseley (1833). Ie is forranate that the pioncers ‘ofthe theory of plasticity did not copy this unsatisfactory featare ‘ofthe theory of earth pressure but introduced instead a ow rule relating the stress to the velocity strain. Research in plasticity wwas thereby forced to pursue an independent course and, as a result of this, the theory of plasticity is now able to pay some (Of the debt of gratitude it owes to the theory of earth pressur the general theory of limit analyeis, developed during recent years as a subject in plasticity, has shed much needed light on. ‘the foundations of the theory of earth pressure ‘The MS, of th cae ma recived tthe Zon on oh ‘August 1984 For the reportofthemecing in London om Lath Jandy 1B at which th ene as delivered ce p9T + Professor o “Mechanics, Brown Gaiverity, Providence, Rhode Island, United State of Ameren. “fA alphabetical ist of references is given inthe Appendix, Instead of tracing the historical development of the theory of plasticity in this lecture, I shall attempt to survey i present Stand. Much of this survey will be concerned with’ reoent achievements, not only because research activity in this feld has increased tremendously during the last decade ot 30, but also because the trend of recent developments will best indicate facure problems. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS ‘The attempt to incorporate the various mechanical properties of plastic solids in @ single mathematical model is not likely to bbe succcssful, but even ir such a model could be constructed, ‘would be far too complex to serve as the basis forthe treatment (of technological problems. Simpler models must be sed repre= senting only those properties that are essential to the considered problem, Furthermore, the need for mathematical simplicity fen, dictates, far-reaching idealization in the mathematical ‘description of the mechanical properties that are to be in- sorporatad in the model The obvious first step in the investigation of the mechanical behaviour ofa solid is the stady of ts behaviour in simple tension ‘or compression. An elastic solid under uniaxial stress is modelled bby.a spring, as shown in Fig. 1a, in which the force P and the displacement of its point of application A represent the stress tnd the strain of the elastic solid. Corresponding models for plastic solids are shown in Fig. 1é-e; the squares in these figures Indicate blocks that experience solid friedon as they slide along. their supports, Fig. 1b and ¢ represent solids that do not deform unless the stress reaches @ critical intensity.,"The rigid, perfectly plastic solid of Fig. 1b flows plastically under constant stress, whereas the rigid, work-hardening solid of Fig. Te requires an increase in the stress intensity if plastic low isto continue. Because they neglect all elastic deformations, these models are likely to be suitable only for the treatment of problems in which the elastic Strains are insignificant when compared to the plastie strains. ‘When elastic strains have to be taken into account, a spring must be used in series with the friction block as in the elastic, per- featly plastic model of Fig. 1d or the clastic, work-hardening ‘model of Fig. Te. Fig. 2 shows the stress-strain diagrams of these models, In. Fig, 2 for instance, the ine OABCDEF indicates the behaviour under foading in tension (OAB) folloseed by unloading (BC) and loading in compression (CDEF). If the specimen is cycled between the stresses represented by the ordinates of B and the loop BDFG is obtained. Similar loops are indicated in the other diagrams of Fig. 2-a JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE For the rigid, work-hardening solid of Fig. 26, the tensile strain ¢ taises the yield limit i tension from the original value 29 fo oyece and lowers the yield limit in compression from the ‘tiginal value op {0 uy-nce. ‘The decrease of the yield limit in Compression, produced by the workshardening in tension is | +,» . : win Wr Aap dad é Fig. 1. Dynamic Models of Mechanical Behaviour Under Uni- ‘axial Stress (a) Elastic, (6) Rigid, Perfectly Plastic, (© Rigid, Work-hardening, (@) Elastic, Perfectly Plastic, (e) Elastic, ‘Work: hardening Material, Fig. 2. Stress-Strain Diagrams and Hysteresis Loops for Uni- xal Stress, (The five cases correspond to those in Fig. 1) ‘known as the Bauschinger effect. For the solid considered here, work-hardening and Bauschinger effect counterbalance each ‘other in such a manner that the gup between the yield limits in fenson and. compremion independent of sh pemanent ‘Jenkins (1922) pointed out that more realistic stress-strain diagrams may be obtained by straining in parallel models of the ‘considered type that are given suitable initial stresses and yield limits, More elaborate models using cams were described by Lees (1922). In all these models, plastic strain is simulated by slip under solid friction. ‘There are, however, fundamental Glifferences between these phenomena as Drucker (1954) has Emphesized, and it is unlikely that satisfactory models using Solid friction can be constructed for plastic flow under combined Stresses. We shall therefore abandon dynamic models that {epresent stresses by forces and use instead kinemstic models that represent stresses by displacements. Nao, WORKHARDENNG Fig. 3, Kinematic Model of Mechanicat Behaviour Under ‘Uniaxial Stress Fig. 3 shows a kinematic model of a rigid, perfectly plastic solid"under uniaxial stress. The slotted plate A slides freely ‘between frictionless guides B. The pin C sliding without Bedion in the slot imparts a motion to the plate A only when it ‘engages with one of the other end of the slot. The plate A, the gulls: B, and the pin C, each carry a vertical Index, and these Eilioes atc originally aligned. The displacement of the pin index with respect to the plate index represents the stress 0, and the Usplacement of the plate index with respect to the guide index Sepresents te strain, the total free displacement of the pin in the slot representing twice the yield stress op “The same device is readily adapted to the rigid, work-harden ing solid or the elasti, perfectly plastic solid. The manner in ‘hich stress and strain are represented in each case is indicated Jn'Fle. 3. ‘The adaptation of the model to the elastic, work- FRardening solid, while possible, is less straightforward and will not be discussed here. ‘Before proceeding to the consideration of more complex states of stress, Jet us note the stress-strain relations for the rigid, perfectly plastic solid under uniaxial sires. The strain ¢ can Ghange only when the stress o is at the yield limit in tension or ‘compression, and the strain rate é then has the same sign as the stress: sent © “Phe stress-strain relations for even the most primitive of our plasce solids thus are far more complex than Hooke’s law for the te ws which simply species nroporsoaltybeeneen "Typical features of plastic behaviour under combined stressesTHE THEORY OF PLASTICITY: