Civil-113 - Construction & Engg. Material

1 Engineering Materials and Construction Techniques, Civil-113
Preface
The text book has been written to cover the syllabus of engineering
materials and construction techniques 1st year D.A.E (Civil) according to
the new scheme of studies. Hopefully this book will cater the needs of all
those students who are preparing themselves in the subject of Engineering
materials and construction techniques for D.A.E Examinations of different
technical boards throughout Pakistan.
The aim of bringing out this book is to enable the students to have
sound knowledge of the subject. Every effort has been made to present the
subject matter in the most concise, compact lucid & simple manner to help
the subject without any difficulty. Frequent use of illustrative figures has
been made for clarity.
Questions for self test have also been included at the end of each
chapter which will serve as a quick learning tool for students.
Constructive criticisms and suggestions for the improvements in
future are welcome.
AUTHORS/REVIEWERS
Member Review Committee:-
PRINCIPAL Jr. Instructor

Engr. Mazher Abbas Naqvi Fayyaz Mustafa
Govt. Staff Training College Govt. Staff Training College
Faisalabad Faisalabad
Contents
Page No.
Chapter 1: Bricks and Tiles 17
Chapter 2: Stones 37
Chapter 3: Lime 53
Chapter 4: Cement 62
Chapter 5: Sand 72
Chapter 6: Mortars 83
Chapter 7: Concrete and Concreting Operations 93
Chapter 8: Ferrous Metals and Non Ferrous Metals 112
Chapter 9: Paints and Varnishes 130
Chapter 10: Advanced Construction Materials 139
Chapter 11: Composite materials 160
Chapter 12: Miscellaneous Materials 171
Chapter 13: Introduction to Building Construction 186
Chapter 14: Foundations 197
Chapter 15: Masonry 251
Chapter 16: Damp Proof Course 285
Chapter 17: Walls 298
Chapter 18: Arches and Lintels 308
Chapter 19: Doors, windows and ventilators 339
Chapter 20: Roofs 355
Chapter 21: Surface Finishing 380
DAE CIVIL TECHNOLOGY YEAR 1

CIVIL-113 ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES
TOTAL CONTACT HOURS: 160 TPC
Theory: 64 233
Practical: 96
AIM:
The student will be able to:
1. Understand about the manufacture, properties and uses of building materials in

order to produce the required finished facility and to use it to the best advantage
2. Understand the fundamentals of building construction and gain skills through

practical work.
COURSE CONTENTS
1. Bricks and Tiles 2 Hours
1.1 Merits as a building material

1.2 Classification of bricks
1.3 Testing of bricks.
1.4 Tiles and their classification.
2 Stones 2 Hours
2.1 Quarrying
2.2 Characteristics
2.3 Types
2.4 Uses
2.5 Dressing of stones
3 Lime 3 Hours
3.1 Sources of lime
3.2 Calcination, slaking and hydraulicity
3.3 Classifications, quick lime and hydraulic lime
3.4 Uses and storage
4 Cement 4 Hours
4.1 Composition & manufacture

4.2 Types of cement and their uses.
4.3 Storage
4.4 Hydration, heat of hydration, rate of hydration and water requirements for
hydration.
5 Sand 2 Hours
5.1 Sources and classification

5.2 Grading
5.3 Bulking
5.4 Uses
6 Mortars 2 Hours
6.1 Introduction and Classification of mortars.

6.2 Batching Mixing.
6.3 Functions and Application
7 Concrete and Concreting Operations 6 Hours
7.1 Composition and proportioning.

7.2 Batching of materials by volume and weight
7.3 Mixing of concrete
7.4 Transportation of concrete

7.5 Compaction of concrete
7.6 Finishing of concrete surface, types
7.7 Curing of concrete
8 Ferrous Metals and Non Ferrous Metals 4 Hours
8.1 Types of ferrous metals

8.2 Structural steel sections and their use in building construction.
8.3 Steel used in Reinforced cement concrete-Plain, deformed & cold twisted
steel bars.
8.4 Special steels-High carbon steel, high tensile steel, properties and uses.
8.5 Types of non-ferrous metals and their uses in construction. 8.6 Lead and
Zinc properties and uses.
9 Paints and Varnishes 2 Hours
9.1 Types and uses of paints-oil paints, Enamel, color wash

9.2 Characteristics of a good paint.
9.3 Varnishes-French Polish types and uses.
10 Advanced Construction Materials. 6 Hours
10.1 Introduction to modern materials

10.2 Glass types and uses, glass tiles and glass doors.
10.3 Bitumen, Asphalt and tar grades and uses.
10.4 Tiles and their types including Tuff tiles-uses and construction
10.5 Fibre reinforced concrete
10.6 Fibre reinforced polymers(FRP), FRP Technology, its advantages and
disadvantages.
10.7 Self compacting concrete and geo-polymer concrete.
10.8 Construction bonding materials.
11 Composite materials 3 Hours

11.1 Fundamentals of composite materials.

11.2 Types of composite materials.
11.3 Benefits of composite materials.
11.4 Application of composite materials.
12 Miscellaneous Materials 3 Hours
12.1 Asbestos, characteristics and uses

12.2 Asbestos cement sheets
12.3 Linoleum, characteristics and uses
12.4 Thermocol characteristics and uses
12.5 Resin and uses
12.6 wood wool, characteristics and uses
12.7 Rubber, types and uses
12.8 Plaster of Paris, characteristics and uses
12.9 Definition of adhesives, characteristics, uses and types
12.10 Glass wool, characteristics and uses
12.11 Ebonite, characteristics and uses
13 Introduction to Building Construction. 2 Hours
13.1 Definition of building and Building classification.

13.2 Classification based on materials and occupancy.
13.3 Different parts of building and their functions.
14 Foundations 4 Hours
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Concepts of foundation, types of soils and bearing capacity.
14.3 Sub soil investigation-trial pit, trench, drilling holes.
14.4 Shallow foundation definition, types and suitability.
14.5 Design of thickness, width and depth of foundation for concrete block
wall.
14.6 Deep foundation - necessity uses and types.
14.7 Construction of foundation-layout, for excavation.
14.8 De-watering.
15 Masonry 4 Hours
15.1 Brick bonds and their types.
15.2 Methods of bedding bricks.
15.3 Construction of brick walls.
15.4 Classification of Stone Masonry.
15.5 Specifications of Stone Masonry.
16 Damp Proof Course. 2 Hours
16.1 Causes and effects of dampness

16.2 Necessity, Types and materials used.
16.3 Method of laying damp proof course
16.4 Damp proofing of floors.
16.5 Basic principles of water proofing of basements.
17 Walls 2 Hours
17.1 Purpose of walls.

17.2 Classification of walls according to functions and material used.
18 Arches and Lintels. 2 Hours
18.1 Arches-definition, terminologies, parts, and functions

18.2 Classification-according to material used, function and shapes.
18.3 Methods of arch construction including stone arches.
18.4 Lintels-types and construction.
18.5 Plinth beams and grade beams
19 Doors, windows and ventilators 3 Hours
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Doors, windows and ventilators

19.3 Standard sizes of doors, windows and ventilators
19.4 Types of doors
19.5 Windows and its types
20 Roofs 2 Hours
20.1 Definition, functions

20.2 Classification of roofs
20.3 Pitched roofs-types and roof covering materials
20.4 Types of trusses for pitched roofs
20.5 Introduction, materials used and construction of False Ceiling
21 Surface Finishing
21.1 Plastering objectives, types and procedures.
21.2 White washing, distempering and their specifications.
21.3 Painting old and new surfaces - wooden, metal and wall surfaces.
21.4 Defects in painting.
21.5 Pointing objectives and types.
21.6 Graffito & Rockwall finishing
21.7 Tiles Finishing
21.8 Panel Finishing
21.9 Terms used to classify internal and external finishes (Wet finish, dry
finish, self-finish)
21.10 Functions of internal floor finishes and ceiling finishes.
21.11 Functions of external finishes (exclusion, solar reflection, insulation,
aesthetics, impact resistance)
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the Selection of Suitable Bricks for Construction
Work
1.1 State the classification of bricks according to specifications

1.2 Describe the characteristics of a good brick
1.3 Explain standard tests for bricks
1.4 Describe the common types of tiles and their uses
1.5 Describe merits and classification of fair faced bricks, i.e. burnt clay tiles,
glazed tiles, marble tiles, tuff tiles, other ceramics tiles.
2. Understand Selection of Stones and their Acceptability for

Construction Work.
2.1 Define the quarrying
2.2 Explain the methods of quarrying
2.3 State the classification of stone and their uses in different items of
construction
2.4 Explain the methods of dressing stone.
3. Understand the Types and Uses of Lime for Construction Work

3.1 State the sources of lime
3.2 Explain terms, calcination, slaking and hydraulicity
3.3 State classification and uses of lime
3.4 Describe the method of storage of lime
4. Understand the Manufacturing Process and Uses of Cement for

Construction Work
4.1 State the composition of cement.
4.2 Explain the types of cement and their uses.
4.3 Explain the methods of storage of cement under various situations
4.4 Describe the hydration and rate of hydration.
4.5 State water requirements for hydration.
5. Understand the Characteristics of Sand

5.1 State the classification of sand and uses
5.2 Describe the grading of sand
5.3 Explain the bulking of sand
6. Understand the Principles of Preparation of Mortars for

Building Work
6.1 State the classification of mortars
6.2 State the different proportions of mortars for various works
6.3 State the function of mortar 6.4 Explain the methods of preparation of
mortars
7. Understand the Principles of Preparation of Concrete

7.1 Define the concrete, types of concrete
7.2 State the ingredients of plain and reinforced concrete
7.3 State the proportions of plain and reinforced concrete for different types of
work
7.4 Describe methods of batching by weight and by volume
7.5 Explain the procedure of hand and machine mixing
7.6 State the types of concrete mixers
7.7 Explain the various methods of transportation of fresh concrete
7.8 Explain various methods of compacting concrete t hand, vibrators
7.9 Explain methods of concrete finishing
7.10 Describe objects of curing and methods of curing
7.11 Explain the needs of joints in curing.
8. Know the Properties and Uses of Ferrous Metals in

Construction Work
8.1 State the properties of cast iron, mild steel and wrought iron with their
uses
8.2 List the common structural steel sections used in construction work
8.3 Distinguish between plain steel, deformed steel and cold twisted steel bars
8.4 State the properties and uses of special steels i.e. High carbon steel, high
tensile steel
8.5 State the properties of Aluminium, lead and zinc
8.6 State the uses of Aluminium lead and zinc in construction work
9. Know the Selection of Suitable Paints and Varnishes for

Construction Work
9.1 Describe the characteristics, constituents and preparation of a good paint.
9.2 State the types of paints and their uses in construction works
9.3 State the types and uses of varnishes
10. Understand the Properties and Uses of Advance Materials i.e.

Glass, Asphalt, Tuff Tiles and Fiber Reinforced Concrete
10.1 State the uses of different types of glass in construction work
10.2 State use of glass tiles and glass doors.
10.3 Describe the differences between asphalt, tar and bituminous materials
10.4 Describe the grades and uses of bituminous materials
10.5 Explain the uses and construction of tuff tile
10.6 Describe composition and uses of fiber reinforced concrete
10.7 Describe FRP Technology, its advantages and disadvantages.
10.8 Explain self-compacting concrete and geo-polymer concrete.
10.9 Describe different construction bonding materials.
11. Understand different types of Composite materials, their

Benefits and Applications
11.1 Describe the fundamentals of composite materials, matrices,
reinforcement( glass fibers, natural fibers, carbon fibers), particulate (sand,
talc, colored chips, recycled glass).
11.2 Describe the types of composite materials (Traditional- Wood, Engineered
wood, brick, steel, concrete, disc brake pads) Polymers.
11.3 State benefits of composite materials.
11.4 Describe the applications of composite materials.
12. Understand the Characteristics and Uses of Miscellaneous

Materials
12.1 Define asbestos, state its characteristics and uses
12.2 State asbestos cement sheets
12.3 Define linoleum, state its characteristics and uses
12.4 Define thermocole, state its characteristics and uses
12.5 Define resin and state its uses

12.6 Define wood wool, state its characteristics and uses
12.7 Define rubber, state its types and uses
12.8 Define plaster of paris ,state its characteristics and uses
12.9 Define adhesives, state its characteristics, uses and types
12.10 Define glass wool, state its characteristics and uses
12.11 Define ebonite, state its characteristics and uses
13. Know the Classification of Building as Per Building Code

13.1 Define Building.
13.2 Define classification of Building.
13.3 State the classification of buildings (agricultural, commercial, residential,
Educational, Government, industrial, religious, Military, Transport
etc.)with examples
13.4 State the components of a building and their functions
14. Understand the Suitability and Design of Common Types of

Foundations
14.1 Define foundation
14.2 Explain the properties of various soil deposits
14.3 Explain the terms bearing capacity, safe and ultimate bearing capacity
14.4 Explain the types of investigations required for foundation
14.5 Describe with sketches various types of shallow and deep foundations and
their suitability
14.6 Explain rules for minimum depth, width of foundation and thickness of
concrete block
14.7 Explain the layout of a building
14.8 Explain the procedure of constructing spread footings
14.9 Describe the methods of timbering foundation
15. Understand Masonry Work

15.1 Define the technical terms related to masonry work.
15.2 Explain with sketches bond and their types i.e. English bond, Flemish
bond, herring bone bond, zigzag bond, and garden wall bond.
15.3 State the general principles to be observed in brick masonry construction.
15.4 Explain the different types of stone masonry i.e. ashlar masonry, random
rubble. 15.5 Explain specification for carrying out stone masonry work.
16. Understand the Function of Damp Proof Course in Building

16.1 State the causes and effects of dampness in building
16.2 Describe the necessity, types and materials used for DPC.
16.3 Explain the functions and method of laying damp proof courses
16.4 Describe damp proofing of floors.
16.5 State basic principles of water proofing of basements.
17. Understand the Types and Suitability of Various Types of

Wall
17.1 Describe the purpose of wall
17.2 Explain the classification of walls according to functions and materials
17.3 Select suitable type of wall for given situation
18. Understand the Constructions and Suitability of Various

Types of Arches and Lintels in Construction Work
18.1 Explain the functions of arch and lintels and their suitability in
construction work. 18.2 Label the parts of common arch.
18.3 Explain with sketches common types of arches and lintels and their
respective suitability in construction work.
18.4 Explain the general procedure of construction of arches and lintels.
19. Understand the Construction and Methods of Fixation of

Common Types of Doors and Windows and ventilators.
19.1 Explain with sketches common and special types of doors and windows.
19.2 Describe the method of fixing door frame and window in a wall.
19.3 Enlist the fittings and fastenings used for door and windows.
20. Understand the Methods of Construction of Roofs

20.1 State the functions of roofs.
20.2 State the classifications of roofs.
20.3 Explain with sketches the different types of pitched roof.
20.4 Explain with sketches the different types of wooden and steel trusses.
20.5 Explain with sketches common types of flat roofs.

20.6 Explain the construction of common types of flat roofs
20.7 Describe construction of False Ceiling.
21. Understand the Finishes Provided Over Masonry Wood Work

and Metal Work
21.1 Describe purpose and types of plastering.
21.2 Explain the methods of cement plastering.
21.3 Explain the specifications and procedures of white washing/ colour
washing and distempering on old and new surfaces.
21.4 State the purpose of pointing.
21.5 Explain the types and methods of pointing with sketches.
21.6 Explain the purpose and method of painting new and old wall surfaces.
21.7 Explain the method of painting wood work and steel work.
21.8 State the defects in painting.
21.9 Explain use of Graffito and Rockwall finishing, Tile finishing & Panel
finishing. 21.10 Describe the terms used to classify internal and external
finishes.
21.11 Explain functions of internal floor finishes and ceiling finishes.
21.12 State the functions of external finishes
LIST OF PRACTICALS HOURS
1. Visit of brick kiln nearby and write report regarding constituent materials, 6
mixingof ingredients, moulding of bricks, burning, cooling, stacking, transport.
2. Preparation of models in construction yard of dry & wet brick walls and pillar 6
9” and 13 - ½” thick by English and Flemish bond
3. Preparation of dry mix, wet mortar and use on some construction work 3
4. Visit of cement factory. Sketch a flow diagram, showing manufacturing 3
process of cement.
5. Visit to precast unit factory, demonstration of casting and submission of visit 6
report.
6. Preparation of hand/machine mix concrete placing, finishing, etc. of concrete 3
at site for suitable useful work.
7. Practice of plastering of small wall with cement mortar. 6
8. Practice white washing and distempering on plastered surface. 6
9. Painting of plastered surface/steel surface, wooden surface. 6
10. Preparation of layout plan for a building and layout on the ground. 6
11. Sketching of various types of foundations. 9
12. Sketches of various bonds and practice making dry brick bond. 9
13. Construction of small masonry wall. 3
14. Demonstration of dressing of natural stone. 6
15. Visit to nearby quarry/crusher and submission of visit report. 3
16. Demonstration and practice of fixing of door/windows. 3
17. Demonstration and practice on setting out of an arch. 3
18. Demonstration and practice in laying DPC horizontal & Vertical far a 3
portion of wall.
19. Demonstration of preparation of putty and fixation of glass panes in 3
door/windows.
20. Practical Demonstration of false ceilings. 3
Chapter # 1
Bricks and Tiles
After studying this chapter, students will be able to:
 State the merits of bricks as building material.
 State the classification of bricks according to specification.
 Describe the characteristics of a good bricks.
 Explain standard test of bricks.
 Describe the common types of tiles and their uses.
 Describe merits and classification of fair faced bricks, i.e. burnt clay
tiles, glazed tiles, marble tiles, tuff tiles, other ceramics tiles
1.0 General
Clay bricks were used by humans from early dates. First it was used
without burning as sun-dried bricks. Burnt brick was a common building material
among the Egyptians. Nowadays they are made from specially selected and
matured brick-earth consisting chiefly of Silica (35 to 70%) and Alumina (10 to
20%). Too much Silica tends to make the brick brittle and too much alumina
makes the brick warp and crack on drying and burning. It is also desirable to have
other agents like lime, magnesia, oxide of iron which act as colouring agent and
flux to assist fusion during burning of the brick earth. If they are not naturally
present, they should be added to the clay during mixing. Clay when heated to
lower temperatures loses its moisture, and only physical change occurs. Such
half-burnt clay crumbles when placed in water. However, when clay is heated to
high temperatures, its constituents fuse, and chemical change takes place. Such
well-burnt bricks do not breakdown when immersed in water. The temperatures in
these kilns go 700 to 1100°C.
1.1 Brick as Building Material

Brick is suitable for building construction as a building material because it
is cheap having more properties than other materials. Some of those are as under;
1. Uniform in size.
2. Cheaply and commonly available material.
3. It is also used in floors and on roofs of building.
4. Good appearance of brick masonry.
5. For special purposes, special shaped bricks (special bricks) are available.
6. It have compressive strength in Masonry work.
1.2 Classification of bricks

Well burnt bricks are classified as;
a. First class bricks
b. Second class bricks
c. Third class bricks
d. Over burnt bricks
e. Under burnt bricks
a. First class bricks
i. Shall be of rectangular shape with well defined and sharp edges and
uniform in size.
ii. Shall have clean and even surface but not very smooth.
iii. Shall be perfect, free from cracks, flaws or lumps of any kind.
iv. On being fractured, the interior surface shall show a uniform and compact
texture.
v. Shall be well burnt and shall not be scratched by a finger nail.
vi. On being struck against one another brick of the same type it shall give a
metallic sound and shall not break.
vii. On being immersed in water for 24 hours, the absorption shall not exceed
16% of the dry weight.
viii. The crushing strength shall not be less than 105kg/cm².
b. Second class bricks

i. Shall be of rectangular shape with well defined and sharp edges but slight
irregularity of sizes as can be covered in the courses may be permitted.
ii. The surface shall be clean but small irregularity may be accepted.
iii. Shall be perfect and free from cracks. However slight chips and flaws may
be permitted.
iv. Absorption in weight shall not exceed 22%.
v. Crushing strength shall not be less than 70kg/cm².
c. Third class bricks
i. May be slightly over burnt or under burnt, otherwise shall be as second
class bricks.
ii. It need not be of uniform section and may be distorted.
iii. On being soaked in water for 24 hours, absorption shall given a dull
sound.
d. Over burnt bricks
Over burnt bricks are also known as “Jhamas.” They are irregular in shape
and size. The excess burning makes it dark coloured and brittle. Sometimes due to
the fusion caused by over burning, large irregular hard masses are formed. Such
bricks are not used in normal engineering works but picked jhamas have been
found useful for road soling and concrete aggregate as road metal.
e. Under burnt bricks

It is also called ‘Pilas.’ It have low strength and not commonly used in
masonry work. Colour of brick is dim.
1.3 Bricks for special use

Bricks may also be made for special purposes such as the following.
a. Facing bricks
b. Fireclay bricks
c. Acid resisting bricks
d. Forsterite bricks
e. Silicon carbide bricks
a. Facing bricks
These bricks are generally made from selected clay (which will give the
necessary colour on burning or with special colouring agents added) and by
pressing it in special moulds.
b. Fireclay bricks
These special bricks are made for lining in devices such as furnaces,
digesters, ovens and so on. They are also called “refractory bricks.” They are
made from special clays called fireclay. Fireclay bricks are used for lining in
chimney’s, furnances and other situations exposed to very high temperature.

These bricks should also be laid with fireclay mortar and with cement mortar,
when built as lining for chimneys. They are available as acidic, basic and neutral
bricks.
c. Acid resisting bricks

These bricks are special bricks manufactured from materials of low clay
content and fired at temperatures sufficiently high to convert the constituents
largely into crystalline minerals which are insoluble in acids and alkalies.
d. Forsterite bricks
These bricks are made from olivine rock to which magnesia is added in
the manufacturing process. The constituent is the mineral forsterite (2MgO, SiO2).
They are very stable at high temperatures. They are used in open hearth furnces
and refining furnaces.
e. Silicon carbide bricks

These bricks are made of carbon and Silicon. They are used in the electric
resistance furnace. It is inert to all acids and is used as a refractory material.
Characteristics of Good Bricks
The following are the characteristics of good bricks.
i. Regularity of shape.
ii. Uniformity in size.
iii. Colour.
iv. Texture and Soundness.
v. Hardness.
vi. Absorption of water.

vii. Strength of bricks.
viii. Strength of bricks in tension.
ix. Fire resistance of bricks.
i. Regularity of shape
Good bricks should have rectangular plane surfaces with parallel sides,
and sharp, straight right angled edges. The surfaces should not be too smooth, as
otherwise mortar will not stick to them.
ii. Uniformity in size
All the bricks should be uniform in size and the variation should not be
more than 1/8” for first class bricks. For superior bricks, the limit of 1/8” is
reduced to 1/16”.
iii. Color
Apart from works of an ornamental nature, color is not a very important
factor, but uniformity of color is definitely very important for face work.
Uniformity of color indicates uniformity in the chemical composition and burning
of the bricks. Usually red colored bricks are good, but this do not always indicated
that they are necessarily well-burnt.
iv. Texture and Soundness
The texture should not be compact, uniform and fine. When a brick is
broken the surfaces would not show fissures and bubbles or lumps of lime.
Burning should be uniform and equal.
These qualities are generally not apparent on the external surfaces and,
therefore, sample bricks should invariably be broken and the fracture examined.
v. Hardness
Hardness of bricks is judged by the metallic sound given when a brick is

struck with a small hammer. A dull sound indicates soft bricks. Finger nails
should not be able to make any impression on the surface of a really hard, sound
brick.
vi. Absorption of water

The power of absorption of water varies with the chemical composition of
its clay and good bricks should not absorb more than 10 to 15% of their own
weight in 12 hours. Stronger bricks absorb much less water.
vii. Strength of bricks
Bricks are usually subjected to compressive stresses and sometimes also to
transverse stresses, but are never designed to take tension. The crushing strength
of good first class bricks should be 40 to 64 tons per sq. ft and for second class
bricks the strength may be about 10 to 40 tons per sq. ft.
viii. Strength of bricks in tension
Bricks masonry can take safe tensile stresses upto 1 ton per sq. ft for 1:6
cement or good lime masonry, and 1.6 tons for 1:4 cement masonry These figures
are generally verified by experiment on all important works.
ix. Fire resistance of bricks
Brick masonry resists fire very well, provided the mortar used is of a
suitable mix. Bricks containing a higher percentage of Silica resist fire much
better.
1.4 Tests for Bricks

The tests to be made on bricks are as follows:
1. Compressive strength
2. Water absorption
3. Efflorescence
4. Dimensional tolerance
5. Hardness
6. Soundness
7. Structure
1. Compressive strength
Five bricks are taken at random and their dimensions are measured to
1mm accuracy. They are, then, immersed in water of 25°C to 29°C for 24 hours.
The surplus moisture is allowed to drain and the frog, if any, is filled with mortar
1:3 (1 cement, 3 clean coarse sand 3mm and down). It is kept under a jute bag for
another 24 hours after which it is immersed in clean water for three days. At the
time of testing, these bricks are removed from water wiped dry of any trace of
moisture and placed with the flat surface horizontal and mortar filled face up
between three plywood sheets each of 3mm thickness.
The load is applied at the rate of 140kg/cm² per minute till the failure of
the specimen takes place as indicated by the needle of the testing machine turning
back. Average of the five test values is reported. While finding the average, any
single value obtained as compressive strength which is higher than the upper
value of the class of the bricks tested, should be taken only as the upper limit of
the class. Values less than 20% below the average value should be discarded. The
average value should not be less than the specified value.
2. Water absorption
Five bricks are taken for test. They are allowed to dry in an oven at 110°
to 114°C till they attain a constant weight which usually takes place in 48 hours.
They are then allowed to cool at room temperature, which generally takes 4 to 6
hours without a fan and 2 to 3 hours with a fan blowing on it and weight W1 is
measured.
They are then kept in clear water at 27±2°C for 24 hours and then wiped
dry with a damp cloth and weight W2 is measured. The average percentage of
water absorbed as percentage of dry weight is reported. Average of the five tests
is reported.
W2 – W1
Percentage absorption  W ×100
 1 
3. Efflorescence
The test should be conducted in a well-ventilated room at 18–30°C.
Average value on five samples taken at random is to be reported. The brick is
placed. Vertically in a dish 30cm × 20cm approximately in size with 2.5cm
immersed in distilled water. The whole water is allowed to be absorbed by the
brick end evaporated through it. After the bricks appear dry, a similar quantity of
water is placed in the dish the water is allowed to evaporate as before. The brick
is to examined after the second evaporation and reported as follows:
a. Nil
When there is no perceptible deposit of salt.
b. Slight
When not more than 2% percent of the area of brick is covered with salt.
c. Moderate
When there is heavy deposit covering up to 50% of the area of the brick
but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
d. Serious
Where there is heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or
flaking of the surface and this deposition tends to increase in the repeated wetting
of the specimen.
e. Heavy
When there is heavy deposit covering more than 50% of the area of the
brick accompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
Bricks for general construction should not have more than slight to
moderate efflorescence.
4. Dimensional tolerance
Twenty whole bricks are selected at random to check measurement of
length, width, height etc. These dimensions are to be measured in one or two lots
of ten each. Variations in dimensions are allowed only with in narrow limits ±3%
for class one and ±8% for other classes.
5. Hardness
A scratch is made on the surface of the brick with the finger nail. In a
good brick, no impression will be left on the surface.
6. Soundness
Two bricks are taken, one in each hand, and they are struck with each
other lightly. A clear ringing sound should be produced and the bricks should not
get break.
7. Structure
A brick is broken and its structure can be examined.
Tiles
Tiles are thin slabs used for covering roofs, for flooring or for making
drains.
Brick-earth used for manufacturing brick tiles is more than pure and is
prepared more thoroughly than the one used for manufacturing bricks. Tiles,
being thinner require careful burning.
1.5 Different kinds of Tiles

Mainly there are three kinds of tiles;
1. Roofing tiles
2. Flooring tiles or paving tiles
3. Drain tiles
Important varieties of each one of these are discussed below.
1. Roofing tiles
These may be flate like slates or may be made to different shapes. Some of
the common varieties are discussed below.
Plain tiles
Hole Nibs Battens
Raftar
Eaves under tiles
Gutter
1. Plain tiles
Side lap 5cm Pan tiles

25.5cm 25.5cm
Nail hole
Nibs Back
cm
BatPan tiles 35
ten
s
Eaves under Pan tiles
plain tiles Nib
Gutter Ceiling Nail hole
joists
Wall plate
Bed
Reversed
Cross section
Front elevation
a. Plane tiles
Plain tiles measure about 25cm × 15cm to 28cm × 18cm and from 10mm
thick. These may have a continuous projection at one and or two small projecting
nibs (as shown).
23
.5c
m
38cm
Over tiles
Under tiles
Vertical batten
Plain tiles Course
Mangalore tiles
These are flat pattern tiles with suitable key projection. About 16 tiles are
required to cover one square metre of roof. Arrangement of Mangalore tiles on a
sloping roof is shown in Fig.
These nibs should not be less than 2cm wide and 1cm deep. Camber
should be between 5mm and 10mm for hand-made tiles. The camber could be
reduced for machine-made tiles.
Pan tiles
The tiles, as shown in Fig. are curved in section. These are 33cm to 38cm
long and 23cm to 28cm wide. Implements needed for its moulding are a mould, a
horse, a bow and a strike (Figs). For moulding pan tiles a ball of prepared clay is
pressed well to fill all corners of the mould. All surplus earth is cut with the bow
and removed. Strike is then passed over the wet top of tile in mould. It is done so
many times as to render the top surface of tiles smooth. The tile is then carefully
removed and placed over an already burnt tile to dry. After the tile has dried a
little it is then placed on the curved top of horse and pressed with hand to make it
curved. After another five to six hours the raw tile is one again shaped on the
horse and its edges trimmed with a sharp knife. To stop the clay from sticking to
the mould or horse their top is sprinkled over with ash every time before use.
Mould for pan tile Bow Horse Strike
Pot tiles
These are semicircular in section and taper along the length (Fig)
Diameter at larger end is about 23cm and at the smaller end it is about 20cm.
Rows of these tiles are laid with the concave side up. Then rows of same tiles
with convex sides up are laid to cover the adjoining edges of every pair of the
previously laid tiles.
Allahabad tiles
These consist of two sets of tiles. The lower ones are flat tiles with
upturned sides. End widths reduce from 27cm to 23cm and the length is about
38cm. The over tile is half round in section and tapers from 16.5cm to 12cm in
diameter. Taper allows the tile in the next course to fit in (Fig.). Half round tiles
are moulded on a patter’s wheel as a round tapering cylindrical tile. Two
longitudinal cuts are given to the cylinder while still not dry. With this it is easy to
break it into two semicircular tiles after burning.
Projection
Wire
Batten
Concrete roofing tiles

Tiles of any shape size or colour could be made with cement concrete.
These are more strong, durable and weather resistant.
2. Flooring tiles or Paving tiles
These are usually thicker than roofing tiles and vary from 15mm to 30mm
in thickness. Their shapes are square, hexagonal or of any other geometrical
pattern and may be coloured, if desired.
Depending on properties of clay flooring tiles are classified as class 1,
class 2 and class 3 tiles. Maximum water absorption percentages in case of these
are 10, 19 and 24 respectively. Minimum average flexural strength kg/cm width in
respect of these is 6, 3.5 and 2.5 respectively.
3. Drain tiles
These are curved tiles made in various shapes and sized to suit the work in
which they are to be used. Tiles to be used in the construction of sewage carrying
drains should be glazed.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
Encircle the correct statement.
1. First bricks was used with out burning as _______ bricks.
(a) heated dried (b) sun dried
(c) fire dried (d) All of these
2. First class bricks shall be of _______ and _______.
(a) rectangular shape, uniform in size
(b) square shape, long in size
(c) circular in shape,
(d) none of these
3. If first class brick immersed in water for 24 hours, the absorption
shall not exceed _______ weight.
(a) 20% (b) 25%
(c) 15% (d) 16%
4. Crushing strength shall not exceed _______% of second class brick.
(a) 50 kg/cm² (b) 90 kg/cm²
(c) 10 kg/cm² (d) 105 kg/cm²
5. The principal constituent of every kind of brick is
(a) Clay (b) Alumina
(c) Silica (d) a and b
6. Glazed tiles are
(a) Beautiful (b) Durable
(c) impervious (d) All of these
7. For water absorption test, the oven temperature is maintained at

_______ for drying of bricks.
(a) 110 to 115°C (b) 110 to 120°C
(c) 90 to 115°C (d) 120 to 150°C
8. Which is over burnt brick.