A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS are exhibited by a member subjected to combined direct force ‘and bending moment, To avoid lengthy though elementary algebra, let us consider a sandwich type of beam consisting of ‘wo flanges of unie cross-sectional area joined by a layer that ‘aries only shear but no direct stresses (Fig. 4a). The height of the beam measured from centre flange to centre flange will be assumed to equal to units of length. This choice of the height ff the beam and the crost-sectional area ofthe flanges eliminates tunefsential coefficients and thus facilitates the algebraic work. ‘To simplify this work still further, we shall treat the flanges a8 infinitely thin, that i, neglect the variations of stress or serain ‘over the thickness of the flange. of Fig. 4. Sandwich Beam with Rigid, Perfectly Plastic Flanges ‘Under Combined Axial Force and Bending Moment Assume first that the flanges are made of a rigid, perfoctly plastic materia. ‘The state of stress at a cross-section of the beam Be specified by she stresses oy and in the lower and upper flanges, respectively. Similarly, the state of strain at the con ‘sidered cross-section is specified by the extensions «) and « Since the stress in a flange depends only on the straining of this flange but not on the straining ofthe other flange, the kinematical device of Fig. 3 can be generalized as follows. A square rigid ‘rame F (Fig. 44) is mounted so that it can perform any translation in its plane. A peefectly smooth pin P, free to move inside the ‘fame, imparts & motion tothe frame only when pushes against 4 side or engages with a comer of the frame. Originally, frame and pin are centred at the origin O of the ey, , planes as the frame is displaced by the moving pin, the vector from O to the centre Gof the frame has the components «and ey and the vector from C to the centre Pof the pin has the components 07 and ay, Indeed, if frame and pin are in the positions shown in Fig. 4, the lower flange is at the yield limit in tension, but the upper flange is not at the yield limit. If now, the pin is moved Sty upwards and to the right, the force exerted by the smooth pin on the frame will be directed along the contact normal and, Since the frame isnot free to rotate, it will undergo a translation in the direction of this normal. In the course of this translation the abscissa of the centre C of the frame increases, but the fdinats remains the same, corresponding to the fact that the change of stress represented by the motion of the pin produces, yielding only in the lower flange. AAs is readily seen from Fig. 4c, the axial force Nand the bending moment ‘M of the considered sandwich bearn are given, by N M= oo @ ‘Similarly, Fig. 4d shows that the unit extension end the ‘curvature « of the centre-line are given by ca Korte) we i@n-a) + orton +o Equations (2) and (3) establish the fact that the depende and eon N and Af may be obtained by referring the posit of frame and pin to the oblique axes indicated in Fig. 4b. A more ‘convenient arrangement is shown in Fig. 4e. ‘The same device cin be used to represent the mechanical behaviour when the flanges of the considered sandivich beam are made of a rigid work-bardening, or an clastic, perfectly plastic material. In the first case, the generalized stresses and Strains are represented by the vectors OP and OC (Fig. 54), which have the components N; M and os on respectively. In ‘the second case, the generalized stresses are represented by the components NV end ‘M of the vector GP and the generalized Strain by the components He and Zi of the vector OP (Fig. 50). "These kinematical models reveal the amazing complexity of ‘the mechanical behaviour of even so simple a plastic contingum, ag the considered sandivich beam. First, there is the dependence ‘of the final plastic deformation on the history of leading. Con- sider, for instance, a rigid, work-hardening beam subjected to Fig. 5. Kinemetic Models of Mechanical Behaviour of Sandwich ‘Beams with (a) Rigid, Work-hardening or ®) Elastic, Per- fectly Plastic Flanges the alternative modes of loading represented by the paths O12 and O12 in Fig. 62, Ifthe pin is moved along the fist path the ‘Hehthand comer of the frame moves from Ay to | and then to ‘Ay and the ceatre describes the path OC,C. If, on the other hhind, the pin follows the path O12, the right-hand comer of the flame moves from Ay to A’ and the centre from O to © ‘The final plastic deformations represented by the points C and C’ differ therefore, though the final states of stress represented bby the point 2 are the same, ’As this example shows, the dependence of the final pl deformation on. the history of loading corresponds ‘to. the dependence of the slip between frame and pin on the path of“4 the pin, Since no slip takes place as long ss the pin remains fengaged with « comer of the frame, there is a limited path fadependence of the final plastic deformation for certain modes of "This is illustrated by Fig. 65, where the loading paths OAcI2 and OAgl? lead to the same final position of the frame. ‘The same final position will be produced by any path that leads from Oto Ag and then to 2 without ever being inclined to the positive A axis by 45 deg. or more. Fig. 7a shows another striking effect, The straight path O12 of the pin corresponds to a loading process during which the fatio ‘V/A remains constant (proportional loading). ‘The right- hand comer ofthe frame moves first from Ag to 1 and then from Ito 2 ay the pin engages with the comer. ‘The broken path OC{C, of the centre of the frame indicates that proportional Toading does not necessarily produce proportional straining. Fig, 6, Final Plastic Deformation and Path of Loading: (a) Path ‘Dependence of Final Deformation. (@) Limited Path In- dependence of Final Deformation Fig. 76 illustrates the Bauschinger effect, which becomes rather complex when stress and strain are specified by more than fone parameter cach. Proportional loading along the path OP ‘uses the frame to move from the position F to the position F. ‘Considers for instance, the loed ratio N/A represented by the ine SOR in Fig. 7b. For this ratio, and the two opposite types ff loading, the eviginal yield limits represented by the segments ‘OR and OS arc equal to cach other. The wotk-bardening caused, by loading along the path OP changes these yield limits to OR’ and OS" respectively, and the ratio of OR’ w OS’ may be taken ‘sa measure of the intensity of the Bauschinger effect for the ‘Considered load ratio N/M. Since the increase RR’ of one yield fimit is smaller than the decrease SS’ of the other, the g2p ‘between the yild limits for opposite types of loading is reduced, in this cose. Fig. 7b shours that the intensity of the Bauschinger cficct and the reduction im the gap between yield limits for ‘Spposite types of loading vary in a complex manner with the toad ratio N/A. ‘Similar Kinematical models can be constructed for other plastic continua, Combined tension and torsion of thin-walled Rubes is frequently used to check proposed strese-strain relations experimentally. Fig. 8 indicates the corresponding kinematical JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE ‘models for various incompressible materials that obey the yield ‘Condition of von Mises (1913); many closely related geometrical fepresentations have been described in the literature (Nadai {o23; Prandtl 1924; Reuss 1930; Hohenemser and Prager 19323 Prager 19453 Hill, Lee, and Tupper 1947a; Hill 104805 Lee 1953). The model shown in Fig. 8a corresponds to the stress~ strain relations of von Mises (1913) in which the elastic strains fare neglected; the model in Fig. 8e corresponds to the Prandtl~ ‘Reuss (Pranddl 1924; Reuss 1950) relations which take account ‘of the elastic as well as the plastic strains, ‘The absence of comers in the circular frames of Fig. 8 indicates that the mechanical behaviour described by these most widely-used stress-strain relations of the theory of plasticity is less complex than tt of the beam considered above, despite the fact that the fibres ofthis beam are subjected only to simple Fi 17. {@ Proportional Loading Need Not Produce, Propor- ‘ional Straining, (6) Two-dimensional Bauschinger Effect ‘tension or compression and not to combined stresses. It is, to, therefore, din these sentra rtons i, Ds 2 highly. simplified, approximate description of the actual ‘mechanical behaviour of ductile metals. When comparing experi~ ‘mental results to theoretical predictions based on these relations, We should accordingly be satisfied with agreement in general ‘trends and not expect agreement in details, in analysing stresses in work-hardening solids, many authors have assumed that an adequate description of the mechanical Dehaviour of these solids 1s given by the generalized law of Foooke, provided thet the coefiients are taken to be functions df the state of stress and not constants asin the theory of elasticity. The resulting law relates the total strain co the total stress, Whereas the law represented by the model in Pig. 8b relates the Increment of strain (small displacement of the frame) to the increment of strest (stall displacement of the pin). The two ‘pes of strest-atrain law are therefore distinguished by the {bels ‘total and “incremental. Tn the geometrical language ofTHE THEORY OF PLASTICITY: A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS 6 Fig. 8%, a total stress-strain law would require the vectors labelled *Stress" and ‘Strain’ to have the same direction, though ‘the sitio of their lengths need mot be constant as for an elastic tolid, The kinematical model in Fig. 8b gives ‘Stress’ and ‘Stcan’ ‘vectors that have consistently the same direction only if the pin is moved along a ray through the origin. This means that, applied to combined tension and torsion, total and incremental c Fig. 8, Kinematic Moulls for Combined ‘Tension and ‘Torsion of Thin-walled Cireular ‘Tube: (a) Rigid, Perfectly Plastic “Material (Won Mises), () Rigid, Workshatdening Material (© Elastic, Perfoaly Plastic Material (Prandtl-Reust) ial srs Sher © Asal exenson. ‘Shear yen Young's modus © Workthardening ander uniaxial stress o isi stres in simple tension or compresion, laws can be made to give the same prediction only ifthe ratio between axial and shearing stresses is kept constant during each, ‘est. Experimental support for one or the other type of law can ‘therefore be obtained only ifthe stress ratio is varied significantly uring each test. Unfortunately, tests with constant stress ratio hhave enjoyed greater popularity with experimenters than the ‘more revealing, but also more dificule, ests with varying stress ratio. While the results of the latter are not in full agreement With the simple incremental law represented by the model in ‘Fig. 85, they are in much better agreement with this than with the cofresponding’ total law. (Cunningham, ‘Thomsen, and Dom 1047; Fraenkel 1048; Peters, Dow, and Batdort 19503 ‘Morrison and Shepherd 1950; Drucker and Stockton 1052}, Fig. 9, Effect of Work-hardening on Rigid Range of Rigid, ‘Work-hardening Solid ‘Smutter and others 1953; Phillips and Kaechele 1954). Quite aside from this experimental evidence in favour of incremental laws, there are strong theoretical objections against al tral laws (Glandelman and others 1947 ; Prager 1948a; Drucker 1949; Hill 1950a). ‘To adapt the stress-strain law for work-hardening solids to the experimental evidence, the frame of our kinematical model ‘may be allowed to deform as it is displaced by the pin. Fig. 946 JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE illustrates various possibilities. Let F and P be the frame and ppin for some mechanical ste, and let Q denote the point of the Frame which coincides with P. As the pin is given a small dis- placement PP’ the frame F is deformed into F’ and the point Q moves to Q’, The vectors PP” and QO" represent the small increments of stress and strain, respectively. Fig. 9a corresponds to Fig. 86 and shows that, for a mere translation of the frame, OO" represents the same strain incre~ iment as the displacement CC" of the centre of the frame. In Fig. 9b the frame js assumed to increase in size while the pin ‘moves ftom P to P’, and in Fig. 9c the frame is assumed to Gevelop a corner st the point of contact with the pin. ‘The latter fice is predicted by the slip theory of Batdorf and Budiansky (1949) and has been observed by Naghdi and his collaborators (4958), Ts the improvement resulting from such refinements of the stress-strain relations worth the price of increased mathematical ‘complexity? Itis true that the mathematical difficulties inherent fn even the simple stress-strain relations of Fig. 8 have so far ‘been overcome only in special problems involving a reduction fof the number of independent variables (for example, axially Symmetric flow, plane How, plane stress). Te soems hkely, however, that other problems wil oon be tackled on high-speed ‘automatic computers and more realistic stress-strain relations ‘Will be used in these computations, despite the increase in the ‘mathematical complexity of the analysis, Ta the older literature on perfectly plastic solids, yield con dition and stress-strain law were treated as independent {ingredients of a theory of plasticity. Our kinematical models, however, exhibit a definite connexion between the shape of the frame (Vield condition) on one hand and the relation between ‘small displacements of pin and frame (strest-stran law) on the ‘other. ‘This type of connexion is stipulated by the theory of the plastic potential. ‘The original form of this theory is due to ‘Yon Mises (1928); i esventially assumes that the frame of the ‘Kinemateal model has no comets, This restrictive assumption is topped in the theory of the generalized plastic potential (Koiter 1953; Prager 1953a). ‘Kinematical models considered so far use convex frames. If this convexity is stipulated as a necessary feature of an. acceptable yield condition, the models suggest