(a) jhama (b) pilla (c)3rd class brick (d) fire
brick
9. Crushing strength of second class bricks should not be less than in
kg/cm2
(a) 70 (b) 80 (c) 90 (d) 105
10. Tiles are thin slabs used for _______.
(a) masonry (b) covering mud
(c) covering roof or flooring (d) all of these
11. The natural drying bricks is also called.
(a) Automatric drying (b) Hack drying
(c) Hand drying (d) None of these
12. Fire bricks can resist the temperature upto.

(a) 500℃ (b) 1000℃
(c) 2000℃ (d) 3000℃
13. Clay is also called.
(a) Silica (b) Silt
(c) Iron oxide (d) Alumina
14. A Special type of tile used for paving in parks.

(a) Floor tile (b) Tuff tile
(c) Ceramic tile (d) Glazed tile
15. The frog of a brick is normally made on its:
(a) Longer face (b) Shorter face
(c) Bottom face (d) Top face
Answers
1. b 2. a 3.a 4.d 5.d 6.a 7.a 8.a 9.a 10.c
11.b 12.c 13.d 14.b 15.d
Short Questions
1. What is the main function of brick?
2. Enumerate the ingredients used in manufacturing of brick.
3. What percentage of ingredients is used in bricks?
4. Write the classification of bricks.
5. What are over burnt bricks?
6. Write the formula for water absorption of bricks.
7. What is frog of brick?
8. What is under burnt brick?
9. Enumerate the tests of standard brick.
10. Define a term tile.
11. Enumerate the types of tiles.
12. Give four specifications for first class bricks.
13. State the purpose of providing frog in bricks.
14. What are the four uses of tiles in construction work?

15. State the test for efflorescence for bricks.
16. Give classification of bricks.
17. Enlist types of transparent glazing.
18. What is queen closer?
19. Define fire Bricks?
20. Give three purpose of frog.
Long Questions
1. Enumerate the merits of bricks as building material
2. State the classification of bricks according to specification.
3. Describe the characteristics of good bricks.
4. Explain standard tests of bricks.
5. Describe the common types of tiles and their uses.
Chapter # 2
Stones
 Define the quarrying.
 Explain the method of quarrying.
 State the characteristics of building stones.
 Stat the classification of stone and their uses in different items of
construction.
 Explain the methods of dressing stone.
2.0 Stone
Stone is a natural material of construction and is obtained from quarries. Since
Prehistoric days, it has been used for constructing different components of
buildings like foundations, walls, lintels, floor, roofs etc. It has also been used for
constructing bridges, weirs dams etc. Stones that are used for construction of
structures are known as “building shores.”
Most of the ancient temples and forts of Pakistan were built with stones.
Stones are gradually losing their universal use as a building material because of
the following reasons:-
1. Buildings these days are being constructed of steel or R.C.C because of
their being less bulky, stronger and more durable.
2. Strength of structures made of stones cannot be so rationally analysed as
of those made with steel and R.C.C.
3. Suitable, durable and more easily workable alternative materials are now
available.
4. Stones are not cheaply and conveniently available in the plains.
5. Dressing of stones is time-consuming and results in slow pace of
construction.
2.1 Quarrying
The art of taking stones of various sizes from natural rocks is known as
“quarrying.” Open part of the natural rock from which useful material is obtained
is known as quarry.
Purpose of quarrying is to obtain stones for masonry, for ballast in
concrete, road construction, on railway track or for any other purpose.
Depending upon the nature and structure of rocks and the purpose for
which stones are needed, quarrying is done by one of the following four methods
commonly used:-
1. Excavating.
2. Wedging.
3. Heating.
4. Blasting.
Some important points that should be kept in view for locating of quarry
are as under:-
i. The required building stone should be available in sufficient quantities at
or near the surface of the ground.
ii. Sufficient labour at cheap rates should be locally available.
iii. Power should be cheaply available.
iv. Means of communications should be available.
v. Drainage of rain water should pore no problem.
1. Excavating
The method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried in
earth or under loose over-burden showels, pick axes, hammers and chisels etc.,
are made use of for the purpose.
2. Wedging
This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rock. The operation is
started near a vertical face in the absence of which one is created by cutting a
channel in it. Then 10cm to 15cm deep holes about 10 cm apart are bored or
drilled along the boundary of the slab to be quarried. Steel plugs are then struck
with heavy steel hammers called sledge hammers.
Simultaneously in all the holes in a row use of steel feathers with plugs is
to be preferred. It will split the slab along the line of holes drilled. In case of
softer rocks same result could be achieved by hammering in tightly dry. Wooden
pegs in a row of holes and then pouring water over them. So that they expand on
becoming we there by exerting forces enough to cause a crack along the line of
holes: this operation when repeated all along the periphery would detach the slab.
Sledge hammer blows on wedges placed at the joint of two layers on the exposed
face of rock shall detach the slab completely. It could then be taken away on trolly
or rollers. By this method slabs of required sizes could be quarried with minimum
of wastage. The method is suitable for quarrying costly stratified rocks.
Sledge hamm er
3. Heating
This method is suitable where only smaller blocks of more or less regular
shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal layers of not much
thickness are to be quarried.
It consists in piling a heap of fuel on a small area of the exposed face of
rock and burning a steady fire for some hours. It results in uneven expansion
because of unequal heating of the two layers and consequent separation of the
upper and lower layers. The separation is indicated by a dull bursting sound
separated area can be ascertained by nothing the hollow sound on striking the area
gently with a hammer or with a crowbar.
In Soviet Union, quarrying has successfully been done by heating
intermediate layers electrically which results in the separation of that layer from
the top and bottom layers. This way not only is the work done quickly but also it
becomes more economical.
Feathers
Hole
The loosened portion is then broken into smaller pieces as desired and
removed with pick axes and crowbars. Fairly rectangular blocks required for
coursed rubble masonry could be had by experienced workmen.
4. Blasting
It is quarrying stones with explosives. To blast a rock, a hole is made into
it to the desired depth by means of a jumper everytime after stricking the jumper
into the hole, it is lightly turned to make the hole circular. A little amount of water
is poured in to the hole after every few strokes of the jumper to help its working
various implements used in quarrying are the jumper or boring bar scraping soon,
priming needle and the tamping bar.
Scraping Spoon
Scraping spoon is an iron rod having a circular plate attached to one end
and the other end is provided with a loop to facilitate handling. It is used to take
crushed stone out of the hole.
Priming Needle
Priming needle is a thin copper rod pointed at one end provided with a
loop handle at the other. After filling the hole with explosive, the hole is filled
with tamped earth. This needle is kept in the centre so that on with drawal it
provides a passage for insertion of fuse to cause explosion.
Tamping bar
Tamping bar is a heavy brass rod of 10mm to 15mm in diameter which
tapers a little at ends and is used for tamping the material used for filling the hole.
The diameter and the depth of each hole depends upon the quantity and
nature of rocks to be loosened. The type and the quantity of explosive used.
Hand drilling of holes, as explained above is the most commonly used
method in Pakistan but drilling by machine is done when large quantities of hard
rocks required to be exploded in a short time.
After they have dried, the holes are charged with the right quantity of
explosive to be used. Well greased priming needle is them placed in the hole so
that it projects a little outside the hole. The hole is now filled in layers with burnt
clay powder. Each layer is well tamped with a brass tamping rod before the next
layer is put in.
The tamping rod and the priming needle are not to be of steel a otherwise
they may cause a spark while the tamping is going on and thereby cause an
accident.
While the tamping is going on, the priming needle is turned a little now
and then to keep it loose so that it could be withdrawn after the hole is fully filled
up with temped earth.
Any deficiency left in tamping would cause the explosive to fire back
through the hole it self without releasing sufficient quantity of stone. As such
tamping should be done extremely well. About 2/3rd to 3/4th of the hole, left by
withdrawal of priming needle, is filled with fine grained powder in connection
with which is placed a piece of Bickford’s fuse. Sufficient length of the fuse is left
outside the hole so as to enable the person climbing it to retreat to a place of
safety before the explosion takes place.
Tamped cla y Fuse
Crack
Charge of Expl osives

Rock
Line of le ast
resis tance
Tamping bar
Primary needle
Scraping spoon
Dipper
Jumper
Crowbar
Blunt steel wedge Steel pi n

Tools used in blasting of rocks
2.1.1 Explosive used in quarrying

Commonly used explosives in quarrying are as under:-
i. Blasting powder or gun powder.
ii. Dynamite.
iii. Blasting Cotton.
iv. Cordite.
2.2 Characteristics of building stones
1. Appearance
2. General structure
3. Heaviness
4. Strength
5. Hardness
6. Toughness.
7. Ease of working.
8. Porosity and absorption.
9. Seasoning.
10. Weathering.
11. Resistance to fire.
2.3 Uses of Stones

Stones are extensively used for the following:-
1. As stones ballast for railway track, for road construction, for preparing
Cement Concrete required for foundations, flooring or R.C.C.
2. As crushed stone is used as a substitute for sand.
3. As blocks in the construction of building; lintels, arches, walls or column
etc work of buildings.
4. Thin slabs of impervious stone are used for laying D.P.C in building.
5. As lime stone, it is used in the manufacture of lime, cement and in various
other chemical processes.
2.4 Dressing of Stones

Stones are dressed to give them a definite and regular shape with smooth
faces. The degree to which these objects are achieved depends upon the quality of
masonry work in which the stone is to be used.
Dressing should be done as quickly after quarrying as possible and the
stone should be allowed to season thereafter. Following are the various methods
of dressing which are commonly used:-
1. Pitched faced dressed.
2. Hammer dressed.
3. Rock faced and chisel drafted.
4. Rough tooled.
5. Punched dressed.
6. Close picked dressed.
1. Pitched faced dressed
In it the edges shall be made level to a minimum width of 2.5cm and shall
be absolutely square with the end of the stone. Super flows stone on the face shall
be allowed to remain there and left raised.
2. Hammer dressed
It has no sharp or irregular corners and has comparatively even surface so
as to fit well in masonry. Hammer dressed stone also has rough tooling for a
minimum width of 2.5cm along the four edges of the face of stone.
3. Rock Faced and chisel drafted

It has a minimum 2.5 cm wide chisel draft at the four edges. All the edges
are at the same plane.
4. Rough Tooled
Edges and concerns of it are made perfectly square and true. Rest of it has
series of bands 4 to 5 cm wide, more or less parallel to tool marks all over surface.
D C
A B Rough tooled
Rocked faced & Chisel drafted
5. Punched dressed
A rough tooled surface is further dressed by making parallel cuts with
chisel. When a straight edge is held against its surface a depression of not more
than 2mm is permissible.
Fi g Punched dressed
6. Close Picked dressed

A punched dressed stone is given a further smooth finish with chisel cuts .
Only very small chisel marks are left. Not more than 1mm gap should be left
between the surface and a straight edge held against it. This finish is also known
as sparrow finish.
Fig Cl ose picked dress ed
2.5 Classification of stone

Stones are classified into two categories are as follows;

1. Geological classification.
2. Scientific classification.
1. Geological classification
Stones are derived from rocks, which are classified according to their
geological formation in the following three groups.
a. Igneous rocks
b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic rocks
a. Igneous rocks
are formed by the rapid inside the earth, and are volcanic in their origin.
These rocks are generally strong and durable. Granites and traps belong to this
group.
b. Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks or aqueous rocks are formed by the consolidation of
particles of decayed rock which have been deposited by streams of water.
Lime stone and sand stone are typical examples of such rocks.
c. Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are either igneous or sedimentary in their origin, and
owing to intense pressure or heat, or both, have undergone structural changes in
their form and colour. These rocks are hard and durable. Slates, marbles and
schists are examples of metamorphic rocks.
2. Scientific classification
Building stones are also classified under the following categories,
depending upon their composition.
a. Siliceous stone
b. Argillaceous stone
c. Calcareous stone
a. Siliceous stone
Where the base or principal constituent is silica, e.g sandstone, trap,
granite etc.
b. Argillaceous stone
Where the base is clay e.g laterite, slate, etc.
c. Calcareous stone
Where the base is carbonate of lime e.g Limestone, marble, etc.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Stone is a _______ material of construction.
(a) artificial (b) natural
(c) hand made (d) all of these
2. The art from which we take stones of various sizes is called _______.
(a) quarrying (b) blasting
(c) wedging (d) all of these
3. Excavating, wedging, _______ and blasting are the methods of
quarrying of stones.
(a) crushing (b) grinding
(c) heating (d) none of these
4. Commonly use explosives in quarrying are _______, _______ and
_______.
(a) gunpowder, dynamite (b) gunpowder, cordite
(c) dynamite, cordite (d) all of these
5. Stones are dressed to give them a definite and _______ shape.
(a) smooth (b) irregular
(c) regular (d) all of these
6. Dressing should be done as _______ after quarrying.
(a) quickly (b) lately
(c) slowly (d) none of these
7. Crushing strength of granite stone Kg/cm2

(a) 150-300 (b) 300-1000
(c) 1000-2500 (d) 2500-4000
8. Granite is an example of:
(a) aqueous rocks (b) sedimentary rocks
(c) metamorphic rocks (d) igneous rocks
9. Suitable method of quarrying hard stone at large scale is.
(a) Dressing (b) Burning
(c) Blasting (d) Wedging
10. The stone used for construction of road.
(a) Granite (b) Sand Stone
(c) Marble (d) Laterite
11. The best stone used for heavy construction work.
(a) Granite (b) Sand Stone
(c) Marble (d) Laterite
12. Which of the following is an example of argillaceous rock?
(a) Kaolin (b) Slate
(c) Laterite (d) All of these
13. The specific gravity of stone should no, in any case, be less then:
(a) 1 (b) 1.5
(c) 2 (d) 2.5
14. For the construction of retaining walls, a______ Stone must be used:
(a) Soft (b) Hard
(c) Heavy (d) None of these
15. The specific gravity of sandstone is:

(a) 1.1 to 1.8 (b) 1.8 to 2.65
(c) 2.65 to 2.95 (d) 2.95 to 3.4
Answers
1. b 2.a 3.c 4.d 5.c 6.a 7.c 8.d 9.c 10.d
11.a 12.d 13.d 14.c 15.c
Short Questions
1. What is hardness of stone?
2. Enumerate methods of quarrying of stone.
3. Which are the explosive materials?
4. Write the types of dressing.
5. State the requirements of a good building stone.
6. Enumerate the characteristics of a good building stone.
7. Enlist the different methods used in dressing of stone.
8. Write a short note on dressing of stone.
9. State with reasons the kind of stone you would recommend for use in
construction of external wall.
10. Enlist four explosives used in quarrying of stone.
11. Give four use of Stone.
12. Give use of marble.
13. Give four precautions in blasting for quarrying of stone.
14. What is through stone?
15. Differentiate between quarry and quarrying.

16. Name the types of stones used for civil engineering works.
17. Enlist six qualities in good stone.
Long Questions.
1. Comment on the uses of stones as building material.
2. Define the term quarrying and discuss the methods of quarrying.
3. Explain the methods of quarrying.
4. Mention the characteristics of building stones.
5. Stat the classification of stone and their uses in different items of
construction.
6. Explain the methods of dressing stone.
Chapter # 3
Lime
 State the sources of lime.
 Explain terms, calcinations, slaking and hydraulicity.
 State classification and uses of lime
 Describe the methods of storage of lime.
3.0 Lime
Lime has been used as a cementing material since time immemorial. In
Pakistan up to very recently, lime has been extensively used for all types of
Constructional purposed. Big palaces, forts monuments, temples and bridges etc.,
that were constructed back and that are still existing in perfectly good condition
substantiate that the technique of using Lime for Constructional purposes had
reached perfection in the past Egyptians and Romans made extensive use of lime
with remarkable dexterity. But in recent times cement has replaced the use of lime
to a great extent. Even though cement is a remarkable material of construction yet
lime motars have some peculiarly advantageous properties e.g. good workability
and plasticity, less shrinkage on drying and durability etc. Defects in lime mortar,
particularly its slow setting compared with that of cement could be got rid of by
adding to it a definite proportion of 5 – 20 percent of cement. It should then be
used up with in two to three hours of gauging with cement. Lime is cheaper too
and is locally available.
3.1 Sources of Lime

Fat lime is obtained by burning lime stones which are the purest forms of
calcium carbonate where as the hydraulic Lime is had by burning kankar.
Hydraulicity of Lime obtained from Kankar is because of clay present in
it. Kankar is of two types.
i. Nodular Kankar.
ii. Quarried or Block Kankar.
i. Nodular Kankar
It is found either on the surface or a few feet below surface is alluvial
soils. Knakar found below the soil has better hydraulic properties than
those of the one found on surface. Nodular Kankar is far superior to block
or quarried kankar because of its better hydraulic properties, better
weathering properties and easier collection.
ii. Quarried or block Kankar

It is found in blocks a few feet below ground or on or near the banks of
rivers or their tributaries. Blocks are generally 5 to 30 cm thick. The
principal stages in the manufacture of lime are:-
a. Calcination or burning.
b. Hydration or slacking.
Calcination
This is the heating of lime to redness in air.
Quick Lime
This is the Lime left immediately after calcination of Lime Stone.
Slaking
When water is poured on quick lime it gives rise to heat due to certain
chemical actions, and this process is called slacking.
Slaked Lime
The substance left after slaking quick lime is called slaked Lime; it is also
known as hydrate of Lime
Hydraulicity
This is a comparative term showing the extent to which a paste or mortar
of lime will set under water or in a position where it is not accessible to air.
2.2 Classification
Limes are usually divided into three classes: -
i. Fat, rich or high calcium lime.
ii. Lean Lime.
iii. Hydraulic Lime.
i. Fat Lime
It is the lime which has a high calcium oxide content and is dependent for
setting and hardening solely on the absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere. It
contains about 93% calcium oxide and les than 5% impurities. Such as Silica and
Alumina. It is obtained by calcining the purest available calcium carbonate. On
Calcination CO2 is driven off leaving behind quick lime. Addition of water breaks
up lumps of quick lime to powder, gives out considerable heat and swells to two
to three times of its original volume giving fat lime. It is slow in setting and takes
much times in hardening. It is used for plastering and white washing. It is not
suitable for being used as mortar because of poor, strength and slow hardening.
Their properties are similar to those of fat lime but slake with difficulty as such
their slaking needs more care.
ii. Lean Lime

It contains more than 5% of clayey impurities because of which it takes
longer to slake than fat Lime. It sets and hardens slowly. It is used both for plaster
and lime mortar.
iii. Hydraulic Lime
Unlike pure and lean limes which set only by absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere this class of lime sets even under water, hence the name ‘hydraulic
lime’.
It is used in building works where strength is required. It is not suited for
use in plastering because any unslaked particle may slake after a long time
resulting in blistering of plaster. Lime stones from which hydraulic lime is
obtained contain varying proportion of Silica and alumina in addition to calcium
carbonate on calcinations of these stones CO2 escapes leaving behind quick lime
which react with Silica and alumina forming Silicates and aluminates of lime. On
addition of water to the finely ground lime chemical action starts among its
constituents resulting in its setting and hardening.
Depending upon the amount of Silica and alumina present in hydraulic
lime it is Sub-divided into thee classes.
a. Fee by hydraulic Lime
It contains less than 15% Silica and alumina . Increase in volume on
slaking is small. Rate of slaking is very slow.
b. Moderately hydraulic lime
It contain 15 to 25% Silica and alumina. There is a little increase in
volume on slaking. Rate of Slaking is slow.
c. Eminently hydraulic lime
Its composition is very similar to that of ordinary Portland cement. It
contains 25 to 30% Silica and alumina. It must be very finely ground and
screened before use otherwise the coarse particles are likely to slake after
use.
2.3 Uses of Lime

For constructional purposes lime is chiefly used:-
i. As a matrix for concrete
ii. To make mortar for laying brick or stone masonry.
iii. For plastering walls of building.
iv. For white washing.
v. Use of various sanitary purpose.
vi. Use for manufacture of cement.
vii. For works of under water.
2.4 Storage
If slaked lime is to be stored only for a few days then it may be stored on a
platform suitably protected from sun and rain by covering. Storage for a period
not exceeding two months may by done in dry and closed go downs.
Lime putty should, however be stored under water. Putty of class C and D
Lime may be kept stored up to 15 days whereas that of Class B and E Lime
should immediately be used after preparation. If it has to be kept for a longer
period then it must be stored in closed Store-houses properly insulated against the
access of moisture from atmosphere.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Lime has been used as a _______ material since time immemorial.
(a) coloring (b) cementing
(c) special (d) none of these
2. Fat lime is obtained by burning _______.
(a) lime stone (b) Igneous stone
(c) sand stone (d) all of these
3. _______ is the heating of lime to redness in air.
(a) hydraulicity (b) slaking
(c) calcination (d) all of these
4. _______ contains more than 5% of clayey impurities.
(a) Lean lime (b) hydraulic lime
(c) fat lime (d) none of these
5. Such lime is considered batter for masonry work.
(a) Fat (b) Hydraulic
(c) Slacked (d) All of these
6. Limes occurs in a free state in nature:
(a) Poor lime (b) rich lime
(c) hydraulic lime (d) limestone
7. The fuel generally used for burning limestone is:
(a) Coal (b) Charcoal
(c) Firewood (d) Any one of these
8. The lime suitable for white washing.

(a) Fat (b) Hydraulic
(c) White (d) a and c
9. Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning of.

(a) Fat lime (b) Poor lime
(c) White lime (d) All of these
10. Rich lime is also known as
(a) Fat lime (b) Volumic lime
(c) White lime (d) All of these
11. Quick lime is also known as,
(a) Fat lime (b) Hydraulic lime
(c) White lime (d) Calcinated
12. Burning of lime is known as,
(a) slacking (b) calcination
(c) Firing (d) All of these
13. Adding water to quick lime is known as,
(a) Slacking (b) Calcination
(c) Firing (d) All of these
14. Fat lime may contain clay and other impurities less then
(a) 2% (b) 5%
(c) 8% (d) 10%
15. The lime mortar is made from
(a) Quick lime (b) Fat lime
(c) Lean lime (d) Hydraulic lime
Answers
1. b 2.c 3.c 4.c 5.b 6.b 7.d 8.a 9.b 10.d
11.d 12.d 13.a 14.b 15.d
Short Questions
1. What is a lime?
2. State classification of lime.
3. Enlist uses of lime.
4. Enumerate main properties of lime.
5. Define slaking of lime.
6. Define hydraulicity.
7. How would you slake time to powder?
8. What do you understand by quick lime?
9. Give two points of difference between fat lime and hydraulic lime.
10. Write short note on storage of lime.
11. State the sources of lime.
12. Define calcination.
14. Define lime.
15. Enumerate four uses of lime.
16. Write classification of lime.
17. Give two main properties of lime.
18. Define hydraulic lime.
19. What do you understand by Quick Lime?

20. What is fat lime?
21. How lime is Slaked?
Long Questions
1. State the sources of lime.
2. Explain terms, calcinations, slaking and hydraulicity.
3. State classification and uses of lime.
4. Describe the methods of storage of lime.
Chapter # 4
Cement
 Explain the types of cement their uses.
 Explain the methods of storage of cement under various situations.
4.0 Cement
It is a binding material, commonly used for normal construction work and
is known as ordinary Portland cement. However, for use under specific conditions
a variety of cements are available these days..Its quick setting property, strength
and ease with which it can be used under various conditions has revolutionized
the concept of construction and made it the most popular cementing material. It
was first of all introduced in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a brick layer of Leads,
England. On setting, the colour of cement resembles the colour of rocks near
Portland in England and hence the name of this cement.
4.1 Composition
Approximate composition of raw materials used for manufacturing
ordinary Portland cement is:-
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 60 to 65%
Silicia (SiO2) 20 to 25%
Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 4 to 8%
Ferrous Oxide (Fe2O3) 2 to 4 %
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1 to 3 %
All above compounds under go some chemical combinations during the
process of burning and fusion. Main constituents of cement are : -
Tri- Calcium Silicate (3 CaO. SiO2)

Di- Calcium Silicate (2 CaO. SiO2)
Tri- Calcium Aluminate (3Cao. Al2O3)
Tri- Calcium Silicate is the best cementing material and the more its is
present in cement the better the cement is.
4.2 Types of Cement

Following are some of the important kinds of cements manufactured to
suit the different requirements.
1. Puzzolan
2. Natural Cement.
3. Portland Cement.
4. Rapid Hardening Cement.
5. Quick- Setting Cement.
6. Coloured Cement.
7. Air Entraining Cement.
8. Sulphate Resisting Cement.
9. Expanding Cement.
10. Low heat Cement.
11. High Alumina cement.
12. White Portland Cement.
1. Puzzolan
Puzzolan cement is made by incorporating hydrated lime with a Siliceous
material, such as slag etc. This type of cement is not strong and reliable and is no
longer in use.
2. Natural Cement
This is also known as ‘Roman Cement’; it is made from rocks which are
clay and limestone in composition and which are burnt to a temperature.
Just sufficient to drive off the carbonic acid gas. The clinker so formed is
finely pulverized and the product obtained is similar to strong hydraulic lime
which does not slake. Natural Cement have a relatively low strength (about 40%
of Portland Cement), but are quite suitable for use in mortar for ordinary masonry
work. These cements are not used in Pakistan.
3. Portland Cement
The chief material used in this carbonate of Calcium containing about
25% of clay materials. For common purposes the cement use is called ordinary
Portland cement. This cement consist of approx 95% of clinker and 5% of other
ingredients. For preparation of Clinker the quantity of lime is greater than double
quantity of SiO.
4. Rapid hardening Cement
It is also known as high early strength Cement. As the name implies, this
type of cement sets and hardens in a much shorter time than ordinary Portland
cement. The increase in strength of rapidly hardening cement at the early stages is
due to finer grinding, burning at a higher temperature and the higher content of
lime. It is comparatively costly.
5. Quick-Setting Cement
This has the property of setting initially after about 5 minutes and finally
setting in only 30 minutes. The quick setting action of this Cement is a
disadvantage in normal working, because the time is too short to ensure the proper
mixing and lying of Concrete.
However, its use becomes unavoidable for work in running water.
6. Coloured Cement
Cement can be made in a variety of colours and shades by adding suitable
pigments, which are incorporated in the cement by grinding the two together in a
ball mill. For light shades white cement is used. The proportion of pigments used
is about 5 to 10% iron oxide is generally used as pigment to give a red, yellow or
brown colours, while cobalt gives blue and chromium imparts a green colour.
7. Air Entraining Cement

Certain resinous materials e.g vinsol resin, may be added to ordinary
cement. The cement so mixed is called air entraining cement’. Air bubbles are
formed when it is mixed with water for making concrete. This method makes the
concrete more resistant to fire and frost, but reduces the strength of the cement by
about 10%.
8. Sulphate Resisting Cement
This is a modified form of ordinary cement used in work where the soiled
and water coming into contact with the structure contain sulphates of various
minerals. It develops strength slowly, but ultimately it is as strong as ordinary
Portland Cement.
9. Expanding Cement
In this cement certain chemicals are added which cause its expansion by a
predetermined amount during setting, and this expansion is more than the
shrinkage of ordinary cement concrete. This property is utilized for preventing
cracks caused by shrinkage. It is very useful for works of under pinning.
10. Low Heat Cement

In very massive structures, such as dams, the heat of hydration produced
by the setting of the cement cannot be easily dissipated; this causes cracks due to
shrinkage. Low heat cement is, therefore, used where it has to develop its ultimate
strength slowly. However, it ultimately becomes as strong as ordinary Cement. It
has a smaller lime content than Portland cement.
11. High Alumina Cement

Also called ‘Cement fondu’. This is made by mixing bauxite used should
not contain less than 35% alumina. Cement produced by this method hardens very
quickly and develops strength very early. Its initial setting time is 3.5 hours and
the final setting time is 4 to 5 hours. It is comparatively costly cement. As it gives
out great heat during setting, it cannot be used for massive structures.
12. White Portland Cement
This is ordinary Portland Cement with the difference that is colour is pure
white. It is about 4 to 6 times more costly than ordinary cement, and is used
mostly for the manufacture of encaustic tiles etc, which are often required to be of
a light colour. The whiteness of the cement is due to the absence of iron oxide
which, when present, is the chief cause of imparting colour to cement. Therefore,
the materials used for the manufacture of white cement should have an extremely
low content of iron.
4.3 Storage
Portland cement is a finely ground material. It therefore, readily absorbs
moisture even from the atmosphere. It is therefore, essential to protect if from
dampness during storage. Lack of proper care may cause setting of cement or
reduction in its strength due to partial setting. Following precautions must as such
be taken in storing cement.
i. Walls, roof and floor of the building in which cement is to be stored
should be completely waterproof.
ii. Doors and windows should be properly fitted and should be kept shut.
iii. Bags should be piled close together.
iv. Except in case of dry concrete floor the cement bags should be stacked on
wooden planks.
v. For temporary storage of cement at site of work, bags should not be
stacked on the ground. Minimum number of bags needed should be piled
upon raised dry platform and covered with trapaulins.
vi. In case the cement store in newly constructed then its interior should have
been thoroughly dried before cement is stored in it.
vii. The bags should be stacked away from walls. A space of 25cm all around
should be left between the exterior walls and the piles.
viii. Bags should be piled in header stretcher fashion and not more than 15
bags high.
ix. While removing cement from store do not take out bags from one tier
only. Step back two or three tiers.
x. Each incoming consignment should be stacked separately and a placard
bearing date of arrival of the consignment should be pinned to it.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. The maximum percentage of ingredient in cement is that of
(a) Magnesium (b) Alumina
(c) Silica (d) Lime
2. Cement is firstly introduced in _______.
(a) 1920 (b) 1900
(c) 1824 (d) 1885
3. Weight of one bag of cement is______ Kg.
(a) 30 (b) 50
(c) 70 (d) 100
4. Natural cement is also known as _______.
(a) Italian cement (b) Portland cement
(c) Roman cement (d) all of these
5. Quick-setting cement has the property of _______.
(a) setting finally (b) setting slowly
(c) setting initially (d) setting rapidly
6. For common purposes the cement use is called _______.
(a) natural cement (b) ordinary Portland cement
(c) quick setting (d) none of these
7. Rapid hardening cement is also known as _______.