that the energy ‘issipation ina rigid, perfectly plastic solid is uniquely defined by the history of straining. In Fig. 10a and 6, let the centrally sym~ ‘metric, convex lines f indicate the frames of two kinematical ‘models. ‘The frame of the first model (Fig. 200) has finite, non- oe siprnagei ee 4 Regular yield condition. & Singular yield condicon Fig. 10. In a Rigid, Perfectly Plastic Solid the Energy Dissipa- ton is Uniquely Defined by the Strain Increment, vanishing curvature atall points, whereas the frame ofthe second, ‘model (Fig. 10b) has straight portions and comers. If the pin touches the frame at the point Q, the state of stress, represented, by the vector from the centre C of the frame to the point Q, is at the yield limit. Ifnow the pin is piven the small displacement QP. that is directed towards the exterior of the frame, the point Q. fof the frame moves to Q. The vector OO" represents the strain Increment, and the scalar product of the vectors QQ’ and CQ ives the mechanical energy dissipated during this small plastic leformation. Unless the pin is engaged with # corner, OO" is directed along the exterior normal of the frame at Q. For the ‘regular’ frame in Fig. 10a, the direction of the exterior normal uniquely specifies the point at which this normal is drawn. In ‘mechanical terms this means that the strain increment uniguely Po dissipated me energy. For the ‘singular’ frame in Fig, 10D, on the other hand, the strain increment QQ" is com~ patible with any position of the pin on the straight side AB of the frame, but all the corresponding states of stress give rise 10, the same’ energy dissipation during the plastic deformation ‘represented by QO’. In both cases the strain increment therefore Gefines the energy dissipation uniquely, and this statement also ‘holds when the pins engaged with a corner ofthe singular frame, Tn formulacing plastic stress-strain relations it is often mathematically convenient to avoid the use of infinitesimal Increments by introducing the rates of stress and strain, If this is done, the last result, for instance, can be stated as follows: in a rigid, perfecly plastic solid that behaves according to the ‘theory ofthe generalized plastic potential, the strain rate uniquely ‘determines the rate of dissipation of mechanical energy. Ie is well known that elastic analysis of an indeterminate structure made of a ductile material does not yield a realistic festimate of the load-carrying capacity. Consider, for instance, the builtin beam in Fig. 1d, and assume that the relation, ‘between the bending moment ‘Mand the curvature « of this 0 F 2228 Myla Fig, 11, Limit Analysis of a Staticaly Indeterminate BeamTHE THEORY OF PLASTICITY: A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS a beam is as shown in Fig. 1a. Elsstic analysis shows thet the absolute value of the bending moment reaches the limit My first ar the left-hand end of the beam when the load has the intensiey Q, = 2254Myja. Since the beam bends frecly when the bending ‘moment has the absolute value My, a ‘plastic hinge’ then forms atthe left-hand end of the beam, and any further increase of the Toad is carried by the structure showa in Fig. Te. Blastic analysis of this structure and superposition of its bending ‘moments on those of the original beam under the load Q; show that the limiting moment Mo is next reached at the loaded eross- section when the load has the intensity O; = 2-891M/a. Further Increases of the load are carried by the statically determingte beam of Fig 11, which has 2 hinge at the loaded cross-section. Tt is found that the absolute value of the bending moment teaches the limit My a the right-hand end of the beara when the Toad has the intensity Qy = 300Mo/a. A further increase in the load would have to be carried by the structure shown in Fig. 11e, ‘but this structure develops load-carrying capacity only as it is allowel to deflect in the manner indicated in Fig. 117. Unless appreciable defiexions are admitted, the load-carrying capacity of the original beam is therefore given by Os. ‘This simple example brings out two important facts. Firstly, the load-carrying capacity Qs exceeds the elastic limit Q, by bout 33 per cent. For a statically determinate beam, on'the ‘ther hand, load-carrying capacity and elastic Limit cvincide. Indeterminate structures made of ductile materials therefore possess a considerable reserve of strength beyond the elastic limit, and this reserve should not be ignored by the designer. Secondly, for beams and frames with the bending moment= ‘curvature relation in Fig. 11a, the load-carrying capacity can be ‘determined by analysing a sequence of clastic structures of decreasing degrees of redundancy. ‘This approach, however, is Likely to be cumbersome for all but the simplest structures, ond ‘methods are needed that furnish the load-carrying capacity in ‘@ more direct manner. ‘Limit analysis is concemed withthe development and applica ton of such methods. Kazinczy (1914) and Kist (1917) were the Sotto Stress the practical importance of plastic analy! of sel structures. For many years theoretical and experimental work in thir feld was restricted to continuous beams; Van Den Brosk's book (1948) gives a good account of this phase. During recent years the splendid work of Professor Baker (1949p) and his Collaborators in Cambridge bas contributed much cowards the ‘general acceptance of plastic analysis by structural engineers. Further experimental work has been reported by Johnston and his collaborators (Yang, Beedle, and Johnston 1951) in the United States and Masconet (1953) in Belgium. While this work ig concemed with continuous beams and. plane frames, limit analysis of space frames has been explored by Heyman (19518) tnd limit analysis of arches and rings by Henderson (1952), nat and Prager (1953), and Hwang (1953) ‘Before considering applications of limit analysis in mechanical engineering, let us discuss two methods suggested by the Structural example in Fig. 11. The first is concemed with the bending moments caused by the ‘critical load? Qs. Since yield hinges will obviously develop at each end of the beam and under the loed, the bending-moment diagram must heve the form shown in Fig. 11g, the bending moment having the absolute value Mf at each Yield hinge, The shear forces to the left and right of the lond ate found from the slopes of this diagram, and the jump in shear force at the point of application of the load fives the critica Toad intensity. ‘The second method is concerned with the mechanical enersy_ dissipated in the incipient plastic flow. For the small plastic ‘deformation shown in Fig. 11, the total energy dissipated in the tree yield hinges equals Gil and the work done by the load is 2alO,. ‘The critical load is Tound by equating the dissipated energy to the work done and solving for Or, Tn this example, there could be no doubts regarding the arrangement of the yield hinges, How are we to proceed when this arrangement is not known? Greenberg and