(a) high early strength cement
(b) ordinary Portland cement
(c) Roman cement
(d) all of these
8. OPC stands for
(a) Ordinary Pakistani Cement (b) Ordinary Portland
cement
(c) Ordinary Pacca Cement (d) none of these
9. The silica in Portland cement should be
(a) 10 to 20 % (b) 20 to 25 %
(c) 25 to 40 % (d) 40 to 60 %
10. The cementing property of cement id mainly due to.
(a) Clay (b) Lime
(c) Chalk (d) Ferrous oxide
11. A good quality cement should have higher percentage of
(a) Silica (b) Free lime
(c) Di-Calcium (d) Tri- Calcium
12. The expansions of cement should not exceed for any types of Portland
cement.
(a) 5mm (b) 10mm
(c) 15mm (d) 20mm
13. The normal constancy of Portland cement is about.
(a) 10% (b) 15%
(c) 20% (d) 25%
14. After storage, the Strength

(a) Increase (b) Decrease
(c) Improve (d) Damage
15. Clinker is formed at a temperate in C.
(a) 300 - 500 (b) 500 - 700
(c) 700 - 1200 (d) 1200 - 2000
Answers
1. d 2.c 3.b 4.b 5.d 6.b 7.a 8.b 9.b 10.b
11.d 12.d 13.d 14.b 15.c
Short Questions
1. Define Portland cement.
2. State chief composition of cement.
3. What is the purpose of adding gypsum?
4. Differentiate between quick setting and rapid hardening cement.
5. Differentiate between initial setting and final setting of cement.
6. What is the chief composition of Portland cement?
7. Write shortly on quick setting cement.
8. Where rapid hardening cement is suitable?
9. What precautions would you take in storing of cement?
10. Enumerate purpose of adding gypsum.
11. How much quantity of ingredients is present in cement?
12. State the uses of white Portland cement.
13. What is low heat cement?

14. Define cement?
15. Give uses of cement?
16. What is meant by water proofing cement?
17. Name four types of cement?
18. What is slag cement?
Long Questions
1. Explain the types of cement and their uses.
2. Explain the methods of storage of cement under various situations.
3. Mention the precautions while storing cement.
Chapter # 5
Sand
 State the classification of sand and uses.
 Describe the grading of sand.
 Explain the bulking of sand.
5.0 Sand
It consists of small grains of silica and is formed by the disintegration of
rocks caused by weather.
5.1 Qualities of good sand

i. Good sand should have coarse and angular grains of pure silica.
ii. The grains of sand should be hard, strong and durable.
iii. It should be free from silt, clay or any such salts that may hamper setting
or attack the reinforcement.
iv. It should not contain any organic matter.
v. It should be well graded.
vi. It should not contain any hygroscopic matter.
5.2 Classification and sources

Depending upon the source from which sand is obtained it is classified as;
i. Pit sand
ii. River sand
iii. Sea sand
i. Pit sand
It is found as deposits in soil and has to be excavated out grains of it are
generally sharp and angular. If free from organic matter and clay, it is extremely
good for use in mortar and concrete.
ii. River sand

It is obtained from the banks and beds of rivers. It may be fine or coarse.
There are chances of fine sand having silt and as such it should be washed before
use. Coarse sand is generally clean and is excellent for all purposes e.g Ravi sand,
Chenab sand.
iii. Sea sand

It consists of fine rounded grains of brown colour and is collected from
sea-beach. It usually contains salt which attracts moisture from the atmosphere
and causes disintegration of the work in which it is used. It could be used locally
after it has been thoroughly washed to remove the salts.
Crushed stone
It is obtained by crushing waste stone of quarries to the particle size of
sand. Stone crushed from a good quality stone is an excellent fine aggregate.
5.3 Bulking of sand

Volume of sand fluctuates with the variations in its moisture content.
When the sand (fine aggregate) is wet then each particle gets a coating of water
which due to surface tension keeps them apart there by causing an increase in the
volume of sand. This increase in volume due to the sand being wet is known as
“Bulking of sand.”
Bulking increases gradually with the increase in moisture contents. At four
percent moisture content by weight, the increase in volume is about 25 percent. It
then decreases with the increase in moisture till it becomes zero when the water is
more than 20 percent.
Bulking is more in finer sands than in the coarser one. In measuring sand
by volume its bulking due to moisture content should be taken note of.
5.4 Impurities in sand

Clay, silt, salts, mica and organic matter are the main impurities in sands.
Sand should also be free from shells, wood particles, etc. It is sometimes specified
that the sum of all impurities should not exceed 5 per cent. Presence of large
percentage of mica reduces the strength of mortar or concrete made from such
sand. Generally, a maximum of 8 per cent silt and 2 to 3 per cent of mica are
allowed in sand for mortar and concrete.
5.5 Classification of sand for making concrete

Depending on the percentage of the various sizes of sand present in a
sample, sand for making concrete is grouped into five zones–Zone I to
Zone V (very coarse to very very fine as given in Table 6.1). This table
can also be represented as grading curves as shown in fig.
Grading of fine aggregates for concrete–Zones I to V
I.S.Sieve No. 7 14 25 52 100
I.S.Sieve size Millimetre Microns
10 4.75 2.36 1.18 600 300 150
Very coarse 100 90–100 60–95 30–70 15–34 5–20 0–10

(Zone I)
Coarse (Zone II) 100 90–100 75–100 55–90 35–59 8–30 0–10
Fine (Zone III) 100 90–100 85–100 75–100 60–79 12–41 0–10
Very fine (Zone 100 90–100 90–100 90–100 80–100 15–50 0–15
IV)
Zone V 100 100 85–100 65–95 0–60
Most of the particles in sand pass 4.75mm or say 5mm. As can be seen in
Fig. 7.1, the main criterion for division into coarse and fine can be taken as
0.6mm in size. If major part is above 0.6mm in size, then it is called coarse sand.
If major part is below 0.6mm in size, then we can call it fine sand. (Particles that
can not been by naked eye is silt).
In soil mechanics also, we consider sands as those particles which pass
through 4.75mm and those which retain on 0.075mm. Sand is further divided in
soil mechanics by examining the particle sizes as follows.
Coarse sand: 4.5mm to 2.0mm

Medium sand: 2.0mm to 0.425mm
Fine sand: 0.425mm to 0.075mm
A given specimen of sand is to be classified in visual identification as
coarse, medium or fine depending on whether the major part of its particles is
coarse, medium or fine.
SAND
Fine Medium Coarse
0.075 0.425 2.0 4.5mm
SAND
Fine Medium Coarse
0.075 0.425 2.0 4.5mm
Sand for concrete work

Very fine sands (Zone IV and V sands of Table) are not recommended for
structural concrete unless field tests show that they can be used. Very coarse sand
shows difficulties in surface finishing of concrete but provides good strength. Fine
sand provides more cohesion than coarse sand and hence, less sand will be needed
if fine sand is used. While making concrete, coarse aggregates from rocks (of
irregular size) will need more sand than rounded coarse aggregates such as river
gravel. In most of the cases, the concrete mix can be designed to fit the available
sand and coarse aggregates.
Grading of sand for Masonry Mortars and Plasters
I.S.Sieve Mortars I.S. 2116–1980 Plasters I.S. 1542–1977

% passing % passing
4.75 mm 100 95–100
2.36 mm 90–100 95–100
1.18 mm 70–100 90–100
600micron 40–100 80–100
300 micron 5–70 20–65
150 micron 0–15 0–50
Sand for filling

Sand is also used in building construction for filling underground floors
and also filling behind retaining walls, etc. In each situation, it should satisfy the
specific requirements for its use. Sand used for filling underground floors has to
reduce the capillary suction by which water will travel from foundation soil to the
floor. This will require coarse sand with large voids between the grains. On the
other hand, for sand required for filling behind retaining walls, the only
requirement is that it should be free draining and non-expansive. Most of the
sands are not expansive as they get saturated at low water content. Thus, most of
the free draining sands are suitable for general filling purposes.
6.6 Bulking and test for bulking of sand

Compared to its dry or completely saturated volume, moist fine aggregate
tends to increase in volume on rehandling due to capillary effect. The capillary
action between sand particles does not allow the particles to come closer to each
other. This is called bulking of sand and the amount of bulking or increase in
volume depends on the moisture content of the sand. In completely dry or wet
state, there is no capillary action and hence, there will be no bulking when the
sand is dry or completely saturated. Hence, a correction must be made for the
volume of the sand when it is measured by volume in the moist state for use in
making concrete. For a moisture content of 5 to 8 per cent, the bulking can be as
much as 20 to 40 per cent depending on the sand. Bulking is not considered when
sand is measured by weight.
EXERCISE
M.C.Q.s
1. Sand consists of small grains of _______.
(a) alumina (b) Silica
(c) Carbon (d) all of these
2. Good sand should have _______ and _______ grains of pure silica for
concrete
(a) fine, smooth (b) coarse, angular
(c) smooth, angular (d) fine, angular
3. River sand obtained from the _______and _______ of rivers.
(a) banks, bed (b) banks, mid
(c) bed, corners (d) corner, mid
4. _______ is obtained by waste stone of quarries to the particle size of
sand.
(a) silt (b) clay
(c) crushed stone (d) none of these
5. The increase in volume due to the sand being wet is known as
_______.
(a) segregation (b) grading of sand
(c) bulking of sand (d) none of these
6. Fine sand should be washed before use to remove.
(a) Organic matters (b) Dust
(c) Harmless Salt (d) All of these
7. Sea sand containing salts should not be used in.
(a) P.C.C (b) R.C.C
(c) Pre-cast concrete (d) All of these

8. When dry sand is moistured, it increases is its volume, this is called
(a) Slacking (b) Washing
(c) bulking (d) Dampness
9. Size of fine aggregate is.
(a) 5.75mm (b) below 4.75mm
(c) 6.75mm (d) above 4.75mm
10. Size of coarse aggregate is.
(a) 4.75mm (b) below 4.75mm
(c) 6.75mm (d) above 4.75mm
11. Sand is suitable for concrete work.
(a) Fine sand (b) coarse sand
(c) Medium sand (d) graded sand
12. Maximum bulking of sand takes place at about such % of moisture
content
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
13. To test sand against organic matters 3% solution of used.
(a) castic soda (b) calcium oxide
(c) Sodium sulphate (d) Sulphuric acid
14. ________aggregates contain different size practical in suitable
proportion
(a) Well graded (b) Unigraded
(c) Poorly graded (d) None of these
Answers
1. b 2.b 3.a 4.c 5.c 6.d 7.d 8.c 9.b 10.d
11.d 12.d 13.a 14.a
Short Questions
1. Define sand.
2. What are the sources of sand?
3. What is bulking of sand?
4. Why grading of sand is important?
5. Why sea sand is harmful for construction?
6. What is river sand?
7. What is pit Sand?
8. Name classification of sand according to grading sand.
9. Define coarse sand?
10. Define medium sand?
11. Give four Purpose of sand?
12. How sand is tested?
13. What is Gravel?
14. Enlist types of fine aggregate.
15. Give uses of sand?
16. Different between fine aggregates and course aggregates?
17. Enlist of four qualities of good sand.
Long Questions
1. Define sand and write down the qualities of good sand.
2. State the classification of sand and uses.
3. Describe the grading of sand.

4. Explain the bulking of sand.
5. Mention the use of sand in civil engineering works.
Chapter # 6
Mortars
 State the classification of mortars.
 State the different proportions of mortars for various works.
 State the functions of mortars.
 Explain the methods of preparation of mortars.
6.0 Mortar
Mortar may be defined as a paste formed by mixing water, fine aggregate
and a binding material in a specified proportion. This paste hardens on drying and
binds the bricks, stones and concrete blocks together.
6.1 Classification of Mortars

Different mortars that are in common use are:-
1. Lime mortars
2. Cement mortars.
3. Lime Cement mortars.
4. Mud Mortars.
1. Lime Mortars
Lime mortar may be, lime and sand mortar, lime and surkhi mortar, lime
sand and surkhi mortar.
Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar to be used for plastering and
hydranlic lime in preparing mortar for use in masonry Construction. For strength,
coarse and well graded sand should be used. A poor sand could be used for non-
load bearing work.
Preparation and Mixing

Measured quantities of aggregate and slaked lime in the form of powder
are placed on a masonry platform. The constituents are first mixed dry by turning
them over three or four times with spades. Then the mixing is continued, after
adding water, till a mortar of uniform color and consistency is obtained.
2. Lime Cement Mortars

It is also known as composite mortar, when lime mortar made form fat
lime is desired to be improved, with regard to its initial setting time then cement is
added to it. Cement should be added only to that much lime mortar which can be
used within two hours of the addition of cement.
Mixing
Cement, sand and slaked lime in required proportions are first mixed dry.
Water is then added and mixing continued till a paste of uniform colour and
consistency is obtained.
3. Cement Mortar
It is far stronger than lime mortar and is therefore preferred for use in the
construction of structures subject to heavier pressures. Cement mortars gives
excellent compressive strengths when coarse clean sand is used. Addition of extra
water leads to segregation and to loss of cement and non-uniformity in the
material. It also increases shrinkages and reduces bond strength and adhesiveness.
Thus, affecting its resistance against water penetration and ultimate strength.
Mixing
Clean dry sand is spread in a uniform layer on a platform on it the
requisite quantity of Cement is spread in a uniform layer. Then it is mixed dry by
working it over with spades two or three times till the whole mass becomes of a
uniform colour.
Then the depression is made in the middle of it where-in the required

quantity of water is added. Dry material from sides is placed on the edge of
depression containing water. It is done gradually till the whole of water has been
absorbed by the dry mass. Care is taken not to let the water breach the banks and
flow out.
4. Mud Mortars
The paste prepared by mixing a suitable clayey soil with water is called
mud mortar.
The soil which is used for preparing mud mortar should be free from
grass, pebbles etc. These are the cheapest mortars but are weaker in strength.
These mortars and generally used for brick work of ordinary buildings and
for plastering walls in rural areas.
Mixing
Mud mortar is generally prepared from the clayey soil locally available at
the site of work. The common practice is to remove the layer earth up to 200 to
300mm depth and the soil lying below this level is dug out. If suitable soil is not
available at site of work, then the same is to be brought from a site nearest
possible. All the lumps of earth are broken and then Sufficient quantity of water is
added and left for a day or so. The whole mass is then thoroughly mixed by
adding required quantity of water and overturning with shovel, so as to make the
mortar of proper consistency.
Different proportions of Mortars for various works.
Sr. No. Name of work Type of proportions of mortars
1. Very heavily stressed members of 1:1 cement sand Mortar

structure
2. General R.C.C works such as 1:2 Cement Sand mortar

slabs, beam and columns pointing
or plastering
3. Masonry work below ground 1:3 lime sand mortar

level, especially in water logged
areas
4. External plaster below damp 1 cement, 1 lime, 6 sand

proof course
5. Internal plaster on all walls 1:2 Lime Sand mortar or 1

Cement, 2 lime, 9 Sand.
6.2 Functions of Mortar

The following are the functions of mortar:
1. To bind together the bricks or stones properly so as to provide strength to
the structure.
2. To form a bonded mass of the structure so as to resist all the loads coming
over it without disintegration.
3. To provide a weather resisting i.e. a durable layer between the different
courses of masonry in the structure.
4. To hold coarse aggregate together in any concrete so as to form a solid
mass. The mortar used in a concrete is termed as matrix.
5. To do pointing and plastering to the structure. The mortar used for
plastering is also known as plaster.
6. To fill up empty joints in brick masonry and stone masonry. The mortar
used for such purposes is a thin liquid mortar which is termed as grout.
The process of filling up the joints with a grout is called grouting.
6.3 Preparation of Mortars

The art of mixing different ingredient of a mortar in suitable proportions in
addition to water to form a paste of proper consistency is called preparation of
mortar.
6.3.1 Methods of preparation

There are commonly two method of preparation of mortars:-
1. Hand Mixing.
2. Machine Mixing.
1. Hand Mixing
This method is generally adopted when a small quantity of mortar is
required at a time. In this method, first of all a none-porous platform is prepared
near the Site of works. The Sand is measured in dry state in the specified
proportions and is laid on the platform in the form of a heap. The material is
evenly spread over the sand. After this both these ingredients are mixed in dry
state by overturning with shovels 2 or 3 times until its colour becomes uniform. A
depression is then formed in the centre of the mortar mix. Water is added to this
dry mix. The whole mass is again turned over twice or thrice to form a uniform
mixture of required consistency. Nearly 28 litres of water per bag of Cement is
required for making the mortar of suitable consistency. Cement mortar should be
prepared in small quantities which can be used before the initial setting time of
the cement which is 30 minutes.
2. Machine Mixing
This method is used when large quantity of the mortar is required
continuously at fast rate. In this method, mixing of the ingredients of mortar is
done in machine which is known as mixer. Ingredients in specified proportions

are put into the drum of the mixer and then required quantity of water is added
immediately before revolving the drum. After this, the drum is revolved for a
sufficient period to form uniform mixture of required consistency.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Mortar may be defined as a _______ formed by mixing, water,
aggregates and binding material.
(a) liquid (b) paste
(c) solid (d) product
2. Lime, Cement, and Lime surkhi mortar is a type of _______.
(a) composite mortar (b) white mortar
(c) stake mortar (d) none of these
3. _______ is used to prepare mortar to be used for plastering.
(a) slaked fat lime (b) gypsum
(c) concrete (d) all of these
4. The art of mixing different ingredients of a mortar in suitable
proportions is called _______.
(a) segregation (b) moulding
(c) preparation of mortar (d) none of these
5. Hand mixing is generally adopted when _______ quantity of mortar is
required.
(a) small (b) high
(c) moderate (d) all of these
6. Sand is used in mortars to reduce _______ of the binding material.
(a) volume (b) strength
(c) shrinkage (d) all of these
7. In cement mortar, cement act a______ material.

(a) Filler (b) Binder
(c) Inert (d) Remover
8. In cement mortar, sand act as_____.
(a) Filler (b) Inert
(c) Binder (d) Remover
9. Fineness modules of sand suitable for making mortar for plastering.
(a) 1-2 (b) 2-3
(c) 4-5 (d) 5-6
10. To gain better strength such sand is considered suitable for preparing
mortar.
(a) Fine (b) Course
(c) Medium (d) Graded
11. Suitable ratio of cement mortar inside plaster
(a) 1:2 (b) 1:3
(c) 1:4 (d) 1:5
12. Cement plaster should be cured at least for
(a) 9 days (b) 10 days
(c) 15 days (d) 28 days
13. Inert material in cement mortar is.
(a) Fine aggregate (b) Cement
(c) Water (d) None of above
14. Process of making the background rough for plastering.
(a) Hacking (b) Dubbing
(c) Peeling (d) Priming
15. The Recommended time minutes for mixing the mortar by machine is.
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
Answers
1. b 2. b 3.a 4.c 5.a 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.b 10.d
11.d 12.b 13.a 14.a 15.a
Short Questions
1. Define the term mortar.
2. Discuss two uses of mortar in Construction works.
3. Give at least two functions of Sand in mortar.
4. State the method of preparing lime mortar.
5. What do you understand by “Grout”?
6. State the function of mortar.
7. Give some precautions to be taken while using mortars.
8. State confirmation of mortar.
9. State merits of cement lime mortar.
10. What is the effect of adding lime to cement mortar?
11. Enumerate various mortars commonly used in building works.
12. State the requirements of a good mortar.
13. Enumerate different ingredients of mortar.
14. Define mortar?
15. Give Purpose of mortars
16. What are different types of mortars?

17. How mud mortar is prepared?
18. How cement mortar is prepared?
19. How lime mortar is prepared?
20. What is functions of sand in mortar?
Long Questions.
1. State the classification of mortars.
2. State the different proportions of mortars for various works.
3. State the functions of mortars.
4. Explain the methods of preparation of mortars.
Chapter # 7+
Concrete and Concreting Operations
 Define the concrete, types of concrete.
 State the ingredients of plain and reinforced concrete.
 State the proportions of plain and reinforced concrete for different types
of work.
 Describe methods of batching by weight by volume.
 Explain the procedure of hand and machine mixing.
 State the types of concrete mixers.
 Explain the various method of transportation of fresh concrete.
 Explain various methods of compacting concrete hand, vibrators.
 Explain methods of concrete finishing.
 Describe objects of curing and methods of curing.
 Explain the needs of joints in curing.
7.1 Concrete
An artificial stone resulting from hardening of a mixture of a binding
material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water in suitable proportions is
called Concrete.
Good concrete for economical results, can be made with materials, a bulk
of which are generally obtainable near the Site Clean sand, strong coarse
aggregate and good Portland Cement are necessary for making good Concrete.
These materials are to be mixed in the proportions which will produce Concrete
having the necessary strength and other properties Combined with the greatest
economy.
7.2 Types of Concrete

Concrete are classified into different types as follows.
1. According to binding material used in the preparation of Concrete.
2. According to design of Concrete.
3. According to purpose of Concrete.
1- Classification according to the binding material
According to the binding material used, Concretes are classified into two
types as described below.
i. Cement Concrete
ii. Lime Concrete
i. Cement Concrete
The concrete consisting of Cement, sand and Coarse aggregate mixed in a
suitable proportion in addition to water is called Cement Concrete. Cement is
used as a binding material, Sand and crushed stone as aggregate.
Uses
Cement Concrete is Commonly only used for buildings and other
important engineering works where Strength and durability are of prime
importance.
2. Lime Concrete
The Concrete consisting of Lime, a fine aggregate and a coarse aggregate
mixed in a suitable proportion in addition to water is called Lime Concrete. In this
type of Concrete hydraulic Lime is generally used as a binding material.
Uses
Lime Concrete is generally used for the Sake of economy in foundation
works, under floors over roofs etc. and where Cement is not cheaply and easily
available in required quantity.
2. Classification according to design
According to the design Concrete is classified into the three types;
i. Plain Cement Concrete (P.C.C)
ii. Re-inforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C)
iii. Pre-stressed Cement Concrete
i. Plain Cement Concrete
The Cement Concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called a
plain Cement Concrete.
This type of Cement Concrete is strong in taking compressive stresses but
is weak in taking tensile or shear stresses.
Uses
P.C.C is commonly used for foundation work and flooring of buildings.
ii. Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C)
The Cement Concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for taking
tensile, excessive compressive or shear stresses is called reinforced Cement
Concrete.
The steel reinforcement to be used is generally in the form of round bars.
Uses
R.C.C is commonly used for construction of slabs, lintels, beams, columns
and their footings.
iii.. Pre-stressed Cement Concrete

The Cement Concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially
induced before their actual use is called Pre-stressed Cement Concrete.
Uses:
Where high stresses develop and it is uneconomical to use ordinary
reinforced Cement Concrete.
3. Classification according to Purpose.