Prager (1951) have shown that, with any hypothetical arrangement of yield hinges, the first method furnishes a Load intensity that cannot be larger than the critical intensity, whereas the second method fives an intensity that cannot be smaller than it, The results ‘obtained by applying the tivo snethods to a hypothetical arrange= ment of yield hinges therefore bound the eral load rom tow and above. Tne experienced analy wil ofen sacsed in the Ft make the gp beeen hee bounds sic al x pao! purposes mtd of narrowing ts ep ft Systema fashion lave been given by ‘Neal sod Symonds {ibs09). “This ecg of bounding the cal load intensity f by no mane resuiced to Doames and freee" exenson Derfuly plastic bodies of arbury abape indo general cone dens of lading and support consores one of te major svmees made is che theo of plastichy during rece years. ‘The fst wep was made by Drucker, Greenberg, and Prager (i851); contdring nn easy porfecy lsc be subjected {o gradually increaing land dey defined eric the Toad Invent which: Gformaton couldnt tke place net Constaty load. For the sake of mathematical simply, they gd osu that upto the ia load intent, tae infec Ofte dorten nthe, ull cote could te ‘eglced a nthe theory of cli. Am sierativespproash we ponisd cor by Hil 051) j who Canute anges Per Piste body and defined a cra the loud inten at hich the Fiat deformation oeerret Fe ao showed shat fe bounding Teshnique of Doses, Gromer: and Prager cou be based nthe sxtcemom principe of Sil (180) and Markov (>) provided that theye were earonded to include pardlly Pee Bodies A general theory of imicaraiss using te concep of the geuersicel parc potential and appling te peiecly pase Stns oon, cho, and thece ientione ws given by Frage: (1932) Recent wok is concerned withthe lndfcunying CGpsciy of sad burs in combined bending and trising Sit Siche 1933), halal aprngn of sal pitch (Freiberge 1953) ferforated shoes in plane ses (Wels, fiedgs, and Paget S52" and other. cfeular plates (Pell and Drager 1951, and others and shal of revlitfon (Drucker 1953, and other). “Hounds fo the etal Toad intensity ar obtained from the folowing panapiss: (@) The given loads ace elow the rel intensity if « ssf eld im be Sound tat ein eae with thes Toads Sd docs nowhere reach the yield Umit 2) ‘The piven loads are above the cecal ocensty if « velocity fell can be found for when the te of ork of hese [Ends heceds he rte of interal energy disparion ‘The rate of internal energy dissipation used in the second principle is obtained af follows, Acoording to the statement at fhe end of the preceding section, the strain rate, found from the space derivatives of the velocity components, specifis the local {ite of energy desipation this is then integrated over the voldme of the body In the application ofthese principles discontinuous stress and velocity felis prove very useful. Fig. 12 shows assole example Which fs due to Green (1953); a notched bar is bent by couples ‘applied athe ends.‘ bar supped 0 be very we the direction normal to the plane of the figure, 30 that bends in plane strain, ‘The yield condition of von Mines then agrees ‘with that of "Treses-and\ requires yielding “under constant ‘simian stress, Fig, 12a shor a wiecontinuous stress eld. ‘The horizontal planes AB and CD divide the bar into ‘ree layers; the top layer extends tothe Boru ofthe notch, Said the thickness of each of the layers I-and THs one half of the minimum thickness « of the ber. Layer I is stress free, lier Hinder a ogg! compranive ees of ie intensity 24, where kis the yield strest in simple sheer, end layer IIT i under longitudinal tensile stress ofthe intensity 2, ‘The bending moment resulting from these stesss 18.0 30ka% and our fist principle shows that this isa lower bound for the (rica tensity of the bending couples Mt. ig. 125 indicates a discontinuous velocity Geld: the two sircalar arcs conneeting the points A und B bound @ central Setionacy pivot on which each half of the bar sotates With the angular ?locity «. The deformation consists in shearing along these arcs. Ifthe length of one arc is denoted by 1 and the dive by 7, the tate of iateroal energy disipation fs given by Shira, aid’ the rate of work of the spplied couples {2a ‘According tothe second principle of lit analysis Mt = Klin, ‘herefore, an upper bound for the critical Toad intensity. By48 JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE choosing the central angle 22 of the circular arcs so as to make this upper bound as small ab possible, we find that the critical oad intensity cannot exceed 0-09h22 i For some purposes the bounds 0°50 Meat =O. ¢ M)uat= 063. ‘With the slip-line field of Fig, 12¢ there is associated a stress ‘eld that satisfies the equations of equilibrium and the yield condition throughout the regions of plastic flow. If this stress ‘Held can be extended throughout the rigid regions so 2st satisfy the equations of equilibrium and not to exceed the yield limit, the first principle of limit analysis furnishes a lower bound forthe critical load intensity that coincides with the upper bound just obtained. Unfortunately, itis not known in the present case ‘whether the stress field can be extended in this manner, though the etched cross-section of a mild-stel specimen (Fig. 13) shows regions of plastic deformation chat agree qualitstively with the considered slip-line field*. "The last remark points out a serious gap in the theory of the slipsline field. For the vast majority of slip-line ‘solutions? it still remains to be shown that the stress fields of the plastic regions cean be properly extended throughout the rigid regions. Such an ‘extension must be constructed before the load intensity derived rom the slip-line field can be 2ecepted as the critical load intensity. In extending the stress fields ofthe plastic regions, it + ‘The author is indebted to Dr, A. P. Green of the British Tron and ‘Steel Research Association in Sheteldfor the phocograph reproduced JnvPig, 15. A recent paper by Hlundy (1958) contains many seking ‘exampies of agreement betwcen slip-line field and etched specimen. {important theorems concerning the critical load intensity. Fig. 14 shows a typical situation: a rigid, perfectly plastic body rests on ‘the rigid plate P and is compressed by the punch P” under con- ditions of plane strain. Suppose that a slip-line field and an TOLITTVTITIT IR TTT TTT TT TTP ‘Fig, 14, Extension of Stress Field jnto Rigid Region (alter Bishop 1953) associated velocity field have been found that are contained inthe region R. The fully plastic extension of this stress field, obtained by Bishop's method, is bounded by a stress-free surface S'. IFS’ lies wholly inside or on the actual stress-free surfzce S of the given body, the slip-line field gives the correct critical load intensity. 1f,on the other hand, S' les wholly or in part outside SS, and the velocity field in R can be extended into the region ‘between S and Sina manner which is compatible with the extended stress field and involves non-vanishing strain rate, the Slip-line field furnishes too high a value of the critical load intensity.THE THEORY OF PLASTICIT In Fig. 14, the point A is a reentrant corner of the region R beyond ‘which the given stress field is to be extended. Such comers are frequently critical in the sense that every continuation of the stress field may involve a violation of the yield condition in the neighbourhood of A. This question has been discussed by Hill 1954). Unlike the theory of the slip-line field, the theory of limit analysis is not restricted to two-dimensional problems. Figs. 15 dnd 16 refer tothe three-dimencional punch indentation problem discussed by Shield and Drucker (1953) a rectangular fat punch fs pressed normally against the plane surface of a semi-infinite Dlstic mass; the critical pressure is to be determined at whi the rigid punch begins to indent the rigid, perfectly plastic mass, Fig. 152 shows how a lower bound for the eritical pressure * oe pO pe ? « a Fig. 15. Limit Analysis Applied to Two- and Three-dimensional Punch Indentation Problems (after Shield and Drucker 1953) ‘tres fields yielding lower bounds for indentation pressure, can be obtained in the corresponding two-dimensional problem, ‘The yield stress in simple shear is denoted by A, and the principal stress normal to the plane of the figure everywhere equals the arithmetic mean of the principal stresses in this plane. ‘The pressure on the punch is supported by two slanting legs, which fre under the longitudinal compressive stress 2k, The inclination of these legs is found from the condition thet the superposition of the stresses in the legs should not lead to stresses above the yield limit in the common triangle. The stress field of Fig. 152 Establishes 3¢ as a lower bound for the critical pressure, Te is easily verified that superposition of the stress field of Fig. 158 on that of Fig. 15a does not lead to stresses in excess of the yield limit. ‘Thus, 34 is a lower bound for the critical pressure™. Fig. 15c and d show the three-dimensional fields corresponding to the two-dimensional fields of Fig. 15a and 6. The fact that the superposition of the stress fields of Fig. 15¢ and d does not produce stresses above the yield limit proves that 5f is a lower ‘bound for the critical pressure in the three-dimensional punch indentation problem, Fig, 16a shows one half of Hill's (1949a) velocity field for the two-dimensional problem, This suggests the three-dimensional field indicated in Fig. 166. The rectangle OABC in the plan view is one quarter of the surface of contact between punch and indented material. The material in contact with the part OABD In the two-dimensional as, coincident bounds forthe cxtat presnare canbe obtained which show tus prcsure to equal (-+93k ‘A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS » of this surface is supposed to move to the sight in the manner Showa inthe section atthe bottom ofthe igure, and the mater {in comtace with BCD js sseumed to move as indicated in the san hg of the Few By a ule coe of he length CD and the angles a7, and, the upper bound obt fom this three-imensional velocity field made as small as portible Fora square punch, for instances this least upper bound Brfound tobe 511k, The stress field of Fig. 15 and the veloaty field of Pig. 16 therefore show that the’ cecal indentation pressure fora square punch lies within +7 percent ofthe value 35k ‘A serious restriction of the usefulness of limit analysis rests from the fact that the influence ofthe deformation on the fequilbsium conditions is neglected. To discus this dithculy, ceva une ‘CENTRE UNE Fig. 16. Limit Analysis Applied to Two-and’Threeimensional uneh Indentation Problems (eter Shild and’ Drucket 135) Velocity fields yielding upper bounds for indentation pressure, Square punch pik = 55:47 per cent. Jet us consider a simply-supported circular plate subjected to a ‘central transverse load -. According to Hopkins and Prager (Gee Pell and Prager 1953), a plate of the uniform thickness i ‘nade of a rigid, perfectly plastic material with the tensile yield stress ey begins to deform when the load reaches the critical intensity P, = roph?/2, and the velocities of the incipient plastic ‘low correspond to the transition from the fla plate to a conical Shell, Since this brings membrane forces into aétion, continuing, pplistic deformation requires increasing load. While an exact theory for this behaviour is not available, Haythornthywaite and ‘Onat (1954) suggested an approximate analysis, which assumes that the plate continues to deform according to the velocities of the incipient plastic ‘low and applies the methods of limit analysis to the resulting conical shells. Fig. 17 confronts experi. ‘mental results obtained by these authors with the prediction of ‘this approximate theory. The inset in Fig. 17 gives the50 JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE dimensions ofthe mild-stel plate; the loed was applied by means ‘ofa fat punch whose diameter Was fp the plate diameter. The full, line in Fig, 17 corresponds to the approximate theory's to take ‘account of the elastic deformations of the plate, this curve might be shifted to the position shown by the dashed line. While no marked chinge in mechanical behaviour occurs at the critical oad P., the overall agreement between experiment and theory is atisfictory. This example seems to indicate that, for mild ste) + a a a ig: 17, Limi Analy Appi to Reding of Clie eormation incretes crit lod (ter Haythorshwaie and Onat 1954). ae Pom mo at least, work-hardening is less important than the effect just discussed, While the change of shape caused by plastic fow here Jed to.an increate in the yield load, examples are readily found in whieh this change results in a decrease in the yield load. ‘The development of a general theory of these effccrs will greatly advance limit analysis. A frst step towards such s theory has, ‘been made by Onat (1952) ‘Whereas lime analysie considers the effect ofa single applica ton of load, shakedown analysis is concerned with the mecha- ‘Bical behaviour ofan olastic, plastic body subjected to loads that ‘vary independently between piven minimum and maximum ‘values. AS was first shown by Home (1949), two types of failure fare possible in the sccond ense, even though no single possible ‘combination of the loads can produce the type of failure that is ‘considered in limit analysis. As the loads continue to vary in a fertain sequence between the given extreme values, cycles of plastic flow may occur, and these cycles will be repeated as often fs the sequence of loads is repeated. Alternatively, intermittent plastic flow without reversal of the sense of deformation may ‘Sccur and continue as long as the load sequences are continued. ‘To date, most work on shakedown analysis has been concerned ‘with structural applications (Bleich 1932; Melan 1936; Neal ‘and Symonds 1950b). The general shakedown problem of the three-dimensional clastic, plastic continuum was