Classified into following types describe below:-
i. Vacuum Concrete
ii. Air-entrained Concrete
iii. Light Weight Concrete
iv. Sawdust Concrete
v. High early strength Concrete
vi. White and coloured Concrete
i. Vacuum Concrete
The Cement Concrete from which entrained air and excess water are
removed after placing it, by suction with the help of a vacuum pump is called
Vacuum Concrete.
Uses
The Concrete can be used for all reinforced concrete works with better
results.
ii. Air-entrained Concrete
The Cement Concrete prepared by mixing aluminium in it is called air-
entrained Concrete.
Uses
This Concrete is used in lining Walls and roofs, for heat and Sound
insulaton purposes.
iii. Light Weight Concrete:
The Concrete prepared by using coke-breeze, cinder or slag as coarse
aggregate is called light weight concrete.
Uses:
Used in making precast structural units for partitions and wall-lining.
iv. Sawdust Concrete
Prepared by mixing Portland Cement with Sawdust in specified
proportions in addition to water is called Sawdust Concrete.
Uses
This Concrete is used as a heat and sound insulating material.
v. Highly early Strength Concrete
The Concrete in which high early strength Cement is used as binding
material is called high early strength Concrete.
Uses:
This Concrete is used for construction work especially in cold weather
because it can set earlier and thus the form work can be re-used quickly.
vi. White and Coloured Concrete
The Concrete in which white cement is used as binding material is called
white Concrete is used as binding material is called white Concrete, and if
coloured Cement is used as a binding material along with coloured aggregate, the
concrete is called coloured Concrete.
Uses:
These concretes are used for decorative purposes of flooring, skirting etc
in building.
7.3 Ingredients of Plain and reinforced Concrete
Following ingredients are required for making R.C.C or P.C.C works;
i. Cement
ii. Aggregate
iii. Steel
iv. Water
i. Cement
It is a binding material which bind all the ingredients. Before the
introduction of ordinary Portland Cement, lime was used as a Cementing material.
Most of the Concrete work in building construction is done with ordinary Portland
Cement at present.
ii. Aggregate
The aggregates are the inert or chemically in active materials which form
the bulk of Cement Concrete. These aggregates are bound together by means of
Cement. The aggregates are classified in to two categories: -
a. Fine aggregate (Sand)
b. Coarse aggregate (Crush)
iii. Steel
The steel reinforcement is generally in the form of round bars of mild
steel. Sometimes, square bars or twisted bars are used as steel reinforcement.
iv. Water
This is the least expensive but most important ingredient of Concrete.
Water, which is used for making Concrete should be clean and free from harmful
impurities.
7.4 Proportions of Concrete
Every engineering work requires a specific strength of Concrete. The
required strength of concrete can be achieved by varying the proportions of its
ingredients.
Recommended
Sr. No. Description of work
Proportion of Concrete
1. Concrete in Column, beam etc. (1:1:2)
2. Water retaining structures. (1:1.5:3)
3. Reinforced Concrete (1:2:4)
4. Foundations for buildings, mass (1:3:6)

reinforced concrete works
5. For Mass Concrete work (1:4:8)
7.5 Mixing the material of Concrete

The process of rolling, folding and spreading of particles is known as
mixing of Concrete.
The materials of Concrete should be mixed thoroughly to that there is
uniform distribution of materials in the mass of Concrete. The through mixing
also ensures that cement water paste completely covers the surface of aggregates.
The mixing of materials of concrete can be done by following method.
1. Hand mixing
2. Machine Mixing
1. Hand Mixing
For hand mixing, the materials are stacked on a water-tight platform,
which may be either of wood, brick or steel. The materials should be throughly
mixed, at lest three times, in dry condition before water is added. The prepared
mix should be consumed in 30 mint after adding water; Mixing by hand is
allowed in case of small works or unimportant works where small quantity of
Concrete is required. For important works, if hand mixing is to be adopted, it
is advisable to use 10% more cement than specified.
2. Machine Mixing
For machine mixing, all the materials of Concrete including water, are
collected in a revolving drum and then the drum is rotated for a certain period.
The resulting mix is then taken out of the drum.
The features of machine mixing are:
1. Mixing the materials of Concrete by machines is more efficient and it
produces Concrete of better quality in a short time.
2. Water should enter the mixer at the same time or before the other
materials are placed. This ensures even distribution of water.
3. After use, the Concrete mixer should be throughly washed and cleaned.
4. The inside portion of the mixer should be inspected carefully at regular
intervals.
5. Time of mixing the materials in the mixer and the speed of the mixer are
very important factors in deciding the strength of Concrete which is
formed.
6. The Concrete discharged by the mixer should be consumed in 30 minutes.
7.6 Types of Concrete mixers

Mechanical mixing is adopted these days in a great extent. The following
types of mixers are usually adopted;
1. Non-tilting mixer
2. Tilting mixer
3. Pan mixer
4. Continuous mixer
5. Truck mixer
1. Non tilling mixer
These are made in sizes from about 1/5 cu.m to 5 cu.m. In most cases the
drum rotates in one direction and the Concrete is discharged by a hopper. The
direction of rotation of the drum may be reversed to discharge the Concrete.
2. Tilling Drum mixer
These are generally made in smaller sizes but a few larger machines up to
3 cu.m Capacity have been made which are capable of producing about 60 cu.m
of Concrete per hour.
3. Pan Mixer
These mixers are efficient but have small capacity.
4. Continuous mixers
These mixers measure the ingredients by volume and once they have been
set, their measuring is done more or less automatically. The power Consumption
of these mixers is small and these are capable of producing 10 to 20 cu.m of
Concrete per hour.
5. Truck Mixers
These are used when the mixed Concrete is to be carried to a long
distance. They are used in conjunction with a central batching plant. Water is
carried in a separate tank so that it can be mixed in the truck when it is near the
depositing area.
7.7 Transporting Concrete

After mixing the Concrete, it has to be delivered to the Final position
which it has to take in a building unit. The need of transporting Concrete at the
earliest possible time is essential because Concrete should be placed and
compacted before the initial set of cement take place. While transporting, it
should be ensured that the Containers are water-tight and that the loss of water
and cement is avoided to a great extent. Segregation of the particles must be
avoided at all costs as this would result in bad Concrete. If it is unavoidable
during transit, Concrete should be remixed before being placed.
Good Concrete may get spoiled by mishandling during transportation from
the mixer to the point of incorporation. The methods of transportation usually
adopted are;
1. Use of iron pans
2. Wheel barrow
3. Concrete Carts
4. Lorries
5. Chutes
6. Pumping
1. Use of iron pan
Iron pans have got a small capacity and are usually of such a size that one
man can lift and walk easily over the required distance. This method of
transporting Concrete is only adopted for small and medium size buildings in
Pakistan as it works out to be the cheapest method with such type of construction.
2. Wheel barrows
Ordinary wheel barrows hold about a 2 cu.m of Concrete. The wheels may
be fitted with preumatic tyres to prevent the segregation of Concrete on account
of series of jerks which the wheel barrow is likely to experience while the
travelling over uneven Surface.
3. Concrete Carts
These vary in capacity from 7 to 14 cu.m and they are designed for easy
pushing, tipping, and discharging. Suitable wooden plat forms are laid for their
easy travel.
4. Lorries
Lorries are used when ever the distance is large. Such a case occurs when
Concrete is to be deposited at a place where it cannot be mixed due to the non-
availability of space.
5. Chutes:
When Concrete is to be placed below general ground level, the mixer can
be placed in an upper level and Concrete discharged to the lower level through a
small chute of corrugated iron or timber leading to barrows, carts or other
transport facility or directly to the final position where it has to be deposited.
6. Pumping
Pumping of Concrete is economical and successful where the size of
aggregate does not exceed 50 mm and Concrete is of medium workability.
This type of transportation is rarely restored to for building work.
7.8 Compacting Concrete

The purpose of compaction is to remove air bubbles from concrete mass to
a great extent. Under-compaction results in a lot of air voids in concrete while
over-compaction many lead to segregation. Methods of compacting concrete are
as under.
1. Hand Compacting
2. Vibrators
1. Hand Compacting
For unimportant works, consolidation of Concrete is carried out by hand
methods which include ramming, tamping, spading and slicing with suitable tools.
Hand methods require use of a fairly wet Concrete.
2. Vibrators
These are mechanical device which are used to compact Concrete in the
form work.
Vibrators are of following four types.
a. Internal Vibrators.
b. Surface Vibrators.
c. Form Vibrators.
d. Vibrating tables.
7.9 Curing of Concrete

Concrete Surfaces are kept wet for a certain period after placing of
Concrete. This is termed as Curing of Concrete.
Methods of Curing
The methods of Curing are largely dependent on the nature of work,
weather Conditions and economy considerations. They can be divided into two
categories,
i. Vertical Surface Curing.
ii. Horizontal Surface Curing.
i. Vertical Surface Curing
For vertical surface curing is difficult. It is generally done by Spraying
water at intervals after formwork is removed. Alternatively, the exposed surface
of Concrete may be covered with hanging canvass which may be maintained wet.
ii. Horizontal Surface Curing

For horizontal Surface such as road slabs, floors etc, Curing can be done
by Spraying, ponding or Covering the Concrete with moist earth, Sand or wet
gunny bags. To prevent evaporation, the Surface of fresh Concrete may be
covered with an impervious membrane.
7.10 Concrete Finishes

Surface finishes maybe obtained either from formwork or by Surface
treatments or by applying finishes.
The form work finishes are the patterns which are created on the Surface
of Concrete merely by the type of form work used and no additional treatment is
given. If proper care is not taken in the selection of a good formwork, the grains
and many defects in the wooden boarding are reproduced. Twisted or warped
wooden boards create uneven Surface.
The boards may be chamfered at the edges so as to create small elevated
lines on the Surface of Concrete. Surface treatments are sometimes adopted for
giving a better appearance to Concrete.
7.11 Joints
In general joints have to be provided in Cement Concrete either due to the
whole work being not complete at a time or to allow to the expansion of Concrete
with rise in temperature. Type of Joints are as under:-
i. Construction Joints
ii. Expansion Joints
i. Construction Joints
It is not always possible to pour the whole of Concrete in one operation.
As such some device has to be adopted to joint the old and the new Concrete
properly.
The place where the joint has to be provided is decided before hard and is
generally located at a place where the shear force is minimum.
In Joining the new Concrete with the old one it is essential to extend the
reinforcement of the old Concrete into the new one.
ii. Expansion Joints

Concrete expands and Contracts with fluctuations in temperature. Also
because of deflection there is movement of the member on the support.
If these movements of members are not allowed freely then it could cause
serious damages to the structure.
Expansion Joints in floors should as far as possible be watertight.
Hessian
Asphalt
Bitum inous paint
Wall o r bean
Fig Join t of Roof Slab

Bleeding of concrete:
Water being the lightest ingredient in the wet concrete mix, it tends to
move upwards and collect at the top. This is called “bleeding.” When water
collects at the bottom of the aggregates or reinforcement, it is specially called
“internal bleeding.” The excess water content in the concrete at the top makes it
weak and porous. Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and complete
mixing of ingredients.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. The concrete mix used for general R.C.C work is.
a. 1:2:4 b. 1:4:8
c. 1:1:2 d. 1:5:10
2. The strength of cement concrete for a given mix depends on
a. Water-Cement ratio b. Initial setting time
c. Final setting time d. None of the above
3. Compaction factor for good workability of concrete is
a. 0.7 b. 4.85
c. 0.80 d. 0.95
4. The process of keeping concrete wet to enable it to attain full strength
is known as
a. Curing b. Drenching
c. Wetting d. Quenching
5. Curing of concrete can be done by
a. Spraying b. Covering with moist cloth
c. Ponding d. Any of the above
6. Concrete is mixture of
(a) Cement (b) sand
(c) Water (d) All of these
7. Concrete in which steel is used, is called

(a) P.C.C (b) R.B.C
(c) Very week (d) None of these
8. Minimum period for curing the ordinary concrete in days.
(a) 7 (b) 10
(c) 14 (d) 28
9. Filler material used for concrete joints.

(a) Tar coal (b) Cork
(c) Rubber (d) All of these
10. The density of concrete with increase in the size of aggregate.
(a) Does not change (b) Increases
(c) Decreases (d) None of these
11. The shrink age of concrete its bond strength.
(a) Does not change (b) Increases
(c) Decreases (d) None of these
12. The shrinkage of ordinary concrete is about.
(a) 0.1 to 0.3mm/m (b) 0.3 to 0.6mm/m
(c) 0.6 to 1.2mm/m (d) 1.2 to 2.1mm/m
13. Method of compaction of concrete
(a) Roding (b) Rolling
(c) Vibrating (d) All of these
14. The maximum water-cement ratio for durable concrete is.
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4
(c) 0.6 (d) 0.8
15. The slump taste of concrete is used to measure its.

(a) Workability (b) Tensile and compressive
strength
(c) Impact value (d) Homogeneity
Answers
1. a 2.a 3.d 4.a 5.d 6.d 7.b 8.c 9d. 10.c
11.b 12.b 13.d 14.d 15.a
Short Questions
1. How does a concrete mix gain strength?
2. Why we needs joints in concrete construction?
3. Enumerate objects of curing.
4. Define a term “Batching”.
5. What is the role of vibration in compaction?
6. Define proportioning of concrete.
7. Write the role of vibrator in compaction of concrete.
8. Enumerate different methods of compacting of concrete.
9. Enlist the methods of transportation of fresh concrete.
10. Enumerate types of concrete.
11. Define Pre-stressed cement concrete.
12. Define vacuum concrete.
13. State the types of concrete mixers.
14. Define tilting mixer.
15. What do you understand by compacting of concrete?

16. Define concrete?
17. Enlist types of concrete.
18. Define RCC?
19. Define plane cement concrete?
20. Define post-tension R.C.C?
Long Questions
1. Define the concrete, types of concrete.
2. State the ingredients of plain and reinforced concrete.
3. State the proportions of plain and reinforced concrete for different types
of work.
4. Describe methods of batching by weight by volume.
5. Explain the procedure of hand and machine mixing.
6. State the types of concrete mixers.
7. Explain the various method of transportation of fresh concrete.
8. Explain various methods of compacting concrete hand, vibrators.
9. Explain methods of concrete finishing.
10. Describe objects of curing and methods of curing.
11. Explain the needs of joints in curing.
Chapter # 8
Ferrous Metals and Non Ferrous Metals

 State the properties of cast iron, mild steel and wrought iron with their
uses.
 List the common structural steel sections used in construction work.
 Distinguish between plain steel, deformed steel and cold twisted steel
bars.
 State the properties and uses of special steel i.e. high carbon steel, high
tensile steel.
 State the properties of Aluminum, lead and zinc.
 State the uses of Aluminum lead and zinc in construction work.
8.0 Metals
Metals and their alloys are the backbone of all engineering projects and
products. Various metals are used in one form or the other. Metals are found as
compounds like oxides, carbonates, phosphates and sulphides etc in nature. These
compounds, known as ores, are treated to remove the impurities and get the metal.
All metals used for engineering purposes are classified into two
categories;
1. Ferrous metals
2. Non Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
Those type of metals in which iron is the main constituent. Common
ferrous metals in use are cast iron, wrought iron and different forms of steel.
Non-Ferrous metals
Those type of metals in which iron is not main constituent. The non-
ferrous metals in common use are aluminium, copper, zinc, lead and tin etc.
8.1 Types of ferrous metals

Ferrous metal is classified into following categories;
1. Pig iron
2. Cast iron
3. Wrought iron
4. Steel
1. Pig iron
To remove impurities from the iron are carbon and flux are added while
melting it. The refined product so obtained is the crudest form of iron and is
called pig iron. It is cast into rough bars called pigs.
Properties
i. It is hard and brittle as such it is neither ductile nor malleable.
ii. It is difficult to bend.
iii. It melts easily. The fusion temperature is 1200°C.
iv. It can be hardened but not tempered.
v. It cannot be magnetised.
vi. It does not rust.
vii. It cannot be welded or riveted.
viii. It has very high compressive strength but is very weak in tension and
shear.
Uses
Cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel are obtained by refining the pig
iron. Because of its high compressive strength it is used in columns, base
plates, door brackets, wheels and pipe work.
2. Cast iron
Pig iron is re melted with limestone and coke and poured into moulds of
desired shapes and sizes to get purer product known as cast iron. Carbon contents
in cast iron vary from 2.0% to 4.5%.
Properties
i. Its structure is coarse, crystalline and fibrous.
ii. It is brittle.
iii. It cannot withstand shocks and impacts.
iv. It cannot be welded or riveted.
v. It cannot be magnetised.
vi. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered.
vii. It is neither malleable nor ductile.
viii. It does not rust.
ix. It becomes soft in saline water.
x. It is strong in compression but weak in tension and in shear.
xi. Its melting point is 1200°C.
xii. Its specific gravity 7.5.
Uses
It is used for castings, rain water pipes, gratings, ratings, eisterns,
manholes covers etc. Because of high compressive strength it is used in making
columns, supports for heavy machinery, carriage wheels and bed plates etc. It is
the basic material for the manufacture of wrought iron and mild steel.
3. Wrought iron
Nearly all the carbon and other elements in pig iron are oxidized and may
be left with 0.25 percent of carbon to obtain wrought iron. It is by far the purest
form of iron in which the total impurities do not exceed 0.5 percent.
Properties
i. Its structure is fibrous and has silky lustre.
ii. It is ductile and malleable.
iii. It can neither be hardened nor tempered.
iv. It can be forged and welded.
v. It rusts easily.
vi. It is unaffected by saline water.
vii. It is nearly equally strong in tension, compression and shear.
viii. Its specific gravity is 7.25.
Uses
It is used for making roofing sheets, corrugated sheets, rods, gas and water
pipes, boiler tubes etc.
4. Steel
The essential difference between cast iron and steel is in the amount of
their carbon contents. Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher with the
increase in its carbon contents. If carbon contents increase beyond 1.5 percent
then it does not combine with iron and is present as free graphite. It is at this stage
that the metal falls in the category of cast iron. The carbon contents may be
increased to 4.5 percent for cast iron. “For a material to be classified as steel there
should be nor free graphite in its composition.” It there is any free graphite in it
then it falls in the category of cast iron.
Depending upon their carbon content steel is classified are as under.
i. Mild steel
ii. High carbon steel
iii. High tension steel
iv. Reinforcing steel
i. Mild steel
Steel where in the carbon content is from 0.15 to 0.3 percent is called mild
steel, low carbon steel or soft steel.
Uses
In construction work, it is chiefly used as rolled structural sections like I-
Section, T-Section, Channel Section, angle irons, plates round and square rods.
Mild steel round bars are extensively used as reinforcement in reinforced cement
concrete.
ii. High carbon steel
These are steels where in the Carbon contents are between 0.5% to 1.5%.
Higher percentage of carbon in it renders it harder and tougher.
Uses
It is used for making tools such as drills, files, chisels, fine quality of
cutlery is made of high Carbon steel. It is used to manufacture those parts of
machinery that need a hard, tough, durable material capable of with standing
shocks and vibrations.
iii. High tension steel

It is essentially a low carbon steel and the percentage of Carbon is kept
lesser than 0.15. It is also termed as high strength steel.
Uses
The structure thus becomes lighter. It with sands atmosphere corrosion
better, is tougher and more elastic, is more brittle and less ductile than mild steel.
High tension steel wires are extensively used in reinforming prestressed concrete
structures.
iv. Reinforcing steel
P.C.C being strong in compression is very weak in tension and in shear.
Mild steel or high tension steel is embedded as reinforcement in the concrete to
make good that deficiency of the plain concrete. Though flats and square bars too
can be used as reinforcement yet the round bars are extensively used for the
purpose.
8.2 Common structural steel sections used in

construction work
The common types of sections used in structural steel work are described
below:
1. Bars
2. Flats
3. Angle section
4. Tee section
5. I-Section
6. Channel Section
7. Plates
8. Corrugated sheets
9. Welded wire fabrics

10. Expanded metal
11. Slotted angles
1. Bars
Steel bars are available in the following three type.
a. Rod bars
b. Square bars
c. Deformed bars
a. Rod bars
These are of circular sections, bar diameter varying from 5mm to 250mm.
Commonly used sections are of 5mm to 50mm diameters. Usual lengths are from
10m to 12m. These are widely used as reinforcement in R.C.C work and in R.B
work.
Round
b. Square bars
These are of square sections size vary from 5mm square to 250mm square.
These are commonly used for Grill work and Railings in buildings.
c. Deformed bars
These bars have projections on their surfaces that increase their bond with
concrete in R.C.C. Permissible tensile stresses in these bars is about 50% more
than in MS bars. Deformed bars could be cold twisted or hot rolled. Hot rolled
twisted bars are ribbed type and its common trade name is Tor steel.
2. Flats
Commonly termed as M.S. flats are available from 5mm × 12mm to
25mm × 250mm in section and 6.5m long. In structures these are used for
fabricating grills and railings.
Flat
3. Angle section
The section has two legs, one vertical and the other horizontal. Both the
legs are of same thickness. If both the legs are of same length then it is termed as
equal angle and if the length of each of the two legs differ then it is termed as
unequal angle.
Angle
These are extensively used in the fabrication of roof trusses, steel frames
for doors and in fabrication of other built up structural sections.
4. Tee section
The section resembles the roman alphabet T. The top horizontal portion is
called the flange and the vertical portion meeting the flange at its midpoint is
termed as web.
Tee
These are extensively used in roof trusses and in fabricating built up

sections.
5. I-Section
The section resemble the Roman alphabet I. The top and the bottom
horizontal portions are termed as flanges and the vertical portion joining the mid
points of the two flanges is termed as web.
R.S.Joist
These sections are termed as rolled steel joists (RSJ) too.

These are extensively used as floor beams, as columns and in fabricating
built up sections like stanctions.
6. Channel Section
These sections have two horizontal portions, termed as flanges, connected
to each other at ends by a vertical member termed as web.
These are mainly used to build up different structural sections.
Channel
7. Plates
Steel plates are rolled to thickness varying from 5mm to 63mm, width
900mm to 2500mm and length 2200mm to 12500mm.
These are used for fabricating built up structural section.
8. Corrugated sheets
Corrugations have the cross-section of trigonometric since curve provided
in iron sheets give strength, rigidity and stiffness to the sheets. These sheets are
protected against corrosion by galvanizing (giving coating of zinc) and are called
galvanised.
Corrugated iron sheets. Thickness varies from 24” guage to 16” guage.
Pitch of corrugations is 8cm; width of sheet is 60–75cm and length is 1.35 to
3.6m.
These are used as roof coverings.
9. Welded wire fabrics
Welded wire fabrics are manufactured in sheets and rolls and are available
in rectangular or square mesh of steel wires. The cross wires which make the
fabrics are electrically welded, ensuring correct spacing of cross wires and rigidity
of welds.
Corrugated sheet
Sheets and rolls made of wires of different diameters are available.

It is extremely versatile and lends strength, safety and style to buildings
when used for verandah enclosures, windows, fences partitions and gates. Welded
wire mesh are used as reinforcements in R.C.C slabs.
10. Expanded metal
It is manufactured from mild steel sheets or plates. Parallel cuts or slits, a
few centimeters long are made in sheets which are then firmly gripped and pulled.
The material then opens out along the silts forming diamond shaped mesh.
Expanded metal is used as reinforcement in R.C.C work.
11. Slotted angles

Angles with slots at regular intervals are marked by different firms in
different sizes. Length of each slotted angle is 3m and the three commonly
available size are 75 × 40 ×2.5mm, 60 ×40 ×30mm and 35 ×35 ×1.8mm.
Non-Ferrous Metals
Properties and uses of the more commonly used non-ferrous metals are
given below:
a. Aluminium
b. Copper
c. Lead
d. Tin
e. Zinc
a. Aluminium
It is getting into wider and wider usage in every field of engineering.
Modified metallurgical processes have improved strength and durability of
aluminium to an extent that has made it versatile material for use by engineers.
i. It is highly ductile and malleable.
ii. It is very light in weight.
iii. It is very soft.
iv. It is very easy to work upon.
v. It can be welded and invalid but cannot be soldered.
Uses
It is used for making door and window frames, corrugated sheets for
roofing, piping, ratings, posts panels and balustrades and automobiles parts and
made of aluminium. Because of good conductivity electric wires and cables are
made of aluminium. Its allays with metals like copper, magnesium, manganese
and silicon etc. have high tensile strength and hardness still being light and
durable.
b. Copper
It is one of the most widely used metals. High cost is the prohibitive factor
in its extensive usage in engineering works.
Properties
i. It is highly ductile and maileable.
ii. It can be welded only at read heat.
iii. It is highly flexible and soft.
iv. It is light in weight.
v. It is tough and with stands weer well.
Uses
Copper wires are used for winding electric motors and generators and for
transmission of electricity. It is used for electroplating and electrotyping. It has
wide usage in making alloys like brass, bronze and gun metal. In the form of
sheets it is used in damp proofing buildings.
c. Lead
It is an extensively used metal in building construction and has the
drawback of being poisonous.
Properties
i. It is bluish grey metal.
ii. It is highly ductile and malleable.
iii. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
iv. It does not corrode.
v. It specific gravity is 11.35.
Uses
It is used as base in paints lead pipes and lead joints in sanitary fitting are
widely used. It is used in bad batteries Cable, covering making bulled. Short and
as lining in chemical and metallurgical industries.
d. Tin
It is one of the most commonly used protective metals used in construction
activities.
Properties
i. It is lustrous silvery white metal.
ii. It is highly ductile and malleable.
iii. Its melting point is 230°C.
iv. It specific gravity is 7.3.
v. It becomes brittle at 200°C.
Uses
It is used to give protective coatings to iron and steel sheets as an alloying
element in soft solders and for moisture proof packing. It form allyoys.
e. Zinc
In building construction Zinc is commonly used either as protective
covering for metals or as a base for paints.
Properties
i. It is a bluish white crystalline metal.
ii. resists corrosion.
iii. Its specific gravity is 7.0.
iv. It melting points is 420°C.
v. It forms important alloys like brass german silver.
Uses
It is used for galvanizing iron sheet and pipes for battering and printing
blocks, for preparing paints and for making important alloys like brass and
german silver.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Those metals in which iron is the main constituent is called _______.
(a) Ferrous metal (b) pig iron
(c) non ferrous metal (d) all of these
2. In cast iron carbon contents vary from _______.
(a) 3 to 7% (b) 2 to 5%
(c) 2 to 4% (d) 3 to 6%
3. Cast iron is neither _______ nor _______.
(a) malleable, brittle (b) malleable, ductile
(c) Elastic, ductile (d) hard, Elastic
4. Wrought iron _______ easily.
(a) weld (b) compress
(c) rust (d) all of these
5. Wrought iron has a specific gravity _______.
(a) 7.25 (b) 6.25
(c) 5.85 (d) 9.25
6. In high carbon steel carbon contents are between _______ to _______.
(a) 1 to 2% (b) 1 to 5%
(c) 0.5 to 0.8% (d) none of these
7. _______ steel is embedded as reinforcement in the concrete.
(a) high Carbon (b) mild steel
(c) none of these (d) all of these
8. For winding electric motars _______ wires are used.

(a) Copper (b) Aluminium
(c) Zinc (d) all of these
9. _______ is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(a) Lead (b) Copper
(c) Tin (d) Aluminium
10. Zinc have a specific gravity _______.
(a) 6.5 (b) 8.0
(c) 7.5 (d) 7.0
11. Melting the calcinated ores along with flux is called
(a) Querying (b) Smelting
(c) Metallergy (d) Dressing
12. Red Hematite is an ore of:
(a) Iron (b) Lead
(c) Aluminum (d) Zinc
13. Mild steel contains carbon less than
(a) 0.1% (b) 0.2%
(c) 0.3% (d) 0.4
14. Galena is an ore of,
(a) Lead (b) Zinc
(c) Aluminum (d) Brass
15. Bauxite is an ore of.
(a) Copper (b) Zinc
(c) Aluminum (d) Brass
Answers
1. a 2.c 3.c 4.d 5.a 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.b 10.d
11.b 12.c 13.a 14.a 15.c
Short Questions
1. Define metal.
2. What are the groups of metals?
3. Write about the ductility of metals.
4. Write the name of the types of iron.
5. Write the name of the steel bars used in R.C.C work.
6. Define Ferrous metal.
7. Write names of the non ferrous metals.
8. What is Alloy?
9. Name of Alloys.
10. Define non ferrous metal.
11. State the properties of wrought iron.
12. State the composition of cast iron.
13. What are the uses of mild steel in construction work?
14. Give two differences between plain and deformed steel.
15. Define cold twisted steel bars.
16. Give two uses of Aluminum.
17. State the four properties of Zinc.
18. State the four properties of high carbon steel.
Long Questions
1. Mention the properties and uses of pig iron.
2. State the properties and uses of cast iron.
3. Differentiate between cost iron and wrought iron with respect to their
characteristics and uses.
4. Define steel and classify it on the basis of carbon content.
5. List the common structural steel sections used in construction work.
6. Distinguish between plain steel, deformed steel and cold twisted steel
bars.
7. State the properties and uses of special steel i.e. high carbon steel, high
tensile steel.
8 State the properties of Aluminum and lead.
9 State the uses of Aluminum lead and zinc in construction works.
Chapter # 9
Paints and Varnishes
 Describe the characteristics of a good paint.
 State the types of paint and their uses in construction works.
 State the types and uses of varnishes.
9.0 General
Paints and Varnishes are used to protect metals, timber or plastered
surfaces from the corrosive effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases etc and also
to improve their appearance.
9.1 Classification
Paints in common use are classified as : -
1. Oil Paints
2. Enamel Paints
3. Fire proof paints
1. Oil Paints
Oil paints consist essentially of;-
a. Base
b. Vehicle
c. Pigments
d. Solvent
e. Drier
f. Inert filler
By suitable variation of the type and proportion of the various constituents
the paints can be made dry, glossy or flat as desired.
2. Enamel paints and their uses

Enamels consist of high grade bases like Zinc oxide or lead oxide ground
in oil or varnish. They dry slowly leaving a hard tough and elastic. Film which is
smooth and durable. Enamel painted surfaces are washable and are not affected
by acids, alkalies, gases or steam.
These can be made in any tint, however delicate even though they are
more costly than ordinary paints yet, because of their durability, they ultimately
prove to be more economical. They are equally good for use both on external and
internal works.
Enamel made from synthetic resins, known as synthetic enamel quickly
and is more durable. They are available ready made in many shades;
3. Fire Proof Paint

Fire resisting solution coatings of sodium tungstate and asbestos paints
retard the action of fire. As such wherever timber work is intended to be fire
resistant. It may be coated with either of those solutions.
9.2 Characteristics of a good paint

Following are the characteristics of a good paint;
1. It should have a good body or spreading power.
2. It should work smoothly and freely and be capable of being laid in a thin
coat with the brush.
3. It should form durable, tough and resistant to wear film on drying.
4. Colour of paint should be fade or change.
5. It should become surface dry in about 9 hours and hard enough to take up
another coat in 24 hours.
6. It should not crack on drying.
7. It should dry quickly.
8. It should give a smooth and pleasing appearance showing no brush marks
on drying.
9. It should not damage the painted surface.
9.3 Varnish
Varnish is a solution of resin in either oil of turpentine or alcohol. It dries
after applying leaving a hard, transparent and a glossy film of resin over the
varnished surface.
9.3.1 Uses
1. Applied to the painted surface to increase its brilliance.
2. Protect the paint from atmospheric action.
3. Applied to the unpainted wooden surface with a view of brighten the
ornamental appearance of the grains of wood.
9.4 French Polish and its uses

It is prepared by dissolving pure shellac, varying from pale orange to learn
yellow in colour and free from resin or dirt in methylated spirit at the rate of
0.15kg of shellac per litre of spirit. It may be colored by adding some pigments.
The solution is then strained through a double thickness of coarse muslin .
It dries quicker and becomes harder and more brilliant than turpentine
varnishes but cracks and scales off.
Before applying French polish, the surface is cleaned of dust.
9.5 Colour Wash

To the strained white wash is added the desired pigment and mixed well
sufficient quantity of color wash should be prepared at a time to cover a whole
room or surface to be covered. Not more than a day’s requirement of color wash
should be prepared at a time. New surfaces should be given a coat of white wash
followed by one or two coats of colour wash as desired one coat of colour was
woule be sufficient on surfaces having already white or colour wash in good
condition.
9.6 Different types of varnishes

Based on the different solvents used varnishes are classified in the
following categories
i. Oil varnish
ii. Turpentine varnish
iii. Spirit varnish
iv. Water varnish
i. Oil varnish
These are made by dissolving hard resins like amber or copal in oil. They
are slow to dry but are hardest and most durable of all varnishes. These are suited
for being used on exposed surfaces requiring polishing or frequent cleanings and
for superior works.
ii. Turpentine varnish
These are made from soft resins. Like mastic common resin dissolved in
turpentine oil.
iii. Spirit varnish

Varnish in which spirit is used as a solvent are known as spirit varnishes
or French polish. Shellac is dissolved in spirit and the product is applied in a thin
layer. These varnishes give a transparent finish thus showing the grains of the
timber.
iv. Water varnish

They consist of lac dissolved in hot water with borax, ammonia, potash or
soda. Just enough to dissolve the lac. Varnish so made with stands washing. It is
used for painting wall paper and for delicate work.
EXERCISE
MCQ’s
1. The ingredient which provide colour to the paint is called _______.
(a) base (b) Pigment
(c) stainer (d) all of these
2. Paints are used to _______ the surfaces from corrosive effects of
weather.
(a) demolish (b) free
(c) protect (d) all of these
3. Oil paints consist essentially of _______, _______ and _______.
(a) base, vehicle, pigment (b) base, thiner, drier
(c) base, filler, resins (d) none of these
4. Enamels consist of high grade bases like _______ in oil.
(a) Zinc oxide (b) Carbon oxide
(c) both of these (d) none of these
5. Paint should have a good body or _______.
(a) drying power (b) binding power
(c) spreading power (d) all of these
6. French polish is prepared by _______.
(a) dissolving shellac (b) resin
(c) oil (d) none of these
7. Varnish protect the paint from _______ action.