discussed by ‘Melan (1938) and Symonds (1951). ‘The understanding ofthe general principles of limit and shake~ down analysis ‘has ‘been considerably advanced by various ‘graphical representations of the mechanical behaviour of simple flastic, plastic structures under various conditions of loading (Prager 1948; Rehanitzin 1949; Finzi 1952; Hodge 1959), Tn structural engincering, limit analysis is concerned with estimating the load-carrying capacity of a given structure. Licnit ‘design, on the other hand, is concerned with economically allocating yield strength to the members ofa structure in such a ‘aniner that given Toads will nc exceed ts load-carrying capacity. ‘While the theory of limit desiga is not as well developed as that cf limit analysis, imit design of continuous beams and frames hhas been discussed in recent years (Baker 1949a; Heyman 19515, Foulkes 1953; Prager 1953b), The corresponding field of shake ddown design is virtually unexplored. LARGE PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS ‘As Hill (1951) has showa, the theory of limit analysis may be bbased on the model of the rid, perfectly plastic solid. Shake~ dlovn analysis, on the other hand, requires the simultaneous con Sderation of elastic and plastic strains; this is feasible because the deformations are teated as infinitesimal. ‘Phe assuraption of infinitesimal deformations must be abandoned when tech- nological forming processes sich af rolling or extruding are to bbe discussed. Since, even in the theory. of elasticity, finite deformations constitute a topic of considerable mathematical diticulty, a theory of finite elastic, plastic deformations is not likely to be useful in che discussion Of these forming processes. Fig. 18. Extrusion of Sheet Through Rough Die: (a) Slip-line Fld in Physical Plane (after Hill 1948), (6) and (e) Images of Slip-line Field in Stress Plane and’ Hodograph Plane (after Prager 1953) Like the Newtonian viscous liquid, the rigid, perfectly plastic solid is characterized by a stress-strain law that links the stress tthe velocity strain and does not contain the strain, Accordingly, the consideration of finite deformations will not meet with rater mathemati iicutes nrg, perfectly plastic wold than ia a viscous liguid where even the most elementary problems, for instance the Poiseuille flow through a tube of Gireular cross-section, involve finite deformations. Most work fn large plastic deformations is therefore based on the model of ‘the rigid, perfecely plastic solid. Moreover, to take advantage of the well-developed theory of the slip-line field, this work is mont caclusively concemed wit problems of plane plac problems of sea fow, the stress and velocity elds do not change with time. Fig. I8a shows a typical example, This Slip-line fild for sheet extrusion through a rough die fs due to Hill (19486) 5 it can be constructed by Prager’s (19530) graphicalTHE THEORY OF PLASTICITY: A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS 51 ‘method, which applies to problems of plane plastic flow and uses the geometrical relations between the physical plane, the stress plane, and the hodograph plane. The co-ordinates of a point in the stress plane (Fig. 188) give the stress components om, Toy at the corresponding point in the physical plane. The slip lines in the physical plane are mapped on to cycloids in the stress plane thar are described by the points of the Mobr circles as these roll without sliding on the lines rq) = i. The vector from the pole P to a point in the hodograph plane (Fig. 18) represents the velocity at the corresponding paint in the physical plane. (Corresponding line elements in the stress and hodograph planes fre parallel to cach other and normal to the corresponding line clement in the playsical plane. ‘These relations are used to con- Struct, mesh by mesh, the slip-line field in the physical plane and its images in the stress and hodograph planes. ‘The extrusion [pressure can be evaluated from the stresses c, and. Tuy A Whe points of the line HED; these stresses are given by the co- brdinates of the corresponding points of the line H'F'D’ in the sess plane. Numerous two-dimensional problems of steady plastic flow relevant to drawing, extruding, piercing, and machining have ‘been treated in recent years (Hill 1048e; fill and Tupper 1948 Lee and Shaffer 1951). What distinguishes this work from carlier attempts (see, for instance, the books of Sokolovaky (2946) and van Teerson (1947) is a better understanding of the interplay between static and Kinematic boundary conditions. In the alder literature f00 much attention had been given t0 the construction, of statically determinate stress fields from appro- priate boundary conditions on stress, Most practical problems Involve static and kinematic boundary conditions, and the determination of the stresses cannot be separated from that of the velocities (Lee 1950). ig. 18aillusrates a typical feature of the fields of plane steady. flow that have been worked out in connexion with these tech= nological forming processes. While the velocity field is defined throughout the considered mass, the stress field is defined only in the region of plastic flow ABDFHG. The extrusion pressure found from this incomplete stress field can be shown to be identical with that obtained from the associated velocity field by meas of the second fundamental theorem of limit analysis (Prager and Hodge 1951, and others). This extrusion pressure is therefore an upper bound to the actual extrusion pressure; i€ can be accepted as the true extrusion pressure only ifthe stress field can be extended throughout the rigid regions to the left of HED and to the right of HGAB so os to sutsty the equations of equilibrium without exceeding the yield limit. Lite attention hhas been given to this point in the pests itis to be expected, however, ‘that the necessary extensions of the stress fields proposed for the various forming. processes will soon be con- Structed by means of Bishop's method (Bishop 1953). Hill, Lee, and ‘Tupper (1947b) first drew attention to the problems of pseudo-steady flow in wich the slip-line field, while ‘ot remaining fixed as in the problems of steady flow, retains its shape and changes only in scale. Fig. 19¢ shows the slip-line patiern given by these authors for the indentation of a semi= Infinite plastic mass by 2 lubricated rigid wedge. ‘This pattern preserves its shape during the indentation process but increases in size proportional to the depth of penetration. According tO Hill's theory of the cutting of a wide sheet by a wedge-shaped tool, this kind of indentation forms the frst phase of the cutting process (Hill 1953). Essentially the same sip-line pattern 1s fed in Lee's theory of discontinuous machining (Lee 1954) "Another problem of pseudo-steady flow is the squashing of a plastic wedge by a lubricated rigid plate (Hill 1484). In Fig, 198, the line AOA’ represents the original shape of the wedge, and the line PP’ indicates the original