(a) chemical (b) atmospheric
8. Petroleum spirit is used as vehicle in this paint.
(a) Enamel (b) Emulsion
(c) Oil (d) Varnish
9. A Varnish Prepared by mixing vax and spirit is termed as,

(a) Emulsion (b) Weather Sheet
(c) Enamel (d) French polish
10. The Chief ingredient of a paints is.
(a) alcohol (b) drier
(c) oil (d) pigment
11. The liquid medium used in oil paints is:
(a) thinner (b) alcohol
(c) linseed oil (d) turpentine
12. The liquid part of the paint is called:
(a) Pigment (b) vehicle
(c) Solvent (d) drier
13. The best primer used for structural steel work is:
(a) White lead (b) Red lead
(c) iron oxide (d) Zinc oxide
14. White lead and red lead are used in the paint as.
(a) Base (b) Pigment
(c) Thinner (d) Enert filler
15. The drier in an oil paint should not be more than……. (by volume).
(a) 5% (b) 10%
(c) 15% (d) 20%
Answers
1. d 2.c 3.d 4.a 5.d 6.a 7.c 8.a 9.d 10.d
11.c 12.b 13.b 14.b 15.b
Short Questions
1. What are the ingredients used in oil paints?
2. Give four characteristics of a good paint.
3. Give the composition of a French polish.
4. Enumerate uses of French polish.
5. Give a short account of varnishes.
6. Define colour wash.
7. When a fire proof paint is suitable.
8. What are enamel paint?
9. Enlist the name of the types of varnishes.
10. Define paint?
11. Name constituents of paint.
12. What is pigment?
13. Define enamel paint.
14. Enlist types of varnish.
15. What are plastic paint?
16. Define varnish?

17. Enlist constituents of varnish.
18. Give properties of good varnish.
19. Enlist the name of different paints.
20. Define zinc paint?
Long Questions
1. Describe the characteristics of a good paint.
2. State the types of paint and their uses in construction works.
3. State the types and uses of varnishes.
Chapter # 10
Advanced Construction Materials

 State the uses of different types of glass in construction works.
 Describe the differences between asphalt, tar and bituminous materials.
 Describe the grades and uses of bituminous materials.
 Explain the uses and construction of tuff tile.
 Describe composition and uses of fiber reinforced concrete.
 State the uses of glass tiles and glass doors
 Describe modern materials and construction bonding materials.
 Explain uses of fiber reinforced polymers.
Glass
The glass industry makes a variety of glass products. Soda lime glass is
the cheapest variety of glass and is used for bottles, window panes etc. Glass that
is commonly used in building construction are describe below.
10.1 Uses of Glass

Glass is used in various parts of buildings as fixed or openable glazing for
architectural features and also to admit natural lighting. The types of glasss
available for glazing of buildings are sheet glass. Plate glass and float glass.
Selection depends on required size and cost of glass. Their use can be detailed as
follows:
a. Sheet glass
This is used in small panels of doors and windows for building purposes.
They should be clear, free from blisters, Scratches, waves, bubbles, etc. It is
available in thicknesses of 2mm, 2.5mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5.0mm and 6.5mm.
Usually, glass is specified in weight per unit square foot or square metre. Thus, 21
oz. glass means the glass which weighs 21 oz. per square foot in f.p.s. system (it
will be 6.3 kg per sq. metre). There are many types of sheet glass as given below:
1. AA Quality or Special Quality (SSQ) for special use as mirrors.
2. A Quality or Selected Quality (SQ) for special use as safety glass
3. B Quality or Ordinary Quality (OQ) for glazing in buildings
4. C Quality or Greenhouse Quality (GQ) for making frosted glass, etc.
Of these, OQ glass is mostly used in buildings. The usual specification for
buildings is to use 21 oz. sheet glass for panels up to 24 inches, 28 oz. for panels
of 24 to 30 inches and 32 oz. for panels of 30 to 36 inches.
b. plate glass
This type of glass is stronger and more transparent with much less
waviness than sheet glass. It is to be used for large size panels such as shop
windows, manufacture of mirrors, etc. It is manufactured in thicknesses of 3 to
32mm. In building construction for panels over 900mm (36 inches) dimension,
6.5mm (quarter inch) plate glass is recommended. It is available in three varieties,
rough cast, rolled (Patterned) and polished. Unless otherwise specified, the term
plate glass denotes the polished variety.
c. Float glass
As already seen, this type of glass is prepared by passing the molten glass
from the furnace through a molten tin bath (float bath). Since the free standing
surface of the tin bath is very smooth, the float glass is of uniform thickness with
excellent optical clarity and aesthetic appearance. It is further annealed to relieve
all the stresses. Most of the modern large sized shop windows and façade of tall
buildings are made of this type of glass.
d. Translucent glass (Obscured glass or frosted glass)

In this glass, a pattern or texture is imprinted on one or both faces so that
the images cannot be seen through. This type of glass is textured (frosted) and the
other side is flat. The textured side should face the inside of the room (to be made
obscure) and the plane glass side should face the other side. This resists dust
collection and easy drainage of rainwater. In any case, the frosted side is kept
away from the putty side, if the glass is fixed by putty.
f. Glass blocks
They are glass units, transparent or translucent, produced by a pressing
process in which firstly two hollow dishes are formed which are then fused
together to form a hollow, hermetically-scaled block. They have a high degree of
thermal insulation and noise reduction. They can be used on walls and roofs.
g. Laminated safety glass (Safety glass)
This type of glass produced by bonding together two or more pieces of
glass with plastic interlayers. If broken, the glass adheres to the inner layer, thus
reducing the risk of injury to people. Such type of glass is used in automobiles for
windows and windshields.
h. Glass as structural glazing
A large number of multistoreyed buildings are faced with glass. Special
glasses are available for this purpose. They are usually coloured or mirrored in
order to shade direct sunlight and are heat-resistant.
i. Plastic sheets for glazing
A great variety of plastic sheets, like polycarbide sheets which look like
glass are also available for glazing. They can be very strong against impact so
they are ideal for shop windows. They are also commonly used in roofs.
j. Bulletproof glass
This type of glass is prepared by special techniques and will be up to
200mm in thickness. Nowadays, plastics like polycarbide is more often used for
this purpose.
k. Tinted glass
Tinted glass, as already stated, is glass with colour. It comes in three
shades bronze. Dark grey and autogreen–thickness ranging from 2 to 12mm. It
absorbs 30 to 40 per cent of solar radiation (depending on the tint and thickness)
compared to only 15 per cent absorbed by clear float glass.
10.2 Asphalt, Bitumen and tar

Asphalt, bitumen and tar are hydrocarbons. Asphalt and bitumen are
petroleum products whereas tar is a dark coloured product obtained from
destructive distillation of organic substances like coal, wood or bituminous shales.
Asphalt also appears in nature as natural deposits. These materials are used very
much in building and road constructions. This chapter deals briefly with
Asphalt
Asphalt is defined as a mixture of bitumen with a substantial proportion of
inert mineral matter. Bitumen is the binding material in asphalt. The following are
the two types of asphalt.
1. Natural asphalt
2. Residual asphalt (petroleum asphalt)
Natural asphalt occurs as fossil deposits in places like lakes in Trinidad
at depths of 3 to 60m. It contains 40 to 70 per cent pure bitumen with about 30 per
cent water content. Residual asphalt is obtained from distillation of petroleum oil
with an aspheric base. The residue left will also be asphalt.
Mastic asphalt is prepared by mixing the required mineral filler (like
limestone dust, sand or grit and coarse aggregate) with black bitumen heated to a
liquid form. On cooling, it consolidates to a hard elastic block. This can be
reheated and used in pavements and for other uses. It is tough, durable, non-
absorbent, dampproof, non-inflammable and noiseless. It is very much used for
waterproofing works in building construction.
Asphaltic cement is bitumen or asphalt or their blend with flux oils
having adhesive qualities suitable for making mastic asphalt. (The terms asphalt
and bitumen in practice mean the same substance except that asphalt has
considerable amount of inert materials compared to pure bitumen.)
10.3 Uses of Asphalt in Buildings

Asphalt is used buildings for the following works:
1. Roof covering, flashing, waterproofing of roofs.
2. Damp roof courses
3. Flooring material
4. Tanking of basement floors (building water barriers in basements) (See
section 25.7)
1. Bitumen
Bitumen is the product obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum as an end product. Bitumen becomes soft at moderate temperatures. It
can be modified by heating until it becomes a liquid and then passing air under
pressure by which all the volatile compounds in it can be driven out. The product
is called “blown bitumen” (R grade). This product has a high softening point so
that if exposed directly to the sunrays for any length of time, it does not get soft.
At ordinary room temperatures, it is very hard. It is also soluble in some solvents.
Blown bitumen is the product that is commonly used for manufacturing joint
fillers and bitumen felt, which are used for waterproofing and dampproofing.
Bitumen is also extensively used for surfacing of road and airport pavements.
Bitumen is available in the following forms:
1. Straight run bitumen
It refers to bitumen distilled to a definite viscosity of penetration which
does not require further treatment like heating.
2. Blown bitumen
It is described above.
3. Penetration grade
It is the basic form of bitumen and has to be heated before application.
4. Cutback bitumen
It is the bitumen combined with other petroleum distillates. This may be
regarded as means of applying penetration-grade bitumen at lower temperatures.
5. Bitumen emulsion
It is a product in liquid form formed in aqueous medium and stabilizing
agents. This is also another means to obtain bitumen into a liquid form so that it
can easily be applied at ambient temperature.
6. Plastic bitumen
It consists of bitumen thinner and suitable filler made into a plastic form.
As it is plastic, it can be used for filing cracks in masonry, stopping leakages, etc.
7. Cutbacks
They are bituminous materials in solvents.
8. Residual bitumen
It is a solid substance at normal temperature and is obtained as a residue
during distillation of high-resin petroleum.
Specification of Grade
Bitumen is specified by the term “penetration” (example penetration grade
80/100). Penetration-grade bitumen is semi-solid at ambient temperature and
requires to be heated to make it fluid enough for applications such as for
waterproofing roof surfaces. As we will see in Section 25.9, the specification
80/100 refers to the penetration of a standard needle at a temperature of 25°C.
Bitumen Mastic
Bitumen mastic is prepared in the same way as asphalt mastic.
Tar
Tar is different from bitumen and the different types of tar can be obtained
from the following procedures.
1. Coal tar is obtained by heating coal in closed iron vessels to form coke.
On condensation of the escaping gases, we get coal tar. This tar is mostly used for
roads.
2. Wood tar is obtained by distillation of pine wood and other resinous
wood. It contains creosote oil and hence has strong preservative property for
wood and also repels termites if applied on wooden posts buried in the ground.
3. Mineral tar is obtained by distilling bituminous shales. It has less
volatile matter than the wood tar.
In addition to use as a preservative of wood, because of its very good
adhesive power, it is also used as a water proofing paint in many situations.
Comparison of Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar

The following table shows comparison of the properties of asphalt,
bitumen and tar.
Property Asphalt Bitumen Tar
Existing state Solid or semi-solid Usually solid at Sold as a viscous

normal liquid
temperatures
Colour Blackish brown Dark black Deep black
Effect on heating Burns with smoke and Becomes liquid Becomes less viscous on
becomes plastic at on heating heating
250°C
Adhesive power Not much Good Very good
Carbon content Less More Most

Setting time Not much Not much More
Resistance to acid Good Good Less

and water
Use of Bituminous products in roadworks

A graded stone mixture coated with tar is used for tar macadam and when
the mixture is coated with bitumen, it is called bitumen macadam. Tarmac has a
slightly black appearance in comparison with bituminous macadam. The choice
depends on the cost and availability. Bituminous products are extensively used for
pavements, walkways, etc. Mastic asphalt as described in Section 25.2 is used in
city roads where we need a very smooth riding surface.
General Applications of bituminous materials

There are many uses of bituminous materials in civil engineering works.
Some of them are given below.
1. For paints
They are used for manufacture of bituminous paints and other surface
treatments. The industrial blown or R grade of bitumen is mainly used for this
purpose.
2. Roofing
Roofing felts and shingles (coverings of roof) are made of fibres or
plastics impregnated with penetration-grade bitumen and coated with blown-grade
bitumen.
3. Damp proofing
Prefabricated mats which are sprayed with blown bitumen are used for
dampproofing. They are also used as small “water-retaining, bituminous walls” at
refuse disposal sites to prevent pollution from spreading.
4. Tanking of basements
Asphalt and bitumen are the usual choices for water proofing of basements
known as tanking of basement (See Section 30.4).
5. Protection of structures
It is used as a protective coating (by impregnation) for concrete elements
such as piles, slabs, etc. Over these coatings, organic binders of 10–15mm
thickness are also applied to prevent the bitumen from eroding off.
6. Pavements
Bituminous materials are extensively used for the construction of roads.
Runways, taxiways, etc.
7. Preservation of stones
Bituminous materials are some of the materials used for preservation of
stonework from attack by salts and other substances present in the ground or in
the atmosphere.
10.4 TILES
Then term “tiles” was originally meant for thin slabs of burned clay which
were used to cover roofs as well as floors. Today, all materials of thin slabs of
baked clay of all shapes and sizes are called tiles. Thus, we have terrazzo tiles
made of concrete and rubber tiles made of rubber to be used on floors and clay
tiles to be used on roofs and floors.
We can have many types of tiles made from clay. We will deal briefly
only with the following types of tiles:
1. Common clay tiles for floors
2. Clay tiles for terraces
3. Clay tiles for ceiling
4. lazed tiles for floors and walls
5. Vitrified tiles
6. Common clay roof tiles

7. Country roof tiles
(Encaustic tiles are the tiles initially painted with colours and the colours
get fixed to the tiles with heat.) In the following sections we will deal with
ceramic floortiles.
i. Common clay floor tiles
These tiles were used extensively in India in former days. They were made
from fine special blue clay which enables the tiles to be made thin and the surface
to be smooth. To make the tiles hard and impervious, a mixture of ground glass
and potteryware may be added to the clay in the required dose. Generally, these
materials are mixed together thoroughly and extruded in the shape of slabs. These
slabs are put into moulds and pressed to the required shape. Thereafter, they are
fired at a temperature of about 1300°C. They can also be hand-moulded and
pressed by a mechanical press into shape. They are generally salt glazed to give a
good appearance. Floors made of these tiles, unlike cement floors, are more
suitable for walking barefooted.
ii. Clay Terracing tiles
Terracing tiles are flat tiles made in the same way as the floor tiles but
they are not usually glazed. They can be hand-made or machine-pressed from
well-weathered and well-prepared clay and burnt in a kiln. They should be burnt
uniformly. The usual sizes of these tiles are 20×20cm, 20×10cm and 15×15cm.
The thickness are 15mm and 20mm. (The tolerances allowed are ±5mm in length
and ±2mm in thickness.). Nowadays, the large sized tiles are preferred over the
small ones.
iii. Clay ceiling tiles
These tiles are usually placed on reepers. Over these ceiling tiles,
Mangalore tiles are laid. They are generally given a flower pattern decoration on
the exposed faces. These tiles should conform to IS 1464–1959.
iv. Glazed ceramic tiles

Glazed ceramic tiles are made from special ceramic clays in two
operations. Firstly, the body of the tile is made and fired at around 1200 to
1300°C. The products are called “biscuits”. These biscuits are then coated with
glaze, decorations, etc. and again fired in ovens to given opaque glazing. The
glazing can be of many types. Earthenware glazed tiles are made from special
clays or enamels. Coloured enamels can be of two types—bright and glassy. It
can be eggshell or mat finish.
Till recently, glazed tiles were exclusively used as wall tiles for bathrooms
in hospitals, etc. where there is not traffic, (on which people do note walk).
However, with the development of more and more durable glazings, these tiles
are, nowadays, also used for floors with light traffic as in residences. With the
advent of better technology, glazing thicker than before are being produced. Such
large size tiles are being used for flooring in offices, airports, etc. Wear of the
glazing of these tiles depends on the temperature of firing and thickness of
glazing. When selecting glazed tiles as floor tiles, care should be taken to examine
the thickness of glazing. Fully-vitrified tiles as described below are, nowadays,
preferred over glazed tiles as floor tiles as they do not wear off as in the case of
glazed tiles.
v. Fully-vitrified tiles
When special clay is mixed with oxides and burnt to very high
temperatures the clay becomes vitrified and we get coloured vitrified tiles. In
contrast to ordinary glazed tiles, where the glazing is only on the top surface,
these tiles are wholly made of vitrified clay. Special techniques can be used in its
manufacturing to get special surfaces. Such tiles fare well as floor tiles even in
moderately heavy traffic. Many ceramic companies now make fully-vitrified tiles
in India. Their water absorption is only 0.5 per cent. This tile bridges the gap
between ordinary ceramic tiles and marble floors. These tiles can be distinguished
from glazed tiles by examining the broken section of the tile. The edges of these
tiles are usually ground again after manufacturing so that the tiles can be laid with
very close joints. These tiles are especially used in kitchen floors as ordinary
ceramic tiles are brittle and the fall of any heavy object is liable to chip the
ceramic tiles.
Porcelain tiles
The latest addition to ceramic tiles are porcelain tiles. They are available
in many forms as plain, coloured and also with decorative patterns and sizes.
They are rather expensive compared to the traditional floors. They are very
decorative but brittle in its behaviour.
Choosing floor tiles

There are so many alternative types of tiles for floors and we must choose
the type of tile to be used with great are. The appearance of a finished building
will be very much influenced by the flooring material used and at the same time,
the floor material should suit the type of building for which it is chosen.
Expensive tiles do not go well with low cost buildings and similarly cheap tiles do
not suit prestigious buildings. The following are some of the important
considerations in choosing ceramic floor tiles (see also Chapter 31).
1. Water absorption
The body of ordinary clay tiles can have an absorption capacity more than
10 per cent of its weight and a low modulus of rupture. On the other hand,
for stoneware tiles produced from a mixture of clay and special silicon
materials, the water absorption will be low in good tiles, it should not be
more than 2.5 per cent.
2. Quality and thickness of glaze
The quality and thickness of glaze used are very important factors in
choosing the glazed floor tile. It is good to remember that bright colours
used for ceramics need a body with high expansion coefficient and this
can be achieved easily only in a porous and relatively low strength
ceramics. Hence, with such backings, very bright coloured tiles do not
wear out very well in heavy traffic areas.
3. Wall and floor tiles

Until very recently, the most glazed clay tiles made were suitable for
walls. Floors with people walking on it have traffic and hence, floor tiles
should have better wearing surfaces. Even in floors, we should distinguish
between places of light traffic as in dwellings and places of heavy traffic
such as shopping centres, railway stations, pathways, etc. The flooring
material chosen should match the traffic. While choosing glazed tiles for
floors, much care should be taken to examine the quality and thickness of
glazing. Otherwise, the flooring will deteriorate in a short time.
4. Aesthetics
In addition to ceramic tiles there are many alternatives for floors like
marble, terrazzo. The material and pattern of tiles chosen should always
satisfy aesthetics.
5. Function
The floor material should satisfy its function. In a computer room, we
generally go in for a resilient floor like PVC or linoleum floor. Similarly,
we will prefer woodflooring for a dance floor. In bathrooms, we usually
use marble floors. In workplaces, like kitchens, the floor should not be
brittle.
6. Cost
The floor material should match the cost of the construction envisaged.
For high class building like kitchens, we should use top class tiles.
(Ceramic tiles are again dealt with in Section 31.2)
Common clay roof tiles

In this section, we will deal with the commonly used roof tiles. Clay roof
tiles are made of plastic clay different from brick clay. For making tiles, the clay
has to be moulded to sections thinner than bricks. There are many types of clay
roof tiles. They are mostly used for covering sloped roofs. We will deal with the
following types of roof tiles which are more popular then the other types in India.
Mangalore Patter Roofing Tiles

Mangalore tiles are of fvarious shapes and dimension. They overlap on the
tile below and also lock with the adjacent tile as shown in Fig.
Common rafter
Reeper at 30cm spacings
(a)
Fig Magalore tiles
(a) Plan view of back of tile
(b) Arrangement of tiles lengthwise
(c) Interlocking of two tile breadthwise
Dimensions of Mangalore Tiles
Type No. Overall (mm) Effective(mm)
Length(mm Width(mm) Length Width
1. 410 235 Minimum Minimum

overlap overlap
2. 420 250 60mm 25mm
3. 425 260
These tiles are classified into two classes depending on water absorption
and breaking load as shown in Table
Table Classification of Roofing Tiles
No. Characteristics Requirements
Class AA Class A
1. Water absorption 19% 24%
2. Breaking load (kg) 102 82

individual and average
The usual tests made to access the quality of the tiles re the following:
The flatness of a tile is tested by placing the faces of the tile on a plane
surface. The gap at the corners shall not be more than 6mm. There should be at
least two battern lugs provided for the tile. (These lugs should have base thickness
not less than 15mm with top thickness not less than 10mm and a projection from
the tile shall be 7 to 12mm. Similarly, there should be two eave lugs. They should
be shaped so as to fit into the corrugations of the next tile as shown in Fig.
It is the practice to provide at least one hole in one of the crossribs near the
eve end for securing the tile to the reeper or batten with a wire so that they are not
lifted off by high winds (This is especially important in cyclonic regions).
Clay Half Round Country Tiles (Spanish Tiles)
Half round country tiles are made in villages by potters and are commonly
used in villages. (They are also refered as Spanish tiles). These are laid in pairs as
undertiles and overtiles as shown in Fig.
s
The undertiles are laid at a spacing of 26cm with spaces not less than
75mm between their edges and over them the overtiles are laid. The undertiles
will be laid with their narrow end towards the eves, whereas the overtiles will be
laid with their wide end towards the eves. These tiles are also sometimes placed
over A.C. or G.I. sheets as ornamentation.
Allahabad Tiles (Italian Tiles)
Allahabad tiles (also called Italian tiles), consist of two types–the bottom
and top tiles. The bottom tiles are flat, tapered with upturned flanges at the sides.
The overtiles are half round and tapered as shown in Fig. The trough tiles are
30cm×40cm in size and the top tiles are 15cm×35cm in size. Both are slightly
tapered towards on end.
Overtile
Undertile
Fig Allahabad tiles
10.5 Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

It is the kind of concrete to which various fibres of very small diameter
and short lengths (for example, steel fibres 10 to 20 microns in diameter and 10 to
50mm length) are added to make a concrete. This material has increased tensile
strength, resilience, flexibility and other qualities. The fibres may be steel, glass,
polymer, carbon or even natural fibres like coconut fibre. As glass reacts with
cement, special care should be taken while using them. Fibre reinforced concrete
has been used as overlays for pavements in airports, bridges and over industrial
floors. It can also be used in structures where increased resistance to cracking is
needed.
Uses of Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Fiber reinforced concrete use,
i. To improve structural strength.
ii. Used for increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing.

iii. It reduces steel reinforcement requirements
iv. Used for reducing crack widths.
v. Used to improve impact and abrasion resistance.
vi. For ductility improvement it is also used.
vii. It improves mix cohesion, improving pumpiability over long distances.
Uses of fiber reinforced polymers
Fiber reinforced polymers are use in following:
1. Fiber reinforced polymer gives strength to the concrete.
2. It is use in prestressed members.
3. It is use for construction of low weight concrete members.
4. It is use in filling of cracks in concrete structures.
5. It is use to reduce the quantity of reinforcement in R.C.C structures.
Tuff tiles
It is a concrete constructed tiles with different shapes and sizes. It is very
hard and strong in compression and use in footpath, floors and other
public ways.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. _______ is the cheapest variety glass.
(a) float glass (b) soda lime
(c) safety glass (d) all of these
2. _______ is used in small panels of door and windows for building
purpose.
(a) bullet proof glass (b) tinted glass
(c) sheet glass (d) none of these
3. Asphalt, bitumen and tar are the _______.
(a) hydro carbons (b) liquid paste
4. Bitumen is the product obtained by fractional distillation of _______
as an end product.
(a) intial petroleum (b) crude petroleum
(c) final petroleum (d) all of these
5. F.R.C is used to improve _______.
(a) structural strength (b) bearing capacity
(c) structural stability (d) structural deformation
6. In manufacturing glass, chromium oxide is added to get such color.
(a) Brown (b) Black
(c) Green (d) Red
7. The raw material used of in the manufacture of glass.

(a) Silica (b) Clay
(c) Asphalt (d) All of these
8. A liquid prepared from asphalt used for road making in cold areas.
(a) Bitumen (b) Cut back
(c) Emulsion (d) Asphalt
9. A concrete reinforced with fiber instead of steel is termed as.
(a) High strength concrete (b) Fiber reinforced concrete
(c) Special concrete (d) All of these
10. Melting point of glass in Co
(a) 100-400 (b) 400-600
(c) 600-900 (d) more than 1000
11. The glass scrap used in manufacture of glass is timed as,
(a) Making glass (b) Fire glass
(c) Face glass (d) Cullet
12. Which is the main ingredients of glass manufacturing?
(a) Silica (b) Lime
(c) Cullet (d) Potash
13. Glass used in manufacture of wind screen is.
(a) Laminated glass (b) Flint glass
(c) Soda-lime glass (d) Safety these
Answers
1.b 2.c 3.a 4.b 5.d 6.c 7.a 8.b 9.b 10.d
11.d 12.a 13.d
Short Questions.
1. Define Asphalt.
2. State uses of glass in construction industry.
3. Enlist the forms of bitumen.
4. Enumerate the types of asphalt.
5. Define tar.
6. State the general applications of bituminous materials.
7. What do you meant by tile?
8. Enlist different types of tile.
9. Define Fiber reinforced concrete.
10. What do you meant by fiber reinforced polymers (FRP)?
11. Give composition of glass.
12. Enlist types of glass.
13. Enlist types of asphalt.
14. What is tuff tile?
15. Give use of tuff tile.
16. What is finishing?
17. What is panel finishing?
18. What is fiber reinforced concrete?
19. What is F.R.C?

20. What is fiber reinforced polymers?
Long Questions
1. State the uses of different types of glass in construction works.
2. Describe the differences between asphalt, tar and bituminous materials.
3. Describe the grades and uses of bituminous materials.
4. Explain the uses and construction of tuff tile.
5. Describe composition and uses of fiber reinforced concrete.
6 Describe the general applications of bituminous materials.
7. State the use of glass tiles and glass doors.
8 Describe the important considerations while choosing floor tiles.
9. Describe modern materials and construction bonding materials.
10. Enlist the uses of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) and fiber reinforced
polymers (FRP).
Chapter No 11.
Composite Material
 Describe the fundamentals of composite materials, matrices,
reinforcement( glass fibres, natural fibres, carbon fibres), particulate
(sand, talc, coloured chips, recycled glass). Describe the differences
between asphalt, tar and bituminous materials.
 Describe the types of composite materials (Traditional- Wood,
Engineered wood, brick, steel, concrete, disc brake pads) Polymers.
 State benefits of composite materials.
 Describe the applications of composite materials.
11.0 General
A composite material also called a composition material or shortened
to composite, which is the common name is a material made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical
properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different
from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and
distinct within the finished structure, differentiating composites
from mixtures and solid solutions.
The new material may be preferred for many reasons. Common examples include
materials which are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when compared to
traditional materials.
11.1 Composite material

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix
phase and dispersed phase) and having bulk properties significantly different form
those of any of the constituents
Matrix phase
Matrix phase The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix.
Matrix is usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase
and shares a load with it.
Dispersed (reinforcing) phase
The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous form.
This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually
stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase
Many of common materials (metal alloys, doped Ceramics and Polymers mixed
with additives) also have a small amount of dispersed phases in their structures,
however they are not considered as composite materials since their properties are
similar to those of their base constituents (physical properties of steel are similar
to those of pure iron).
11.2 There are two classification systems of composite

materials.
One of them is based on the matrix material (metal, ceramic, polymer) and the
second is based on the material structure:
11.2.1Classification of composites (based on matrix

material)
Metal Matrix Composites

(MMC) Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum,

magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or
metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.
Ceramic Matrix Composites.

(CMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and
embedded fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).
Polymer Matrix Composites

(PMC) Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset
(Unsaturated Polyester (UP), Epoxiy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate
(PC),Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polysterene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or
Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase)
11.2.2 Classification of composite materials (based on

reinforcing material structure)
Particulate Composites.
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form
of particles.
1. Composites with random orientation of particles.
2. Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of these
materials consists of two dimensional flat platelets (flakes), laid parallel to each
other.
Fibrous Composites
1. Short-fiber reinforced composites.
Short-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a
dispersed phase in form of discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter).
I. Composites with random orientation of fibers.
II. Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.
2. Long-fiber reinforced composites.