position of the squashing plate, When the plate reaches the position QQ, the wedge has the shape ABCC'BYA’. Lee (1952) used the same slip-line pattern in his discussion of the plastic flow in_a V-notched bar that is Pulled under conditions of plane strain. The line DEBCC BED’ {n Fig. 19) represents one half of the gpecimen, the other half being obtained by symmetry with respect tthe line QQ’. As the specimen is pulled, the slip-line field retains its shape but decreases i size. ‘As.a nue the slip-line field changes its shape during unsteady. plastic flow. Problems of this kind can be treated by using Fig. 19. (a) Indentation of Semi-infinte Plastic Mass by Lubri- cated Rigid Wedge (after Hill, Lee, and Tupper 1947). () Squashing of Plastic Wedge by Lubricated Rigid Plate (her Hill 19484) rumerical or graphical methods of integrating the fundamental equations of plane plastic flow and following step by step the {deformation of the boundaries ofthe plastic mass and the corre= sponding change of the sliprline field. As an example of what can bbe achieved in this manner, Fig. 20 gives three stages of the yr Fig. 20. Distortion of Originally Square Grid on Central Portion of Deeply-notched ‘Tension Specimen Pulled Under Conditions ‘of Plane Flow (after Garr, Lee, and Wang 1953)2 JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE distortion ofan originally square grid covering the central portion ‘ofa deeply-notched specimen thet is pulled under conditions of plane strain (Garr and others 1953). In all these examples of plane plastic flow part of the material rremtins rigid, snd the determination ofthe plastic-riid interface ‘Often meets ‘with considerable difficultics. ‘These difficulties ‘disappear when the entire body is deforming plastically. The bending of a sheet in plane strain (Hill 19503, p. 287) or strip in plane stress (Gaydon 1053), the bending of a sheet in tension (Swift 1948), and the bulging of a circular diaphragm by lateral [pressure (Hill 19500 ; Ross and Prager 1954) are problems of this Kind. In other problems, the determination of the plastic-rigid of piastiovelasue interface is facilitated by conditions of sym- metry which require this interface to be cylindrical or spherical Problems of this kind that have been treated with consideration, of finite plastic deformations are the expansion of a cylindrical tube (Hill, Lee, and Tupper 19472, 1951) or a spherical shell (Hill 19496), the enlargement of a circular hole in a thin sheet (CRaylor 1948), and the expansion of a rotating disk by centri= fugal forces (Weiss and Prager 1954). ‘Phe preceding applications of the theory of plasticity to technological forming procestes are exact inthe following sense : fonce certain general assumptions (or example, plane strain oF plane stress, perfectly smooth or completely rough surface of the fool) are accepted, the problem is solved rigorously within the ‘framework of, sy, the theory of perfectly plastic solids without ‘the introduction of any ad hac assumptions, For many forming processes, this type of rational theory las not yet been developed, nd semicempirical theories are used instead. ‘The most m= portant of thete concerns the cold rolling of a strip. Ifthe width Of the strip is large compared to the thickness, the assumption of plane flow is justified, and the theory of the slip-line field can be used, but attempts to apply this theory (Shevchenko 1941) have not yet yielded a slip-ine pattern that satisfies all boundary conditions on stress and velocity. Thus, special assumptions had to be introduced. 10 make the problem tractable. Following von Kirmén (1925) it has long been assumed in the theory of Strip rolling that each vertical segment of the rolled stock under- goes a uniform vertical compression as it advances in a hori- tal deco, wat no shear sss but only a rma presse acting between adjacent segments. A considerable advance ‘beyond ‘this simple one-dimensional theory. was made by ‘Orowan (1943) who took advantage of the qualitative similarity ‘between the unknown slip-line field in strip rolling and the fields given by Prandtl (1923) and Nedai (1924) for the com- pression of a plastic mass between rough, parallel, or inclined plates, Even if time did permit a detailed discussion of the theory ‘Of strip rolling, I should hesitate to undertake this because some fof the most important contributions, notably those made by Professor Ford and his collaborators (Ford 1048), are contained in recent volumes of the PRoceEDINGS of this Institution and ‘therefore are familiar to this audience. ‘Since the simplifying assumptions of plane flow or plane stress ‘used in the treatment of most forming processes may not always be justified, let us briefly consider three-dimensional problems ‘The theory of the slip-line field, which is so powerful a tool the solution of problems of plane plastic flow, uses the fact that the differential equations of plane flow have the slip lines as real characteristics, Tris therefore natural to investigate under what conditions the differential equations of three-dimensional plastic How have real characteristic surfaces. For von Mises’ theory of perfecly plastic solids, the answer to this problem was recently fiven by Thomas (1953), Erickeen (1954), and Prager (1054), ‘though Hill (1948) and Symonds (1949) had previously shown that the differential equations of axially symmetsic plastic flow do mot possess real characteristic surfaces. For the differential equations of von Mises) theory to have real characteristic Sirfaces, it i necestary that the velocity strain corresponds t0 simple shearing at each point of the flow fleld, This condition is fulfilled in plastic torsion, in plane plastic flow, and in the plastic twisting ofa circular cing sector (Freiberger 1953). While {eis not known whether this list is exhaustive, there can be no doubts that the theory of characteristics will be useless in the Solution ofthe vast majority of three-dimensional problems if the Yield condition and flow rule of von Mises are adopted. 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Physik vol. 4, pp. 895 167, Report of General Meeting ace ow 144m janvany 1955 ‘A Gensral Meeting was held in the House ofthe Institution, London, on Friday, 14th January 1955, ‘at 5.30 p.m.5 Dr. R. W, Bailey, Wh.Se. (President), F.R.S., vas in the Chair, and was supported by Professor H. Ford, D.Se. (Eng, Ph.D., Wh.Se. (Member), Chairman of the Applied Mechanics Group, ‘The minutes of the meeting held on 31st December 1954 were read and approved at a correct record. A James Clayton Lecture entitled “The Theory of Plasticity: Recent Achievements and Future Problems’, by Dr. William Prager, Mem. A.S.MLE., was presented. A vote of thanks was presented by Professor O. A. Saunders, D.Sc. (Eng.) (Menter of Council), and was seconded by Professor Edmund Giffen, D-Se., Ph.D. (Member of Council). The author made a brief acknowledgement. + ‘The mecting ended at 7 p.m. The attendance was 91, including 64 members.