Long-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a
dispersed phase in form of continuous fibers.
I. Unidirectional orientation of fibers.
II. Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).
11.3 Laminate Composites.

When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber
orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.
11.4 Organic matrix composites.

Organic composites are generally organic polymer composites with
inorganic nanoscale building blocks. They combine the advantages of the
inorganic material (eg, rigidity, thermal stability) and the organic polymer
(eg, flexibility, dielectric, ductility, and process ability).
11.5 Metal matrix composites.

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two
constituent parts, one being a metal necessarily, the other material may be a
different metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. When
at least three materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite. An MMC is
complementary to a cermet.
11.6 Ceramic matrix composites.

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials as
well as a subgroup of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a
ceramic matrix. Both the matrix and the fibers can consist of any ceramic
material, whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be considered a ceramic
material.
11.7 Carbon /Carbon composites

The two major components of carbon/carbon composites are the filler and the
matrix carbons, the latter being the binder for the fillers, both of which can have
different structures and textures. Based on variations and combinations of these
two components, the properties of the carbon/carbon composites can be altered
significantly.
11.8 Classification of based on reinforcement.

The composites might need reinforcements, which could be fibers, or particles of
fibers, or whiskers. Fibers are materials that have a thin and long structure, where
one axis is long while other is circular or almost circular in nature. The following
classifications are possible:
11.8.1 Fiber reinforced composites:

Fibers are very good components and transfer strength and other desirable
properties to the composites. Fibers are not very ideal for use in composites, as
the properties that they bring to the composite material can depend on their
length, shape, orientation and composition, and these vary a lot. Especially,
orientation of fibers can matter a lot in strength of the composite. During
formative stages of the matrix, there can be some randomness and optimum
strengths might not be reached.
11.8.2 Laminar composites:
These are present in “lamina”, that is, layers of material bonded together. They
are used in clad and sandwich laminate formats, which have numerous
applications.
11.8.3 Particulate reinforced composites:
These are microstructures of metal and ceramic composites, which have
one phase of material strewn into another, to form numerous particles,
which may have different shapes like triangle, square and the like. The
dispersed size of these particles is of the order of few microns, and they
can get in volumes of as much as 28%.
11.8.4 Whiskers:
These are single crystals with almost no defects in their structure. They
are not continuous, and are short in structure, and made from materials
such as graphite, silicon carbide, and the like. The lengths of these
whiskers is of the range of 3 to 55 nanometers. They have a length to
width ratio greater than one, and therefore, are elongated, as opposed to
the particles.
11.9 Benefits of composite materials

Composite materials offer higher specific strength and stiffness than other
conventional materials. Readily available carbon fibre composites will match the
stiffness and strength of high-grade aluminium in all directions, at less than two-
thirds the density. Specialist grades can be double the strength and stiffness of
steel in the fibre direction at a fifth of the density.
Excellent strength and stiffness to weight ratio

The relative lightness of composite materials enables use of bigger sections that
are inherently stiffer and stronger for bending and torsion. This is a considerable
advantage for engineered structures. On a basic box section Aluminum,
Titanium and Steel have very similar specific strength and stiffness which can be
exceeded by even Black Metal application of carbon fibre composites. Tailoring
the direction of the fibres to where they work efficiently can give 4 times stiffer or
2.5 times stronger per weight. Tapering the lay-up or increase the aspect ratio of
the section improves performance further and can yield stiffness at 20 times and
strength four times than the metallic baseline.
Ability to form complex shapes

Composites can be used to make complex shapes without using high pressure
tools, because the composite is formed when the matrix cures or goes solid.
Consequently, the geometry of the part is very flexible, whether produced in low
volume by manual lay-up pre-preg cured in a press or autoclave or using dry fibre
performs infused with liquid resin in a closed mould.
The ability to mould complex shapes allows greater potential for consolidating
the number of individual components in an assembly and structurally offers the
advantage of inherent stability and buckling resistance. The use of core materials
can further enhance the out of plane stiffness and moves composites into a
different league.
Durability
Composites offer outstanding fatigue and durability potential and are in general
very tolerant to environmental effects such as UV damage, moisture, chemical
attack and temperature extremes.
Damping characteristics
Composites have the ability to reduce induced vibrations rapidly.
11.10 Application of composites material

The construction industry has made increasing use of composites since the 1960s.
Applications include:
Architectural
Architectural features such as

facades, cladding, domes, roofing and structures such as cupolas, can be made
effectively using composites. They can be lighter, more efficient,
more durable and require less maintenance than traditional materials. If combined
with other core materials such as steel or plastics, they are capable of meeting
high structural, fire, security and sound insulation requirements.
Bridges
Composites can be used in the construction of entire bridge

structures, bridge decks and bridge enclosures. They are useful for their high
stiffness-to-weight and strength-to-weight ratios in comparison with
conventional materials such as steel and reinforced concrete.
Civil engineering and infrastructure
Composites are often used in modular structures, masts, towers, pipes,

tanks, access covers and water control structures. They are also commonly used in
rail applications such as trackbeds, platform systems, and gantries.
Housing
Composites lend themselves well to prefabricated offsite

construction for components commonly used in housebuilding, such
as sanitaryware, fixtures and fittings, and architectural mouldings.
Refurbishment
Composites can be used to strengthen existing structures such

as beams, columns, floors, cooling towers and chimneys.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs

1. Minimum no of components of composites.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
2. _______ acts as a binder in composite material:
(a) Aggregates (b) Lime stone
(c) Matrix (d) None of these
3. Components which provides strength to composite material is called:
(a) Matrix (b) Reinforcement
(c) Polyester (d) Bituman
4. _______ is used as binder in composite material:
(a) Polymers (b) Epoxy
(c) Ceramincs (d) Bituman
5. Sandwich type composites are known as:
(a) Particulate (b) Laminar
(c) Fiber reinforced (d) None of these
6. Composites prepared for use at places of high temperature:
(a) Metal matric composite (b) Organic matrix composites
(c) Ceramic matrix composites (d) All of these
7. Fiber used in composites as reinforcement are long and______.

(a) Square (b) Circular
(c) Irregular (d) All of these
8. Reinforcement material which has no specific shape and orientation.
(a) Fibers (b) Whisker
(c) Fabrics (d) None of these
9. _______ is composite material:
(a) Concrete (b) Fiber glass
(c) Plywood (d) All of these
10. Mostly used form of fiber reinformced polymers is:
(a) Laminar (b) Particulate
(c) Whisters (d) None of these
Answers
1. a 2. c 3.b 4.d 5.a 6.a 7.b 8.d 9.d 10.a
Short Questions:
1. Define composite material.
2. Enlist important constituents of composite material.
3. Define reinforcement.
4. Define matrix.
5. Give the classification of composites according to matrices.
6. Define metal matrix composites.
7. Define ceramic matrix composites.
8. Define laminar composites.
9. Define particulate composites.

10. Give the classification according to reinforcement.
11. Enlist the merits of composites materials.
12. Give uses of composites materials.
13. Give uses of composites materials in civil engineering.
Long Questions:
1. Describe the fundamentals of composite materials?
2. State the classification of composite materials?
3. Explain the classification of composite materials according to
reinforcement?
4. Explain the classification of composite materials according to matrices?
5. Give the uses of composite materials?
6. Describe the application of composite materials in civil engineering?
Chapter No 12.
Miscellaneous Materials
 Define asbestos, state its characteristics and uses
 State asbestos cement sheets
 Define linoleum, state its characteristics and uses
 Define thermocole, state its characteristics and uses
 Define resin and state its uses
 Define wood wool, state its characteristics and uses
 Define rubber, state its types and uses
 Define plaster of paris ,state its characteristics and uses
 Define adhesives, state its characteristics, uses and types
 Define glass wool, state its characteristics and uses
 Define ebonite, state its characteristics and uses
12.1 Asbestos.
is a term used to refer to six naturally occurring silicate minerals. All are
composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many
microscopic 'fibrils' that can be released into the atmosphere by abrasion and
other processes. Asbestos is an excellent electrical insulator and is highly heat-
resistant, so for many years it was used as a building material.
Characteristics:
 It has low water permeability, is vermin proof and resists rot.
 It is brown, grey and white in colour.
 It is good for heat sound and electric insulation.
 It is resistant to acids and alkalies.
 Its fibres are capable of being woven into fabrics.
 It is highly durable and is strong.
 Its specific gravity is 3.10
 Its melting point is 1200-11 50ºC
 It acts as reinforcing material when mixed with ordinary Portland

Cement.
Uses:
 Roofing sealant, pipe lagging, duct tape, furnace cement and glue for
flooring, wall panels, ceiling tiles and interior fixtures
 Asbestos Construction Mastics & Gunning Mix: Used to repair or fill

industrial materials such as furnaces, tile or flooring.
 Asbestos Duct Connectors: Fabric that connects HVAC system parts

together
 Asbestos Electrical Components: Ebonized panels, electrical shielding,

molded cement bases, flash guard paper, wire insulation and cable wrap
 Asbestos Felt: Used in roofing, flooring and paper mills
 Asbestos Fireproofing: Firefighter gear, tar paper, paint and spray-on

fireproofing
 Asbestos Gaskets: Heat-resistant seals for joining machine parts, valves

and hoses
 Asbestos Insulation: Loose-fill insulation, pipe wrap, block insulation,

acoustic tiles and spray-on insulation
 Asbestos Plastics: Used in tools, cookware, appliances and vehicles,

especially for brake pads
 Asbestos Sheets: Corrugated cement sheets, flat cement sheets, drywall

and “asbestos lumber” for roof shingles and siding
12.2 Asbestos cement sheets.
Asbestos cement, genericized as fibro or fibrolite - short for "fibrous (or

fibre) cement sheet" and AC sheet, is a building material in
which asbestos fibres are used to reinforce thin rigid cement sheets. Asbestos
cement is usually formed into flat or corrugated sheets or piping, but can be
molded into any shape wet cement can fit.
Characteristics:
 These are light.
 Durable.
 Impervious
 Fire resisting commonly used for roofing big halls, factories,
workshops.
 Less conductor of heat.
 A.C. sheets require no maintenance.

 High strength in bending.
 Resistance against frost.
12.3 Linoleum Characteristics and uses

Linoleum is commonly used for flooring purposes in different sorts of
buildings. It is often confused with vinyl, but linoleum is actually completely
different from vinyl. It is made of natural materials, such as wood or cord powder,
ground up stone and is the primary ingredient of linseed oil.
Characteristics:
 A resilient sheet flooring material

 Ecologically friendly, made of natural materials
 Water resistant
 Heat- and sound- insulating
 Very durable and flexible
 Conductor of heat sand sound
Uses:
 Residential flooring: for kitchens, hallways and bathrooms
 Institutional flooring: in schools, showrooms
 Originally installed over a wood subflooring. Later, a layer of felt
was sandwiched in between
 Heavier battleship linoleum was common in offices, stores,
hospitals, banks, lodge rooms, elevators and battleship
decks
 Thinner battleship linoleum was common in light traffic areas and
where cost was a factor
 The use of linoleum was surpassed by vinyl tile after WWII
 But, cork flooring remains popular as naturally resilient flooring.
12.4 Thermocole characteristics and uses.

Thermocol, alternatively known as Styrofoam, is one of the widely used products
at present today. From disposable cups and plates to packaging materials,
Thermocol has innumerable applications and is increasingly becoming popular as
it is lightweight, and has superb insulation properties, low manufacturing costs,
and can be mass produced.
Characteristics:
Some of the properties of thermocol are mentioned below:
 Most importantly, it features a closed-cell structure and thus supports low

thermal conductivity.
 It is highly preferred for thermal insulation.
 Other materials possess an open cell structure and are thus incompetent
when subject to moisture.
 Secondly, Thermocol is tasteless, odorless and fungi-resistant.
 Tensile strength is 34.5 to 48.3.
 Rockwell hardness is between M 45 and M 60.
Uses:
 It is used for heat and sound insulation in refrigeration and air
conditioning buildings.
 It is used in acoustic treatment and lining of ceiling and walls.
 Thermocol is available in slabs 50×50, 60×60, 100×100, 50×100 cm and
15 to 25 mm thick.
 Thermocol are primarily utilized to manufacture disposable trays, cups,
packaging materials, containers, etc.
 Thermocol are also used to make loose packaging products known as
packing peanuts and insulation boards for floors, walls, and roofs in
buildings
12.5 Resins:
Resins are typically viscous substances that convert into rigid polymers
through a curing process. Resins are naturally occurring but are now often
made synthetically. Some synthetic resins have similar properties to natural
plant resins, but many are very different.
Types of resins:
 Polyester Resins. Polyester resins are formed from the reaction of dibasic
organic acids and polyhydric alcohols.
 Phenolic Resins. Phenolic resins are a type of thermosetting resin.
 Alkyd Resins.
 Polycarbonate Resins.
 Polyamide Resins.
 Polyurethane Resins.
 Silicone Resins.
 Epoxy Resins.
Uses:
 Adhesives, paints and coatings
 Decoration
 Electronic components and replacements for metal parts
 Gears, pipes and tubes
 Intricate models and parts
 Jewelry
 Medical devices
 Consumer goods
 Boat, car and parts repairing
12.6 Wood wool:

Wood wool, known primarily as excelsior in North America, is a product made of
wood slivers cut from logs. It is mainly used in packaging, for cooling pads in
home evaporative cooling systems known as swamp coolers, for erosion
control mats, and as a raw material for the production of other products such as
bonded wood wool boards. In the past it was used to fill stuffed toys. It is also
sometimes used by taxidermists to construct the armatures of taxidermy mounts.
Characteristics:
 Wood wool fibers can be compressed and when the pressure is removed
they resume their initial volume.
 This is a useful property for minimizing their volume when shipping.
 Due to its high volume and large surface area, wood wool can be used for
applications where water or moisture retention is necessary.
 The width of wood wool fibers varies from 1.5 to 20 mm, while their
length is usually around 500 mm (depending on the production process).
 When these fibers are bonded with cement or magnesite, bonded
wood wool boards are produced.
 Slabs of bonded wood wool are considered environmentally friendly
construction and insulation materials because they do not contain
organic binders.
Uses:
 It is used as a packaging material for cushioning.
 cooling pads in home evaporative cooler systems known as “swamp
coolers.”
 Used in mats and blankets for erosion control.

 It is used in the production of cement-bonded wood wool boards.
 Used as stuff material in toys.
12.7 Rubber:
Rubber is a material which can stretch and shrink. It is a polymer. It can be
produced from natural sources (e.g. natural rubber) or can be synthesised on an
industrial scale. Many things are made from rubber, like gloves, tires, plugs, and
masks. A few things can be made only from rubber.
Types of Rubber:
Following are the types of rubber.
Natural Rubber:
Natural rubber is obtained from latex, a milky liquid present in either the latex
vessels (ducts) or in the cells of rubber-producing plants. Around 20,000 species
of plants produce latex, but only 2,500 species have been found to
contain rubber in their latex.
Syntactic Rubber:
A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. They are polymers synthesized
from petroleum byproducts. Synthetic rubber, just like natural rubber, has many
uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles, seals. They
are more resistant to oxidizing agents for example, such
as oxygen and ozone which can reduce the life of products like tyres.
Properties of Rubber:
 It has outstanding resistance to oxygen, ozone, and sunlight.
 Its resistance to polar materials such as phosphate esters, many ketones
and alcohol.
 It has good electrical properties, low temperature flexibility, excellent

heat, water and steam resistance.
 Its resistance to petroleum products is poor.
 It can store fluids and gases.
 Good resistance against friction
Uses:
 Used in preparation of gas kits in refrigerators, Auto Mobiles and
Air Conditioning.
 Vehicle tiers are prepared from rubber.
 Wires are also prepared from rubber.
 Used in machines where high friction in produced.
 Plastic furniture.
12.8 Plaster of pairs:

Plaster of paris, quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder
(calcium sulfate hemihydrate), which hardens when moistened and allowed to
dry. Known since ancient times, plaster of paris is so called because of its
preparation from the abundant gypsum found near Paris. Plaster of paris is
prepared by heating calcium sulfate dihydrate, or gypsum, to 120–180 °C (248–
356 °F). With an additive to retard the set, it is called wall, or hard wall, plaster,
which can provide passive fire protection for interior surfaces.
Characteristics:
 Plaster of Paris is easy to spread and level.
 It is fire resistant highly.
 It forms a thick surface to resist normal knocks after drying.
 It expands very slightly on the setting.
 It does not cause cracking of surfaces. It gives a decorative interior finish.
Uses:
Plaster of Paris is a building material which is used for plastering the internal
walls
making the false ceilings of the house.
It is also used to cast decorative elements like mouldings, Cornish, etc.

It Is used in Art work and pottery.
It also used in medical for preparation of artificial organs.
12.9 Adhesives:
Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic
substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them
together and resists their separation.
Types:
There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying, solvent based adhesives
and polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives. Solvent
based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a
solvent.
 Albumin glue.
 Animal protein glue
 Rubber glue.
 Starch glue.
 Vegetable glue.
 Special glue.
Characteristics:
 Adhesion to a variety of substrates allows bonding of dissimilar materials
if necessary.
 High cohesive strength is desirable.
 Flexibility improves peel strength by flexing with peel stress
 High elastic modulus of substrate and adhesive resists stress at the bond
line.
 Degree of surface preparation necessary.
 Time to handling strength.
Uses:
 Provide good strength.
 Use to joint different surfaces.
 Used in binding in glass metal and wood.
 Adhesives are used to prevent rusting in metal surfaces
12.10 Glass Wool:

Glass wool is an insulating material made from fibres of glass arranged
using a binder into a texture similar to wool. The process traps many
small pockets of air between the glass, and these small air pockets result
in high thermal insulation properties.
Characteristics:
 It is insulation material.
 Its density is low.
 It can be prepared in the form of slab and Role
Uses:
 Glass wool is a thermal insulation material consisting of intertwined and
flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package" air, resulting in a
low density that can be varied through compression and binder content (as
noted above, these air cells are the actual insulator).
 Glass wool can be a loose-fill material, blown into attics, or together with
an active binder, sprayed on the underside of structures, sheets, and panels
that can be used to insulate flat surfaces such as cavity wall
insulation, ceiling tiles, curtain walls, and ducting.
 It is also used to insulate piping and for soundproofing
12.11 Ebonite characteristics and uses:

Ebonite is a brand name for a material generically known as hard rubber,
and is obtained by vulcanizing natural rubber for prolonged periods. Ebonite
may contain from 25% to 80% sulfur and linseed oil.
Characteristics:
 Very high insulation properties.
 Provides extremely high resistance especially against ultraviolet rays.
 Extremely low free sulfur. Contacting parts with metal also provide low
sulfurization.
 Provides excellent resistance against chemicals, including acid and alkali,
at room temperature.
 Has hardness and strength comparable to metal.
 Gives dark shiny gloss when polished. Easy to conduct a precision work
and forming.
 Water absorbability is extremely low compared to soft rubber.
 Very high moisture resistance.
Uses:
 Ebonite is widely used in many ways including
 Electrical insulation materials
 Premium gold or silver lacquer fountain pens
 Instrument mouthpieces
 Used in auto mobile battery’s.
EXERCISE
M.C. Qs
1. _______ is a fire resistant material.
(a) Linolium (b) Asbestos
(c) Alumina (d) All of these
2. _______ dust can cuase lung cancer.
(a) Asbestos (b) Linolium
(c) Thermoeole (d) None of these
3. _______ is prepared by mixing plam tree resin.
(a) Thermocole (b) Linolium
(c) Asbestos (d) Resin
4. _______ A material used to join two or more materials.
(a) Resin (b) Adhesives
(c) Glue (d) All of these
5. _______ is used as heat insulation material.
(a) Glass wool (b) Wood wool
(c) Thermocole (d) All of these
6. _______ is prepared by heating a mixture of rubber and Sulpher.
(a) Thermocole (b) Ebonite
(c) Asbestos (d) Resin
7. Food and egg containers are prepared by.
(a) Thermocole (b) Ebonite
(c) Asbestos (d) All of these
8. _______ Consist of thin long fibers from soft word.

(a) Glass wool (b) Wood wool
(c) Linolium (d) None of these
9. _______ is a white powder used for ornamental work.

(a) Plaster of pairs (b) Ebonite
(c) Linoleum (d) All of these
10. _______ is a heat resistant material prepared by glass fiber.
(a) Glass wool (b) Thermocole
(c) Ebonite (d) None of these
Answers
1. b 2.a 3.b 4.d 5.d 6.b 7.a 8.b 9.a 10.a
Short Questions.
1. Define asbestos.
2. Enlist properties of asbestos.
3. Give the uses of asbestos.
4. What is linoleum? Enlist its ingradients.
5. Define linlium cement. What is its used?
6. Enlist properties of linoleum.
7. Enlist uses of linoleum.
8. Define ebonite.
9. Enlist properties of ebonite.
10. Define thermocole.
11. Give uses of thermocole.
12. Define resin.
13. Differentiate between vinyl and styrene resin.
14. Define wood wool.

15. Enlist uses of wood wool.
16. Define rubber.
17. Differentiate between natural and synthetic rubber.
18. Give uses of rubber.
19. Define plaster of pairs.
20. Give properties and uses of plaster of pairs.
21. Define adhesives.
22. Enlist the types of adhesives.
23. Define glass wool.
24. Give uses of glass wool.
Long Questions:
1. Explain asbestos, state its characteristics and uses.

2. State asbestos cement sheets.
3. Describe linoleum, state its characteristics and uses .
4. Describe thermocole, state its characteristics and uses.
5. Explain resin and state its uses.
6. Explain wood wool, state its characteristics and uses.
7. State rubber, state its types and uses.
8. Describe plaster of paris ,state its characteristics and uses.
9. State adhesives, state its characteristics, uses and types .
10. Describe glass wool, state its characteristics and uses .
11. Explain ebonite, state its characteristics and uses .
Chapter # 13
Buildings
 State the classification of buildings with examples.
 State the components of building and their functions.
13.0 Buildings
Any structure constructed of what so ever material and used for
residential, business or other purposes is called a building.
It includes foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roof, verandah, doors,
windows, ventilators, plumbing and other building services etc. It provides a
permanent shelter to the inmates. It may be noted that tents, shamianas and
tarpaulin shelters are not considered as buildings.
13.1 Purposes of a building

A building is constructed to archived the following purposes.
i. The primary object of a building is to provide shelter to the inmates.
ii. To provide sufficient accommodation for the purpose for which it is
constructed.
iii. To provide protection against through thieves and house breakers.
iv. To protect the inmates from the storm, lightning, rain and snowfall.
v. To provide protection to the inmates from the heat and glare of the sun.
13.2 Parts of a building

A building usually consists of the following two parts;
1. Sub-Structure
2. Super-Structure
Co ping
Throa ting
Parapet
Drip co urse
Roof slab Blo cking course
Corn ice
Frieze
Second floor sla b
String course
Corbel
Lintel Sun shine
Super-Structure Wind ow fram e

D.P.C.
Sill
Drip stone
First floor slab
String cou rse
Corbel
Lintel Sun shade
Reveal
Jamb Do or fram e
Plinth course
Floor or Plin th level Horizon tal D.P.C
Plinth Masonry
G.L
Vertical D.P.C.
Sub-Structu re Depth of fou ndation
Fou ndatio n concrete Width of Foundation
Section th rough an Exte rnal Wall of a Building showin g its different Parts
1. Sub-Structure
The part of a building below ground level is called sub-structure or
foundation.
Sometimes, a part of a major building is constructed below ground level
which provides accommodation below ground level is called ‘basement’.
In such cases, basement along with other portion of the building is
supported by the foundation lying below it. The part of the building which acts as
foundation does not provide any accommodation but simply transmits the load of
the building safely to the soil tying under-neath. The construction of foundation is
started from a specified level which is decided by the design engineer, keeping in
view the economy and safety of the building.
2. Super-Structure
The part of a building above ground level is called super-structure.
The super-structure of a building usually consists of walls, floors,
verandahs, doors, windows etc which are briefly discussed below.
i. Walls
The structure constructed to enclose an area, to support suspended floors
and roof or to divide the floor area of a building into required number of rooms
are known as walls.
These are essential to provide privacy to the inmates and protect them
from wind and weather.
ii. Roof
The covering constructed over the enclosed space of a building is called
roof.
It is essential to protect the inmates from weathering agencies such as sun,
storm, rains etc.
iii. Floors
The surfaces which provide room for the inmates to live at different levels
in a building are called floors.
Floors are essential to divide a building into different storeys and to
provide a hard surface to live at different levels.
iv. Verandah
The covered outer portion adjacent to living rooms usually open on two or
three sides is called verandah.
Verandah on the front side of the building is called front verandah,
whereas it is called rear verandah when provided on the back side.
Verandahs are essential to protect the inmates from heat, glare of the sun
and direct showers of the rain.
v. Doors
The arrangements made to provide free access to inside and outside of the
rooms of a buildings are called doors.
Doors are essential to provide access to inside and outside of the rooms of
a building.
vi. Windows
The arrangements provided to allow for entry of air and light inside the
rooms of a building are called windows.
Windows are essential to provide fresh air and natural light to the inmates
of the building.
13.3 Classification of building

All buildings are classified into various types, depending upon the
following.
1. Based on occupancy
2. Based on type of construction
1. Classification Based on occupancy
The buildings are classified, based on occupancy or use, into the various
types as discussed below.
i. Residential buildings
ii. Educational buildings
iii. Institutional buildings
iv. Assembly buildings
v. Business buildings
vi. Mercantile buildings
vii. Industrial buildings

viii. Storage buildings
ix. Hazardous buildings
i. Residential buildings
The buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal
residential purposes are called residential buildings are lodging or rooming
houses, one or two family private dwelling.
ii. Educational buildings

The buildings used for school, college or day-care purposes are called
educational buildings.
The important examples of educational buildings are Libraries, nursery or
primary schools, high or higher secondary schools, coaching centres, colleges
universities etc.
iii. Institutional buildings
The buildings used for purposes such as medical or other treatment
purposes are called institutional buildings.
These buildings also include buildings used for care of persons suffering
from physical or mental illness, disease etc.
The important example of institutional buildings are: Hospitals and
custodial institutions, penal institutions etc.
iv. Assembly buildings
The buildings where groups of people gather for amusement, recreation,
social, religious, patriotic, civil travel and other similar purposes are called
assembly buildings.
The important examples of assembly buildings are: theatres, motion
picture house, assembly halls, auditoria, exhibition hall; museums, gymnasiums,
restaurants, places of worship, dancing halls, club rooms, passenger stations and
terminals of air, surface and marine public transportation service etc.
v. Business buildings
The buildings used for transaction of business, for the keeping of accounts
and records and other similar purposes are called business buildings.
The important examples of business buildings are: All such buildings
which provide service facilities such as news stands, lunch, counters etc.
vi. Mercantile buildings
The buildings used for display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale
or retail, are called mercantile buildings.
The important examples of these buildings are: shops, stores, market, etc.
These buildings may also include offices, storages and service facilities which are
provided for the sale of merchandise and are located in the same building.
vii. Industrial buildings

The buildings in which products or materials of all kinds and properties
for fabricated assembled or processed are called industrial buildings.
The important examples of industrial buildings are: Assembly plants,
laboratories, dry cleaning, power plants. Pumping stallions, smoke, houses,
laundaries, gas plants etc.
viii. Storage buildings
The buildings used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares
or merchant vehicles or animals are called storage buildings.
The important examples of these buildings are ware houses, cold storages
freight depots, transit sheds, store houses etc.
ix. Hazardous buildings
The buildings used for the storage, handling, manufacture or processing of
highly combustible or explosive materials are called hazardous buildings.
The important examples of hazardous buildings are: storage of acetylene,
hydrogen illuminating or natural gases, ammonia, chlorine, sulphur dioxide,
carbondioxide and other gases.
2. Classification bases on type of construction

All buildings are classified, based on type of construction, into various
types as discussed below.
i. Building with type 1
In these buildings, the design and materials used in their construction are
such that all structural components have about 4 hour fire resistance.
ii. Buildings with type 2 construction

Ion these buildings, the design and type of material used in their
construction are such that all structural components have 3-hour fire resistance.
iii. Buildings with type 3 construction
In these buildings, the design and types of materials used in their
construction are such that all structural components have 2-hour fire resistance.
iv. Buildings with type 4 construction
In these buildings, the design and types of material used in their
construction are such that all structural components have only 1-hour fire
resistance.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. The primary object of a _______ is to provide shelter to the inmates.
(a) sub-structure (b) building
(c) super-structure (d) all of these
2. The part of building below ground level is called _______.
(a) sub-structure (b) super structure
3. The part of building above ground level is called.
(a) foundation (b) super structure
(c) sub-structure (d) all of these
4. The covering constructed over the enclosed space of a building is
called _______.
(a) floor (b) roof
(c) verandah (d) walls
5. The buildings used for school, college or day care purposes are called
_______.
(a) residential building (b) Assembly building
(c) Institutional building (d) educational building
6. foundation of a building is termed as,
(a) Lower part (b) Substructure
(c) Super structure (d) Sub soil
7. Factory building is categorized as such building.

(a) Residential (b) Commercial
(c) Industrial (d) Religious
8. Mosque and church building are categorized as such building.
9. Cenema building is categorized as such building.
(a) Residential (b) Religious
(c) Recreational (d) Historical
10. Minar-e-Pakistan is categorized as such building
(a) Residential (b) Religious
(c) Recreational (d) Historical
11. Hostel building is categorized as such building.
10. A horizontal member placed to cover the opening of door or window
is termed
(a) Beam (b) Slab
(c) Lintel (d) Arch
11. The floor provided below the ground level is called
(a) Ground floor (b) First floor
(c) Lower floor (d) Basement floor
12. A horizontal structural member of building which divide the building

in different stories is termed as,
(a) Roof (b) Ceiling
(c) Floor (d) Beam
13. Plaza building is categorized as such building.
14. which buildings are religious building.
(a) Mosque (b) Church
(c) Mandar (d) All of these
15. Which is commercial building
(a) Factory (b) Shop
(c) Mills (d) Flats
Answers
1. b 2.a 3.b 4.b 5.d 6.b 7.c 8.d 9.c 10.c
11.d 12.c 13.b 14.d 15.b
Short Questions
1. Define building.
2. Enumerate the purposes of a building.
3. Differentiate between sub and super structure.
4. Enlist the classification of building based on occupancy.
5. Enumerate the parts of super structure of a common building.
6. Enlist four types of building.

7. Enlist six component of building.
8. What is meant by foundation and give its purpose?
9. Name types of foundation?
10. Define shallow foundation.
11. Define deep foundation.
12. Define super superstructure.
13. Define plinth level.
14. Define DPC.
15. Define lintel.
16. What is parapet?
17. What is sunshade.
18. What is function of sunshade?
19. What is dripcrouse?
Long Questions
1. Define building and the state the purposes of a building.
2. State the classification of buildings based on occupancy.
3. State the classification of buildings on the bases of type of construction.
4. State the components of building and their functions.
Chapter # 14
Foundations
 Define foundation.
 Explain the properties of various soil deposits.
 Explain the terms bearing capacity, safe and ultimate bearing capacity.
 Explain the types of investigations required for foundation.
 Describe with sketches various types of shallow and deep foundation and
their suitability.
 Explain rules for minimum depth, width of foundation and thickness of
concrete block.
 Explain the layout of a building.
 Explain the procedure of constructing spread footings.
 Describe the methods of timbering foundation.
14.0 General
The structures such as walls, piers, stanchions are subjected to loads of
roofs, floors, furniture, wind etc. The total load acting on a wall or a pier is to be
transmitted to the soil on which it rests. The load thus acting on the soil is to be
distributed over a large area so as to bring the intensity of loading with in the
“Safe bearing capacity” of the soil. To meet with such requirements a structure is
to be provided with an artificial arrangement in the form of concrete bed or block
at the base below ground level, which act as “foundation” of the structure.
14.1 Concept of foundation

The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of
the structure to the soil lying underneath is called foundation. The foundation of a
structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increase the lateral
stability of the structure. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called
the foundation bed.
14.2 Purposes of foundation

All the engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to
folic the following objects or purposes.
i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing are so as to
bring intensity of loading with in the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying
underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal
settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operation.
v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
14.3 Factors affecting selection of foundation

The following factors affect the selection of foundations to be provided to
different structures.
1. Type and intensity of loads acting on various parts of the structure, which
may be dead load, live load, wind load, snow load etc.
2. Nature and bearing capacity of the soil on which the structure directly
rests.
After obtaining the above particulars, the selection of foundation to be
provided tot eh particular structure can be made.
14.4 Soil
The unconsolidated mineral material of earth crust is known as soil.
Types of soil
The soils forming the foundation beds of various structures are generally
classified into different types as discussed below.
i. Gravel
ii. Sand
iii. Silt
iv. Clay
v. Alluvial soil
i. Gravel and shingle
This type of soil consists of particles of coarse material resulting from the
disintegration of rocks and often transported by water from their original source.
Size of the particles varies from 3mm to 200m. The stone particles having size
more than 200mm are termed as boulder.
Characteristics
i. Gravael or shingle does not swell when well.
ii. It does not shrink when dry.
iii. It is not affected by freezing of water.
iv. It has great strength to bear the loads coming over it.
v. It does not settle under the load.
Suitability
Gravel and shingle provides a good foundation bed and is suitable for
foundation of all types of structures.
ii. Sand
It consists of a angular, irregular or rounded grains of silica having grain
size varying from 0.075m to 2mm.
Characteristics
i. Sand is cohesionless
ii. It is not affected by the action of frost.
iii. It does not swell when moisr.
iv. It does not shrink when dry.
v. It does not allow water to rise up by capillary action.
Suitability
Coarse sand provides a good foundation bed provided it is prevented from
slipping or escaping from the under surface of the foundation concrete. But the
line dry sand or-hal saturated with water, is not good for foundation.
iii. Silt
It is a liner of variety of soil having grain size varying from 0.002mm to
0.06mm.
Characteristics
i. Silt is relatively impervious.
ii. It has slight tendency towards swelling and shrinkage.
iii. It is not a superior as sand.
iv. It is sound in beds of rivers, canals, reservoirs etc.
iv. Clay
It is composed of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of weathered
rocks. It consists of particles having grain size less than 0.002mm.
i. Clay stands vertically when hard but flows down when wet and exerts
heavy pressures.
ii. It consolidates under loads and may cause settlement of the structure.
iii. It swells and heaves when wet and shrink and cracks when dries out.
iv. It is a cohesive type of soil.
Suitability
This type of soil should be carefully studied before providing foundation
of the structure over such a soil because clay is very difficult to excavate when it
is dry or very heavily saturated. However, it is suitable for foundation of ordinary
and light buildings.
v. Alluvial Soil
This is transported soil which is carried away by forces of water, e.g., river
deposits. Solid particles gcl mixed with soils of different origin. When velocity of
water is reduced, the large sized particles start setting down. On further reduction
of velocity of water, still smaller fraction separates out. Thus, the alluvial soil are
usually sorted out according to grain size before being finally deposited.
Characteristics
i. Alluvial soil is plastic but consolidates under load.
ii. It is a cohesive soil.
iii. It cracks on drying.
Suitability
This type of soil is also suitable as a foundation bed for light structures.
14.5 Sub-surface Investigation

The field or laboratory investigation of the start a lying below granted
level to obtain the necessary data of ground for the safe and economical design of
foundations of different structures is called sub-surface investigation or soil
exploration.
It is a well known fact that most of failures of buildings and other

structures occur due to failure of their foundations. Therefore, in order to arrive at
a safe and economical design of foundation grcal stress is desired on the sub-
surface investigation.
14.6 Objects of sub-surface investigation

i. To find the nature of soil deposit upto sufficient depth.
ii. To known the thickness and variation in composition of soil-strata with
depth at the site of works.
iii. To find the seasonal variation in ground water table and its effect on the
soil strata.
iv. To know the depth and composition of the rocky base, expected to support
the foundation.
v. To find the engineering properties and composition of the soil strata that
affect the design of foundation of the structure.
14.7 Methods of Sub-Surface investigation.

The following methods are community adopted for sub-surface
investigation.
1. By general inspection of site
2. Test pit method
3. Probing method
4. Boring method
5. Geophysical method
6. Sub-surface sounding method
1. General inspection of site
In this method of sub-surface investigation, the study of all neighbouring

quarries or cuts made in the nearly areas for construction purposes and of exciting
structures alongwith their foundations is made. In addition, the study of the strata
exposed to view in the old trial pits, untired wells, or banks of fallahas in that area
may reveal the nature of the soil at different depths below ground level at the site
of work.
The following information is collected white doing general in section of
the site of work:
i. The nature of the ground whether it is soft, hard, marshy or water-logged.
ii. Type of soil by visual examination.
iii. Behaviour of ground due to seasonal variation in ground water level.
iv. Stability of the ground i.e whether there is likelihood of land-sticks due to
unstable side slopes, subsidence due to mining etc.
2. Test pit method
In this method of sub-surface investigation, usually square pits of suitable
dimensions (about 1.5m side) are excavated at specified spacings at site of work
to inspect various starta of soil at different depths below ground level. Such
square pits, excavated for sub-surface investigation, are known as test pits or trial
pits.
1.5m × 1.5m
Ground Level
0m
Organic soil
0.3m
Clay
0.8m
Silty sand
3m
1.3m
Coarse sand
2m
Sand with gravel
3.0m
Test pit
The test pits are large enough to permit the entry of persons for inspection.
However, their dimensions largely depend upon the depth upto which the
excavation is to be done. In cohesionless soils, the sides of the test pit are sharply
sloped, whereas in cohesive soils, the sides of the pit are kept vertical. These pits
are not usually excavated below the level of ground water table, and are limited to
depth of 3m only. Spacing of these pits depends on the importance of the
building, variation in soil structure and time available for investigation.
From these pits, various starta of the soil at different depths below ground
level can be inspected, studied and classified accordingly.
Suitability
This method is only used for structures having shallow foundations (upto
3 metres) because the excavation of test pits is comparateively.
3. Probing method
In this method of sub-surface investigation, usually a steel rod of 25mm to
40mm diameter with a pointed end is driven in the ground until a hard stratum is
met with. Sometimes, hollow tube of 35 to 50mm diameter having a slit of 3mm
thickness in the bottom portion of 600mm is also used in place of steel rod. At
intervals, the steel bar of the hollow tube is driven out and some idea of the nature
of the soil is obtained by examining the soil sticking to the pointed end of the bar
or that which is caught in the slit of the hollow tube. A rough idea of the nature of
strata is obtained from the number of blows of the hammer required to drive the
rod/hollow tube inside the ground. The shapes of the steel rod and hollow tube are
illustrated in Fig (a) and (b) respectively.
Ground Level Ground Level
Steel Rod Hollow tube

3m 3m
Slit
600
Pointed end
(a) Steel rod (b) Hollow Tube

Probing
Suitability
This method is suitable at sites where the soil is soft like clay, gravel or
sand. With the help of this method, it is only possible to examine thr ground for a
maximum depth of 3 metres.
4. Boring method
In this method of sub-surface investigation, the following types of boring
are usually adopted:
i. Auger boring ii. Wash boring
iii. Percussion boring iv. Core drilling
i. Auger boring
In this type of boring method of (sub-surface investigation) an auger of

posthole type, screw type or shell type, shown in (a), (b) and (c) respectively, is
used. The auger is held vertically and is driven into the ground by rotating its
handle. The auger is pressed down during the process of rotation. After every
second of penetration, the auger is taken out and the samples of the soil are
collected separately for examination.
Threaded end Handle

Handle
Auger
150m
Slit
Cutting edge
(a) Posthole auger (b) Screw Auger (c) Shell Auger
Different types of augers
Suitability
This type of boring method is best suitable for ordinary buildings to be
erected in clayey or sandy soil. This can be conveniently used for soil penetration
upon 15mm depth. But this method is not adopted for deeper holes or in grounds
where gravel, boulders or compact material is present.
ii. Wash boring

In this boring method of sub-surface investigation, a hollow steel pipe,
known as the casing pipe or drive pipe, is driven into the ground and the material
inside the casing is washed out and brought to the surface for inspection.
The process of wash boring consists of driving a casing pipe or outer tube
of 10 to 15cm diameter into the ground to a certain depth. Then a wash pipe,
usually known as water jet pipe, is lowered into the casing pipe. The diameter of
jet pipe or inner tube varies from 2.5 to 5cm. The jet pipe is connected at its upper
end to a water supply system while its lower end is contracted so as to produce jet
action as shown in fig. Water under considerable pressure is then forced down the
wash pipe or inner tube. The hydraulic pressure displaces the material lying
immediately below the pipe and the soil slurry thus formed is forced up through
the annular space between the two pipes. The process is continued till hard
surface is met with. The slurry is collected in a tank and samples of material
encountered are obtained by settlement.
Inlet for forcing
water under pressure
G L
Tank
Annular spce
Inner tube
Outer tube
Steel shoe
Wash boring
In this process, the particles of finer material like clay, loam, etc. do not
settle quickly and the larger and heavy particles of the soil may not come up at all.
Moreover, the exact location of a particular strata of the soil cannot be easily
located. However, the change in stratification can be judged from the rate of
progress as well as the colour of slurry flowing out of the casing pipe.
Suitability
This type of boring method can be conveniently used for test boring over
3m in depth in soft to stiff cohesive soils and fine sand.
iii. Percussion boring
In this type of boring method of (sub-surface investigation), the sub-strata
is broken by repeated blows by means of a bit or chisel. The material thus
pulverized, is turned into slurry by pouring water in the bore hole. At intervals,
the slurry is removed from the hole and dried for examination.
Suitability
This method is used for rocks and soil having boulders. However, this
method is not suitable for loose and clayey soils.
iv. Core drilling

In this type of boring method of sub-surface investigation, a hole is made
by rotating a hollow tube having a cutting bit or edge at its bottom. The cutting bit
forms and annular cut in the strata of the soil and leaves a cylindrical core of the
material in the hollow tube.
Core drilling is done by any one of the following three methods:
a. Churn or percussion drilling method
b. Diamond drilling method
c. Shot or tooth cutting drilling method
a. Churn or percussion drilling method
This method is similar to wash boring. The cuttings and water are
removed by means of a pump which is lowered into the hole. This method is used
for investigation of boulders and rock. The boring or drill machine are driven by
power. The samples, thus obtained, give only a rough idea of the soil because
cuttings are mixed with water.
b. Diamond drilling method

This method consists of a hollow steel cylinder with cheap diamond
cutting edges. Drill is rotated into the rock water is forced down through the drill
to keep the cutting edge cool and to take out the rock chippings. A continuous
record of the cores is kept to get a correct idea of the rock strata available. This
method is very expensive and, therefore, not commonly used.
c. Shot or tooth cutting drilling method
This method consists of a hollow cylinder which is rotated by means of a
drill rod. Cutting action is provided by feeding steel shots which come under the
rotating edge. Water is fed to take out the rock chippings.
5. Geophysical method
In this method of (sub-surface investigation), the depth of rocky strata is
estimated seismically, i.e. by causing vibrations in the ground by artificial
explosions or electrically, i.e.. by passing electric current through electrodes
inserted in the ground.
In seismic method, the depth of the rocky strata is estimated from the fact
that vibrations travel faster in rock than in soil. Thus from the time taken by the
vibrations to each the ground surface, depth of rocky strata can be determined.
In electrical method, various conditions of soil strata such as depth of the
rocky bed, position of water table etc., are determined from the resistance offered
by the soil strata to the flow of electric current.
Suitability
This method is used only when the sub-surface investigation is to be done
on large scale for a major engineering project such as a dam, heavy bridge, etc.
6. Sub-surface sounding method
In this method of (sub-surface investigation) soundings are used for
investigation of soil layers of varying nature. This method is also used to make
sure that the sub-soil does not contain soft spots.
In the old method, the rails were driven with a hammer of about one tonne
weight falling through a distance of 800mm. Number of blows needed to drive
about 300mm length of the rail at various strata below ground level gave an idea
of the surface met with.
Static sounding method has been developed these days, which is called
penetrometer. This method consists of rods of various shapes of standard lengths.
After they sink into the soil under their own weight, they are loaded at suitable
intervals or they are driven at a steady rate into the soil. The rate of penetration in
the first case or load in the second case, gives an idea of the type of soil. For
harder soil, water jet may be used in addition to sinking of rods.
In the dynamic sounding method, a rod with a longer end is driven
into the ground and number of blows needed to drive through 300mm is recorded,
which gives an idea about the nature of the soil.
14.8 Bearing capacity of soil
The maximum load which the soil can take per unit area without yielding
or displacement is called bearing capacity of the soil or ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil.
The stability of a structure depends upon the strength of soil, which is
expressed as bearing capacity (usually in terms of tonne per square metre). Each
soil has its own bearing capacity. So the load on the soil should never exceed its
safe bearing capacity.
The workable bearing capacity of the soil, which is considered for design
is known as safe bering capacity of the soil. The safe bearing capacity of a soil is
equal to its ultimate bearing capacity divided by a certain factor of safety.
Roughly, a factor of safety of 2 is suitable for most of the building sites and
generally a factor of safety of 2.5 to 3 is considered for sites of heavy buildings or
structures.
14.9 Shallow foundation
The object of this type of foundation is to distribute the structural loads
over a considerable base area at the foundation bed.
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:
1. Spread footing or open trench foundations

2. Grillage foundations
3. Raft foundations
4. Stepped foundations
5. Inverted arch foundations
1. Spread footing or open trench foundations
The foundation constructed by increasing the area at the base of structure
by means of offsets, is called spread footing.
In such foundations, spread is given under the base of a wall or a column
by providing offsets. This spread is known as footing and the foundation itself is
called spread footing.
Broadly speaking, all the types of shallow foundations, mentioned above
can be referred to as spread footing foundations. However, from design and
construction point of view, they have been designated separately.
The various types of spread footing foundations are discussed below:
i. Wall footings
This is a common and the simplest type of spread footing foundation.
200
G L
Brick wall
Offset (50mm)
100
150
Lean cement
concrete (1:8:16)
400
700
(All dimensions are in mm)
Brick wall footing (one brick thick)
It consists of a number of courses of bricks, the lowest being usually twice

the thickness of wall above. In this type of foundation, the base width of the wall
is increased by providing 50mm (one-fourth of brick length offsets on either side
of the wall as shown in fig. The depth of each course is usually 100mm. In some
cases, however the bottom course is made 200mm deep. In the case of footing for
stone walls, the size of offset is slightly more than that of the brick wall footing.
G L
Through stone
Stone wall
Offsets
Stone wall footings

For constructing such a footing, a bed of lean cement concrete (1:8: 16) is
first laid over the entire length of the wall. The thickness of this lean concrete bed
is usually kept 150mm and its width is kept 200 to 300mm more than that of the
bottom course. In no case, the depth of the concrete bed should be less than its
projection beyond the wall base. For foundations over firm soil or compacted
ground, the concrete bed below the brick wall footing may be dispensed with.
After laying the concrete for constructing the concrete bed, it should be properly
compacted and cured before laying the base course of the wall.
Suitability
This is the cheapest type of spread footing foundations and is largely used
for walls of ordinary buildings.
ii. Masonry pillar footing
Isolated footings are used to support the individual pillars and columns
constructed in brick or stone masonry. They are stepped down as shown in the
wall footing after providing 150mm offset of foundation concrete on all the sides
as illustrated in fig.
iii. Concrete column footings

These are either stepped type, slate type or slope type, having projections
in the base concrete. To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the
base. The reinforcement provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both
directions.
Concrete column footings may be either isolated footings or combined
footings. Isolated footings are used to support the individual columns, whereas
combined footings are used where projections of different columns are not
possible on all the sides, due to limited space.
Brick pillar
Offsets
150mm
d
be
te
ncre
Co
Masonry pillar footings

Lateral
ties
Concrete columns
Column bars
Reinforcement
Sloped Isolated footing Sloped Isolated footing
R.C.C R.C.C
Column Column
Rectangular Combined Footing Trapezoidal Combined Footing
The combined footings are generally rectangular in shape when both

columns are of same sections and trapezoidal in shape when the columns are of
different sections.
2. Grillage foundations
The foundation which consists of one or two tiers of wooden or rolled
steel sections with space filled up with concrete is known as grillage foundation.
G L
Gusset plate
Angle
Base plate
Upper tier
Lower tier
C.Conc. 1:2:4
Grillage foundation for a steel stanchion
This is so called because the bed construction avoids deep excavation and
provides the necessary area at the base of the structure to reduce the intensity of
pressure within the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
The object of this type of foundation is to spread the load over a large
horizontal area at the base of a structure.
Depending upon the material used in construction, grillage foundations are
further classified into the following two types:
a. Steel grillage foundation b. Timber grillage foundation
Method of construction
For constructing the steel grillage foundation, a trench is excavated to the
calculated width and about 0.90m to 1.50m deep. Bottom of the trench is rammed
and leveled. Then a layer of lean cement concrete (1:8:16), about 300mm thick, is
laid and compacted. After this, a layer of rich cement concrete bed. Over the
concrete bed thus prepared, the bottom tier consisting of a number of steel I-
beams of designed dimensions are placed at specified distance apart, using spacer
bars. The space in between and around the steel beams is then filled with cement
concrete. On this bottom tier, a second layer of steel I-beams is placed, if
required, as shown in fig. The entire space is then filled with cement concrete
1:2:4. On the grillage bed thus prepared the structure in the form of a steel
stanchion, column, pier is built. The construction of a steel grillage foundation for
a stanchion is illustrated in fig.
For constructing the timber grillage foundation, wooden planks, usually 50
to 80mm in thickness, are laid side by side longitudinally on the prepared bed of
the trench excavated for this purpose. The planks should be arranged in a width
150 to 600mm more on either side than the designed width of the base course of
the structure. On this bottom layer of planks, rectangular timber sections of
suitable size are laid at about 350mm centre to centre. Then a top layer of planks,
usually 80 to 100mm in thickness, arranged side by side, in width equal to that of
the base course of the structure is to be built over it. On the timber platform thus
prepared, the structure in the form of a timber column or even a masonry wall is
built. The construction of a timber grillage foundation for a wall.
G L
Masonry wall
Offsets
450 to 600 Top layer of planks

(80 to 100mm thick
Rectangular timber
section at 350mm C/C
Bottom layer of planks
Lean cement concrete (1:8:15) (50 to 80mm thick)
Timber Grillage foundation for a wall
Suitability
Steel grillage foundations are useful for structures like columns, piers,
stanchions subjected to heavy concentrated loads and hence are employed for
foundations of the buildings such as theatres, factories, town halls etc.
Timber grillage foundations are usually provided for timber columns
subjected to heavy concentrated loads.
This type of grillage foundation can also be safely used for light buildings
where the soil encountered is soft and is permanently water-logged.
3. Raft foundations
The foundation consisting of a thick R.C.C slab covering the whole area in
the form of a mat is known as raft or mat foundation (see fig)
Walls or pipes
Floor Level
G Sand Sand L
filling filling
300
R.C.C slab
Lime concrete or lean cement conc (1:8:16)

Raft foundation
The whole area is dug out of the specified depth and 300mm more wide
than the area to be covered. The bed is compacted and sprinkled over with water.
Then a layer of lime concrete or lean cement concrete (1:8:16) is laid to a suitable
thickness to act as a bottom cover. After this, the reinforcement is laid as
illustrated in Fig. The reinforcement consists of closely spaced bars placed at right
angles to one another. Then the cement concrete (1:2:4) is laid and compacted to
the required thickness. The concrete slab so laid is then properly cured. When
loads are excessive, thick concrete beams running under the columns can also be
constructed.
Suitability
This type of foundation is useful for public buildings, office buildings,
school buildings residential quarters, etc. where the ground conditions are very
poor and bearing power of the soil is so low that individual spread footing cannot
be provided.
4. Stepped foundations
The foundation having its bed in the form of steps of concrete is known as
stepped foundation (see fig).
For constructing this type of foundation, excavation is done into steps
having short length and uniform height. Then the concrete is laid accordingly in
the specified thickness and the masonry work is done on the horizontal bed of the
concrete thus prepared as illustrated in fig.
If there is any possibility of slipping of the structure bodily, R.C.C piles
can be driven along its base concrete on the sloping side.
L
Stepped Foundation
5. Inverted arch foundation

The foundation consisting of inverted arches constructed between the piers
is known as inverted arch foundation.
In this type of foundation, the load from the piers is transferred to the soil
by constructing arches in inverted position at their base. The rise of the inverted
arches is about one-fifth to one-tenth of the span and they are usually built in half-
brick rings. The position of arches may be either along the row of piers or across
the row of piers or in both the directions, depending upon the nature of soil and
the type of load to be taken by them.
Pier Piers
River Bed
Inverted
arch
Inverted arch foundation

For constructing this type of foundations, excavation is done to the
required depth. The bottom of the excavation is leveled and compacted. Then the
foundation concrete is laid to the required thickness and finished according to the
layout of the arches to be constructed between the piers. The arch rings, usually
half brick thick, are then built in cement mortar and piers are constructed. The end
piers should be designed and constructed to take the outward thrust caused by
arch action.
Suitability
This type of foundation is not commonly used for buildings But it is quite
suitable for other structures like bridges reservoirs, tanks, supports for drainage
lines.
14.10 Deep foundations

The foundations constructed sufficiently below ground level with some
artificial arrangements such as piles, wells, etc. at their base are called deep
foundations.
Deep foundations are further classified into the following types:
1. Pile foundation
2. Well foundation
3. Caisson foundation
1. Pile foundation
A foundation consisting of spread footing or grillage supported on piles is
called a pile foundation.
A pile foundation usually consists of a base of spread footing or grillage
supported by piles at their bottom Piles distribute the load of structure to the soil
in contact either by friction alone or by friction combined with bearing at their
ends.
Suitability
This type of foundation is suitable under the following situations.
Wall
Ground Level
Pile Pile Pile
Hard Strate
Pile foundation
i. When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable
depth to keep the bearing power within safe limits.
ii. When the provision of grillage and raft foundations becomes very
expensive.
iii. When the structure carries heavy concentrated loads.
iv. When it is necessary to construct a building along the sea-shore or river
bed.
14.11 Piles and their classification

An element of construction placed vertically or nearly so in the ground to
increase the bearing capacity of soil or to resist the lateral load, is known as pile.
Piles are generally classified into the following two categories:
1. According to function
2. According to composition or material of construction
14.11.1 Classification of piles according to their function

Piles are classified according to their function as discussed below:
1. Bearing piles
The piles which rest on hard strata and act as columns to bear the load of
the structure are known as bearing piles.
Piles Piles Piles
Hard strata Hard strata

(a) Bearing piles (b) Friction piles (c) Friction-Cum-Bearing piles
These piles are used to bear vertical loads. They take and transfer the load
to the hard stratum lying underneath.
2. Friction piles
The piles which do not rest on a hard strata and bear the loads on account
of frictional resistance between their outer surface and the soil in contact, are
called friction piles.
These piles are used when the soil is soft and there is no hard strata
available upto a considerable depth. These are generally long in length. Frictional
resistance can be increased by making the surface of these piles rough or by
increasing their surface area likely to come in contact with soil.
3. Friction-cum-bearing piles
The piles which rest on a hard strata and resist the structural load partly by
bearing and partly by their skin friction are known as friction-cum-bearing piles.
These piles are used when the bearing capacity of soil strata lying under
them is not sufficient to resist load of the structure.
4. Batter piles
The piles driven at an inclination to resist inclined loads are known as
batter piles.
These piles are used generally to resist lateral forces in case of retaining
walls, abutments etc.
5. Guide piles
These piles are mainly used in the formation of cofferdams which are
temporarily constructed to provide foundations under water.
6. Sheet piles
The piles which consist of thin steel sheets, driven in the ground to enclose
an area are known as sheet piles.
These piles are used to enclose soil so as to prevent the leakage of water
and to enclose soft material. They are also used in the construction of cofferdams.
Sheet piles are not required to carry any load but should be strong enough to take
the lateral pressure of earth filling, water etc.
14.11.2Classification of piles according to their composition or
material of construction
Pile are classified according to their composition or material of
construction as discussed below:
1. Timber piles
The piles male of wood are called timber or wooden piles.
The timber to be used for their construction should be free from defects,
decay etc and it should be well seasoned. These piles are circular (200mm to
500mm in diameter) or square (150mm to 500mm side) in cross-section. Length
of these piles is generally 20 times their sides of diameter. Top of these piles is
provided with an iron ring to prevent it from splinting under blows of the
hammer. The bottom is fitted with an iron shoe to facilitate sinking of the piles.
These piles are driven by blows of drop hammer of a pile driving machine.
Suitability
These piles are generally used for buildings, bridges and cofferdams but
their use is not recommended in sea water.
2. Concrete piles
These piles are strong and durable and can bear more lead than timber
piles. These are free from defects and can not be attacked by insect, white ant etc.
These are fire-proof and also water proof.
Concrete piles may be further classified into the following two types:
i. Pre-cast piles ii. Cast-in-situ piles
i. Pre-cast piles
These are R.C.C. piles which are usually square, circular or octagonal in
cross-section. After constructing and curing, they are handled and driven like
wooden piles. Additional reinforcement is provided both at the top and bottom as
shown in fig. Iron shoe is fitted at their bottom. They are generally cast in a
horizontal position and cured on the ground. Length of such a pile varies from 2
to 30 metres.
ii. Cast-in-situ piles

This type of piles is constructed in its location in a bore hole prepared for
this purpose. The operation consists of boring a hole, filling it with only concrete
or with steel reinforcement and concrete. The provision of reinforcement becomes
necessary when the pile acts as a column and is subjected to lateral forces.
10mm stirrups pitch 50mm
Cement concrete
10mm  stirrups pitch 150mm
25mm  bars
Pre-cast pile
Cast iron shoe

These piles may be constructed by leaving the metallic shell permanently
in place inside the ground alongwith the core or the outer shell is withdrawn.
Some common cast-in-situ concrete piles are briefly described below:
a. Simples pile
This pile is an example of uncased cylindrical cast-in-situ piles and is very
simple in its construction. For constructing such as pile, a hollow cylindrical steel
tube having internal diameter equal to the diameter of the pile and 20mm in
thickness, fitted with a detachable metal base, is driven into the ground to the
required depth. The hole is then filled with the concrete and pipe is gradually
withdrawn, leaving the detachable base and the charge of concrete below. Thus by
alternatively pouring the concrete and withdrawing the tube, the pile is
constructed to its full length. In case the pile is required to be reinforced, the
reinforcement cage is lowered into the steel tube before starting pouring of
concrete.
b. pedestal or bulb pile
This pile is a modified form of simplex pile. It is provided with a bulb
shaped base or pedestal at the foot. It is constructed just like a simplex pile. In its
case, usually a spread base is obtained by driving the fist batch of concrete.
c. Franki pile
This type of pile has a pedestal or bulb base and corrugated stem. The
method of construction of this pile is different and difficult and hence more
attention is required in the construction of such a pile. A steel tube, having its
internal diameter equal to the required diameter of the pile is placed vertically.
Rich cement concrete is poured to the bottom of the casing and a concrete plug is
formed as shown in fig. The concrete lug is then driven with the help of a drop
hammer. When the plug has been forced sufficiently, other charge of concrete is
poured into the pipe and rammed. At this stage, reinforcement is inserted
vertically, if needed. Similarly, the concrete is poured in different layers till the
pile is complete. Each layer is rammed well before the next layer of concrete is
poured.
G L G L
Concrete
Reinforcement
Concrete plug
Detachable base
Simplex pile Frunki pile

d. Raymond concrete pile

This is a tapered cast-in-situ pile and is largely used for foundations. The
diameter of the pile varies from 400 to 600mm at top and the diameter at its base
is slightly less, varying from 200 to 280mm. It is constructed by driving a tapered
steel shell into the ground of required size. The thin steel shell is reinforced with
6mm to 10mm wire spiral spaced at 80mm c/c and it is closed at the bottom with
a steel shoe before driving it into the ground. When the required depth is reached,
the hole is filled with plain concrete or R.C.C as shown in fig.
G L
Thin steel shell
Spiral reinforcement
Cement concrete
Steel shoe
Raymond concrete pile
3. Sand piles
The piles consisting of sand filled in bore holes, are called sand piles.
These piles are formed by digging holes. The holes are then filled with
sand and compacted. Top of the sand pile is covered with concrete.
These piles can be easily and cheaply constructed. They are used
occasionally for taking light loads.
4. Steel piles
The piles consisting of a steel section are called steel piles.
These piles are useful where driving conditions are difficult and other
types of piles are not suitable. They are generally used for building and bridge
foundations. These piles may be made in the form of I or H section beams. H

section beams are being extensively used for steel piles these days. Size of H
section piles varies from 240 to 400mm depth. Thickness of metal is usually
12mm. After driving these piles, the hollow space is filled with concrete. These
piles can safely bear heavy loads.
Steel piles are available in the following forms:
i. Steel pin piles ii. Sheet piles
iii. Disc piles iv. Screw piles
Steel tube piles fitted with conical cast iron shoes are driven into the
ground and then the hollow space is filled with concrete. These piles are known as
steel pin piles or tubular piles.
Steel piles are also available in the form of steel sheets which are known
as sheet piles.
Sometimes, cast iron disc is also attached to the foot of steel piles and
such piles are known as disc piles. In case, cast iron broad bladed screw is
attached instead of cast iron disc, the piles are called screw piles.
Disc and screw piles are very useful where the shocks due to driving of
other types of piles are injurious to neighbouring structures. But these piles are
unsuitable for deep foundations.
14.12 Design of foundations

The design of foundation consists of determining the following data:
1. Width of foundation
2. Depth of below ground level
3. Depth of concrete block below the masonry footing
1. Width of foundation
Width of foundation should be sufficient to take the load of the structure.
To determine the width, the total load which is the sum of the dead load, live load,
wind load, etc., is divided by the safe bearing capacity of the soil. This may be
briefly noted as given below:
i. For walls,
P
Width of foundation; B = P, and
ii. For pies

1/2
P
Width of foundation, B = P
 
Where, P = Total load per metre length of the wall or on the pier in kN
P = Safe bearing capacity of the soil in kN per square metre.
Width can also be determined by the following thumb rule:
Width of the foundation, B = 26 + 2j …(2.2)
Where, t = Thickness of the wall above the plinth level.
J= Projection of concrete block on each side which should be
atleast 150mm.
Note
The maximum of the two values of width of foundation as calculated
above, should be adopted. If no footings are to be provided to the wall or pier, the
width of its foundation should be equal to three times the thickness of wall or pier.
2. Depth of foundation below ground level
This is generally determined by Rankine’s formula which gives the
minimum depth required as given below:
2
P  1–sinj
Depth of foundation, h = w1+sinj
 
Where, p = Permissible load in kN per square metre on the foundation
soil (i.e., safe bearing capacity of the soil),
w = Specific weight of the soil below foundation level in kN per

cubic metre.
Note
Minimum depth of foundation is restricted to 900mm.
3. Depth of concrete block below masonry footing
The following formulae may be used for finding depth of the concrete
block below masonry footing.
Depth of concrete block,
3pj2
d= …(2.4)
m
Where, p = Permissible load on foundation in kN per square metre (i.e.,
safe bearing capacity of the soil).
J = Projection of concrete on each side in metre.
m = Safe modulus of rupture of concrete block in kN/m² (sec
Table 2.10).
The following thumb-rules can also be used for finding the depth of
concrete block:
i. In case of lean mix of cement concrete
d=j …(2.5(a))
ii. In case of line concrete, d = 1.5j …(2.5(b))
Where, j = Projection of concrete beyond the masonry face. The least
value of j should vary between 100 to 150mm.
Note
Greater of the two values calculated above is adopted for design.
Angles of Repose of various Soils
S.No. Kinds of Soil Angle of Repose in degrees
1. Loose earth 30 to 45
2. Dry sand 25 to 35
3. Moist sand 30 to 45
4. Wet sand 15 to 30
5. Dry clay 25 to 30
6. Damp or well drained clay 30 to 45
7. Wet clay 15 to 20
8. Gravel and sand 25 to 40
9. Ashes 40 to 45
10. Compacted earth 50 to 55
Modulus of Rupture of different Concrete Mixes

S.No. Types of Concrete Mix Modulus of Rupture (m) in

kN/m²
1. Lime concrete (1 mortar to 3 155

stone metal)
2. Cement concrete 1:2:4 (M15) 527
3. Cement concrete 1:3:6 (M10) 352
4. Cement concrete 1:4:8 246
Illustrative Examples on Design of Foundations

Example
A 400m thick brick wall carries a load of 300kN per running metre at
ground level. The angle of repose of the soil is 33°41
is 16kN per cu.m. If the safe load on the soil be taken as 200kN per sq. metre,
design the foundation which you consider suitable.
Solution
The design of a foundation consists of determining,
1. Width of the foundation
2. Depth of the foundation below ground level
3. Depth of concrete block below masonry footing
P
1. Width of the foundation, B = P
Where P = Total load per metre run of the wall

= 300 + 10 (Taking 10kN as weight of footing
= 310kN and concrete block)
P = 200kN/m²
310
200 = 1.55m
By thumb rule, width, B = 26 + 2j
Where t = 400mm (Taking the projection of concrete
J = 150mm block, j = 150mm)
= 2 × 400 + 2 × 150
= 800 + 300 = 1100mm
= 1.10m
Taking greater of the two values, the designed width of foundation,
B = 1.55m (say 1.6m)
2
 1–sinj
2. Depth of foundation, h = 1+sinj
 
Where p = 200kN/m²
w = 16kN/m³
–
2 2
 1–sin33° – 41¢  1–0.5546 
and 1+sin33° – 41¢ = 1+0.5546 = 0.0821
   
200
Depth of the foundation, h = 16 × 0.0821
= 1.026 metres which is more than 900cm

Hence the designed depth of the foundation
= 1.026m (say 1.1m)
3. Depth of concrete block,
3pj2
d= m
Assuming foundation concrete 1:3:6 (M10)
m = 362kN/m²
p = 200 kN/m²
J = 0.15m
Depth of concrete block
3 × 200 × (0.15)2
d= 352
= 0.1958m (say 200mm)
By thumb rule, d = j
Where j = 150mm
Taking greater of the two values, the designed depth of concrete block d =
200mm.
Summary of the design:
1. Width of foundation = 1.60m 
2. Depth of foundation = 1.10m  Ans
3. Depth of concrete block= 200mm
Example
A 300mm thick wall carries a load of 250kN per running metre at
ground level. The angle of repose of the soil is 30° and weight of the soil is
16.5 kN per cubic metre. Safe bearing power of the soil is 200 kN per sq.
metre. Sketch the foundation which you consider will be suitable.
Solution
The design of a foundation consists of determining
1. Width of the foundation
2. Depth of the foundation
3. Depth of the concrete block
P
1. Width of the foundation, B = P
Where P = 250 + 10 = 260kN Taking 10kN as weight of 

 
P = 200 kN/m² footing and concrete block 
260
200 = 1.3m
By thumb rule, width, t = 300mm
j = 150mm
= 2 × 300 + 2 ×150 (Taking J = 150mm)
Taking greater of the two values, the designed width of the foundation, B
= 1.30m
2
p  1–sinj
2. Depth of foundation, h = w1+sinj
 
Where p = 200kN/m²
w = 16.5kN/m³
and sin30° = 0.5

200  1–0.5 2
h = 16.5 × 1+0.5
 
Hence the designed depth of foundation is 1.35m
3pj2
d= m
Here, p = 200kN/m²
Assuming foundation concrete 1:4:8, m = 246 kN/m²
3 × 200 × (0.15)2
d= 246
= 0.2343m (say 235mm)
By thumb rule, d = j
Where j = 150mm
d = 150mm
Taking greater of the two values, the designed depth of concrete block d =
235mm.
300
Floor level
G.L
400
500
1.35m 200 600

200 800
200 1000
235
1.30
Spread footing foundation
Summary of the design: (se Fig 2.30
1. Width of foundation = 1.30m
2. Depth of foundation = 1.35m Ans
3. Depth of concrete block = 250mm
Example
Design and sketch the following as a rolled steel stanchion with a steel
base plate 600mm × 600mm × 50mm fixed by anchor bolts on the top of the
concrete block. The stanchion carries and axial load of 500 kN. The soil
under the footing can safely bear a maximum pressure of 200kN per sq.
metre.
Solution
The base area of the concrete block,
Total load
A = Safe bearing capacity of the soil
500 neglecting the self weight of footing since this is

= 200  
very small as compared to load coming over it. 
= 2.5sq. metre
Side of the footing = 2.50 = 1.58m (say 1.6m)
3pj2
Depth of the footing d = m
Where p = 200kN/m²
1.6 – 0.6 1.0
J= = 2
2
Assuming foundation concrete 1:2:4, m = 527kN/m²
3 × 200 × (0.5)2
d= 527
= 0.5335m (say 540mm)
This depth may be divided into 3 steps, each of 180mm.
Rolled steel stanchion
Angle iron
G.L
180
Concrete
540 180
180
1.6m
(All dimensions in mm)
Footing of a steel stanchion
Summary of the design (See fig)
1. Size of the footing = 1.6m square
2. Depth of the concrete block = 600mm Ans

14.13 Construction of foundations
The construction of foundation of a building involves the following
operations:
1. Preparing foundation plan
2. Setting out of foundation plan on ground
3. Excavation of foundation
4. Laying of foundation concrete
1. Preparing foundation plan
After the foundation design is ready for any building, its foundation plan
is prepared to any convenient scale showing all the necessary measurements. The
north line is shown on foundation plan of the building in order to have the desired
orientation of the building at the site.
2. Setting out of foundation plan on ground
Before commencement of building operations (construction of
foundation), the whole area should be cleared of any grass, shrubs, trees etc. Then
the position of the building should be carefully marked on the ground. The site
should be leveled, if required. The trenches to receive the foundation are then set
on the surface of ground before their actual excavation is started.
This process of marking the position of trenches to be excavated for laying
the foundation of a building is called setting out, layout or ground tracing.
The usual method of setting out foundation lines of a building is described
below:
The centre line of one of the longest outer wall is first marked by
stretching a string or cord between two wooden pegs driven at ends. All the centre
lines of other walls are set out with reference to this centre line as indicated on the
foundation plan. Pegs are set out sufficiently outside the limit of excavation, say
about 1 metre, from the outer edges of trenches as shown in Fig.
Wooden
pegs
Centre lines
Excavation lines
Setting out foundation plan with the help of wooden pegs and string
Right angles are generally set with the help of a large wooden square,
cross-staff or optical square. Accuracy of the rectangles should be checked by
carefully measuring their diagonals, which should be equal. The foundation trench
lines are carefully marked on either side of the centre line with a pick-axe after
stretching, a thin rope or thread.
For all important and large works, masonry pillars, about 150mm wider
than the proposed width of foundation trenches, are built instead of pegs, about
one metre clear of their outer edges as shown in Fig. The centre, lines and the
outer lines of the foundation trenches are then marked on the top surface of these
pillars.
Masonry pillars
Centre lines
Excavation lines
(a) Setting out centre line of foundation with Masonry Pillars
1.2m
1m 200
A
B
1.2m C 1m
D
E
1m
Masonry Pillars
ABC DE
200
A, E = Excavation B, D = Plinth line C = Centre line

(b) Top of the Masonry pillars at centres
Setting out foundation plan with Masonry pillars at corners
3. Excavation of foundation
After setting out the trenches, their excavation work is carried out between
their outer lines by means of pickaxes or kassies.
The excavation should be commenced over the entire foundation width
and work is carried on layer by layer. The excavated material. i.e. earth should be
dumped (say 1.5 metres) away from outer edge of the trench. The excavation
work is usually carried out with a spade, kassi or pick-axe and the excavated earth
is carried out by means of iron-pans or baskets. When the excavation is to be
carried out in rock, chisels, jumpers, wedges, hammers etc. may be used. Proper
protection should be made against damage from surface water flowing into the
excavation trenches from neighbouring sides or streets.
The excavated trenches must retain their shape till the foundations are
filled up. This is only possible if the soil excavated is hard and depth is small. In
such cases, the excavation is carried out to the desired width and depth without
supporting the sides of the trenches. But in case, the trenches are deep or sides are
not of hard soil, they must be suitably supported as shall be discussed in the next
article.
4. Laying of foundation concrete
For foundation generally lime concrete (1:4:8) or cement concrete (1:8:16)
is used. Before laying foundation concrete, the bed of excavated trench is well
rammed and leveled. The surface is then sprinkled over with water and the
concrete already prepared is placed. The concrete is laid in required width. The
depth of concrete is completed in a number of layers. Each layer should not
exceed 150mm in depth and compacted properly before laying the next layer.
After this, the concrete is properly cured before starting the masonry work.
14.14 Timbering of Trenches

The process of supporting the sides of trenches by means of some wooden
members is called timbering of trenches.
The timbering is extended to the full depth of the trenches.
The various members used in timbering are discussed below:
1. Polling boards
The members placed vertically on the sides of trenches directly or after
providing sheeting are known as poling boards.
The size of poling boards may vary from 175 × 320mm to 225mm ×
400mm.
2. Walings, wales or planks
The members placed horizontally on the sides of the trenches or against
poling boards are known as walings, wales or planks.
The various sizes of walings are: 100 × 75, 100 ×100, 150 ×150, 175 × 50,
225 ×50 and 225 ×75mm. Their length may vary from 2.5 to 4.5m.
3. Sheeting
The members placed horizontally or vertically close to the sides of
trenches for supporting their sides are called sheeting.
The length of the sheeting may vary from 2.5 to 4.5m. The horizontal
sheeting is supported by poling boards and the vertical sheeting by walings.
4. Runners
The members placed vertically behind the walings instead of the poling
boards are called runners.
The runners are long planks about 75mm thick and 175 to 225mm wide.
They are pointed at their lower ends and sometimes, provided with an iron shoe
and iron cap.
5. Struts
The horizontal members of timber driven across trenches between poling
boards or walings are known as struts.
The struts are driven at a minimum distance of 2m centre to centre. The
struts may be dcircular, having diameter 75 to 125mm or square 75mm × 75mm
to 100 ×100mm in section.
14.15 Method of Timbering of Trenches in different soils

The sizes and arrangement of various timber members depend upon the
nature of the soil and the depth of excavation of trenches.
The various methods of timbering in different kinds of soils are described

below:
1. Hard soil
No timbering is required unless there are pockets of loose soil.
Poling boards
2m
Struts
(a) With a central strut to each pair of poling boards
Poling boards
2m
Struts
(b) Width two Struts to each pair of poling boards

Timbering of trenches in firm soil
2. Firm soil
In this case, a light support in the form of a pair of poling boards is
provided. The poling boards are strutted at a maximum distance is usually
sufficient as shown in Fig. 2.34 (a). Sometimes, two struts are also used as shown
in Fig. 2.34 (b). The struts are generally little longer than the horizontal distance
between poling boards. They are driven down until they are tight and horizontal.
They should be gently driven without disturbing the earth behind the poling
boards.
3. Moderately firm soil
In this case, the poling boards are placed closer together. They are
supported by walings which are strutted at an interval of about 2 metres as shown
in Fig 2.35(a).
Poling boards
Sheeting
Temporary struts
(a) With walings strutted at poling boards
Poling boards
Struts
(b) With a central waling strutted at every fourth poling board

2m
g
in
al
W
strut
(c) With a single waling strutted at 2m interval

Timbering of trenches in Moderately firm soil
Two methods as illustrated in fig (b) and (c) are also used. Usually the
poling boards are placed a distance of 0.3 metre to 1 metre cente to centre.
4. Loose soil
In this case, horizontal sheeting is most essential. It is not possible to
excavate the loose soil for several metres in depth before timbering the sides of
the trenches. The excavation is usually made upto a depth of 200mm and the sides
are immediately supported by horizontal sheeting and poling boards which are
held on both sides by struts as shown in fig 2.36(a). Then the excavation is
continued for another depth of 200mm or so and a second pair of boards is placed
and strutted as before. The operation is repeated till the required depth is reached.
Temporary struts are placed at bottom which can be removed afterwards.
Sometimes, the sheets are placed vertically, which are supported by waling as
struts.
Sheeting
Poling boards
Temporary struts
(a) With horizontal sheeting
Sheeting
(b) With Vertical Sheeting

Timbering of Trenches in Loose Soil
5. Very loose soil

In very loose soil like running sand, long planks (called runners) are
driven along the side of the excavated trench. Walings and struts are then inserted
to support the runners as shown in fig.
For deep excavation, the timbering is carried out in different stages. For
each stage, the width is decreased at the bottom by 150 to 750mm on either side.
Fig shows the method of timbering of a trench in a very loose soil in two stages.
1.7m
G Vertical sheeting
L
Vertical props
Waling
Platform
Struts
Runners
1.25m
Timbering of a trench in very loose soil

EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Foundation whose depth is equal to its width, will be called
(a) Shadow (b) Deep
(c) Well (d) Box
2. Nearer the ground water table _______ is the bearing capacity.
(a) higher (b) deeper
(c) lower (d) all of these
3. Grillage foundation is classified as a _______ foundation.
(a) deep (b) shallow
(c) both of these (d) all of these
4. The piles which transfer the load by means of skin friction along their
length are known as _______.
(a) friction pile (b) sand pile
(c) steel pile (d) disc pile
5. The vertical members used in timbering of the trenches are known as
_______.
(a) trenching (b) poling boards
(c) excavating (d) all of these
6. The lowest part of structure which transmits the load to the soil is
known as:
(a) Super structure (b) Plinth
(c) Foundation (d) Basement
7. when two or more footings are connected by a beam, it is called,

(a) Beam footing (b) Combined footing
(c) Step footing (d) Mat footing
8. A raft foundation is known as,
(a) Mat foundation (b) Cantilever foundation
(c) Pile foundation (d) None of these
9. When a heavy structure is to be constructed in sandy soil, the
foundation used is:
(a) Pier foundation (b) Strap foundation
(c) Rat foundation (d) All of these
10. Pile foundation is generally used when the soil is:
(a) Compressible (b) Water logged
(c) Made up type (d) All of these
11. The type of foundation most suitable for bridges is:
(a) Pier foundation (b) Raft foundation
(c) pile foundation (d) Strap foundation
12. The maximum load on the wooden piles should not exceed:
(a) 50KN (b) 100KN
(c) 150KN (d) 200KN
13. The minimum depth of foundation for buildings on clays is:
(a) 0.2 to 0.4m (b) 0.4 to 0.6m
(c) 0.6 to 0.9m (d) 0.9 to 1.6m
14. Soil having particle size 0.06mm to 2.00mm is termed as,
(a) Clay (b) Black
(c) Sand (d) Gravel
15. Ratio between ultimate and safe bearing capacity of soil is termed as,
(a) Bearing factor (b) Safe factor
(c) Factor of safety. (d) None of these
Answers
1. a 2.c 3.b 4.a 5.b 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.a 10.d
11.a 12.d 13.d 14.c 15.c
Short Questions
1. What is the basic purpose of providing a building foundation?
2. Why is the foundation of a structure always laid below ground level?
3. What is the need of sub-surface investigation?
4. Differentiate between ultimate bearing capacity and safe bearing capacity
of a soil.
5. Where is raft foundation provided?
6. Where do we provide pile foundation?
7. What do you understand by the term “foundation”?
8. What do you understand by soil investigation?
9. Give suitability of pile foundation.
10. Define bearing capacity of soil.
11. Define foundation?
12. Define shallow foundation?
13. What is deep foundation?
14. Enlist four purposes of foundation providing underground.
15. Define grillage foundation?

16. What about raft foundation?
17. Define stepped foundation?
18. Enlist types of soil.
19. Define ultimate bearing capacity of soil?
20. Name method to determine bearing capacity o0f soil in field.
Long Questions
1. Define foundation and state the purposes of foundation.
2. Explain the properties of various soil deposits.
3. Explain the terms bearing capacity, safe and ultimate bearing capacity.
4. Explain the types of investigations required for foundation.
5. Explain rules for minimum depth, width of foundation and thickness of
concrete block
6. Describe with sketches various types of shallow and deep foundation and
their suitability
7. Explain the layout of a building.
8. Explain the procedure of constructing spread footings.
9. Describe the methods of timbering foundation.
Chapter # 15
Brick Masonry
 Define the technical terms related to masonry work.
 Explain with sketches bond and their types i.e. English bond, Flemish
bond, herring bone bond, zigzag bond and garden wall bond.
 State the general principles to be observed in brick masonry
construction.
 Explain the different types of stone masonry i.e. ashlar masonry,
random rubble.
 Explain specifications for carrying out stone masonry work.
15.0 General
The art of brick laying consists in arranging and bedding bricks in mortar
in such a manner as to form a well united mass known as “brick work” or “bricks
masonry.” Such a mass can with sand forces without disintegration of the
structure.
Brick Masonry
An assembling of bricks properly bounded together in mortar is called
“brick masonry or brick work.”
Suitability
Brick masonry is commonly used for construction work of ordinary as
well as important buildings and other structures in areas where natural stone is not
obtainable cheaply and abundantly but there is plenty of suitable clay for the
manufacture of bricks.
1.51 Technical terms used in brick masonry

Some important technical terms concerning brick masonry are discussed
below:
1. Brick
An artificial masonry unit in the form of a rectangular block of prepared
clay is called a brick.
(All Dimensions are in mm)

Fig A Standard Brick
2. Brick tile
An artificial masonry unit in the form a rectangular block of prepared clay
having thickness comparatively less than that of a brick is known as brick tile.
3. Arises
The edges formed by the inter-section of plane surfaces of a brick are
known as arises.
4. Frog
The depression provided in the face of a brick during its manufacturing is

called “frog.”
5. Brick on bed
The position of a brick when laid with its frog up-ward in the horizontal
plane is termed as “brick on bed.”
6. Brick on side
The position of a brick when laid on its stretcher face is known as “brick
on side.”
7. Brick on end
The position of a brick when laid on its header face is known as “brick on
end.”
8. Course
Each horizontal layer of bricks laid in mortar in any brick work is called a
course.
9. Stretcher
A brick when laid in brick work with its side surface or length in elevation
is called a stretcher.
10. Header
A brick when laid in brick work with its end surface or width in elevation
is called “header.”
11. Quoins
The external corners of walls are called quoins.
12. Quoin brick

The brick when forms the external corner or a wall is known as “quoin
brick.”
(All Dimentions in mm)

Fig Elevation of the Portion of a Brick Wall showing its Different Details
13. Bed joints

The horizontal mortar joints, between any two consecutive courses of
brick work are known as “bed joints.”
14. Cross joints

The joints other than bed joints normal to the face of the wall are called
“cross joints.”
Hearting Backing
Back
Facing
Face
Fig Corner Junction of Brick Walls
Showing its Details
15. Per-pends
The vertical joints between bricks either in longitudinal or cross directions

are termed as “per-pends.”
16. Facing
The exposed or external surface of a wall is called “face.”
17. Backing
The un-exposed or internal surface of a wall is called “backing.”
18. Hearting
The interior portion between the facing and backing of a wall is called
“hearting.”
19. Bats
The portions made by cutting standard bricks across their width are known
as “bats.”
These are named according to their fraction of full length of a standard
brick such as:
a. Three-quarter bat
b. Half bat
c. Quarter bat
d. Bevelled bat
(c) Quarter Bat (d) Bevelled Bat

20. Closer
The portions made by cutting standard bricks across their length or in such
a manner that their one stretcher face remains uncut or half cut are known as
“closer.”
21. Queen closer
The portion of a standard brick made by cutting it across the length into
halves is termed as queen closer.
22. King closer
The portion of standard brick made by cutting off the triangular piece
between the centre of one header-face and the centre of one stretcher face is called
“king closer.”
(a) Queen Closer

23. Bevelled closer
The protion of a standard brick made by cutting off the triangular piece
between the centre of one header face and the opposite corner of the stretcher face
is termed as bevelled closer.
(b) King Closer

(c) Bevelled Closer (d) Mitered Closer
24. Mitered closer

The portion of a standard brick having its one end cut splayed or mitered
for the full width is called a mitered closer.
25. Bullnose
A standard brick having its one or more arises (edges) rounded off is
known as bullnose.
It may be
a. Single bullnose
b. Double bullnose
c. Mitered bullnose as illustrated in figure.
26. Cownose
A standard brick having its both the edges rounded off at its end is called
cownose.
27. Squint brick
The portion of a standard brick cut in such a way that an angle other than a
right angle is formed in plan is called a squint brick.
Fig Cow Nose Fig Squint Brick
28. Plinth masonry

The masonry provided from ground level to plinth level of a building is
called plinth masonry.
29. Plinth course
The top course of plinth masonry of a building is called “plinth course.”
15.2 Bond
The arrangement of bricks or stones in each layer so as to avoid continuity
of vertical joints in any two adjacent courses both on the face and inside of a
masonry structure is called bond.
This is done by over lapping bricks or stones in the successive courses
longitudinally as well as transversely.
15.3 Types of Bonds in Brick work

The following are the different types of bonds used in brick work.
1. English Bond
2. Flemish Bond
3. Header Bond
4. Stretcher Bond
5. Garden wall Bond
6. Raking bond
7. Facing bond
8. Zigzag bond
1. English Bond
The bond having headers and stretchers laid alternate courses is called
English bond.
In this bond, a queen closer is placed after every quoin header in the
header course to break the continuity of vertical joints. This bond is considered as
the strongest bond and does not require any special attention in its formation. This
bond is also known as an old English bond.
Suitability:
English bond is commonly adopted for brick work of buildings where
strength is of prime importance.
Quion Header
Headers Stretcher
Flemish Bond
Stretching course
Heading course
Queen closer
Quoin header
Fig English Bond
2. Flemish Bond
The bond having headers and stretchers laid alternately in the same course
is called Flemish bond.
In this bond a queen closer is provided after every quoin header in the
alternate courses to break the continuity of vertical joint. Brick bats are to be used
for forming this bond when the thickness of wall is equal to an add multiple of
half brick.
Types of Flemish Bond
Flemish bond in of the following two types.
i. Double Flemish bond
ii. Single Flemish bond
i. Double Flemish bond
The bond having headers and stretchers laid alternately in each course
both in the face and back of the structure is called Double Flemish bond.
Suitability
Double Flemish bond is used for brick work of buildings where
appearance is of Prime importance.
ii. Single Flemish bond
The bond provided in a wall with Flemish bond in facing and English
bond in backing is called single Flemish bond.
This bond is also known as cross bond.
First Layer ¾
(a) 300mm thick wall (b) Corner junction of 400mm × 300mm
showing two Consecutive walls showing two consecutive
courses in plan courses in plan
Fig Double Flemish Bond
Suitability
Single Flemish bond is used where costlier bricks are specified for facing
in order to provide good appearance to the walls of a building.
3. Header Bond
The bond having all the bricks laid as headers in every course of a wall is
called heading bond or header bond.
In this type of bond, ¾ bats are laid are quoin brick in the alternate courses
to break the continuity of vertical joints. This bond increases the transverse
strength but weakens the longitudinal strength of the wall.
Suitability
This type of bond is commonly used for constructing steining of wells,
footings, corbels, cornices etc.
(a) First layer

Fig Heading Bond
4. Stretcher Bond
The bond having all the bricks laid as stretches bond or stretcher bond.
In this bond every alternate course is to be started with ½ bats for breaking
the continuity of vertical joints.
5. Garden wall Bond
The bond used for constructing compound walls of a garden, boundary
wall, compound walls, the thickness of wall is one brick i.e 20cm and their height
is limited to 2 metres. Sometimes this bond is perfectly used for constructing
outer leaves of “cavity walls to provide good appearance.”
Garden wall bond is of the following two types.
1. English Garden wall bond.
2. Flemish Garden wall bond.
1. English Garden wall bond.
The garden wall bond in which a heading course is provided after 3 to 5
stretching courses is called “English garden wall bond.”
In this bond, a queen closer is provided after every quoin header in the
heading course and alternate, stretching courses are started with quoin
header for breaking the continuity of vertical joints.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 & 7 Heading courses

2 to 6 Stretching courses
Fig English Garden Wall bond
Fig Flemish Garden Wall Band
2. Flemish Garden wall bond.

The garden wall bond having a header provided after 3 or 5 stretchers in
each course is called Flemish Garden wall bond.
This bond is also known as sussex or scotch bond.
In this bond a ¾ bat is placed next to the quoin header in every alternate
course and the header is placed centrally over the stretcher, lying
immediately.
6. Raking bond
The bond having all the bricks laid at an angle to the 45 facing and
backing of a wall is called “raking bond.”
Raking bond is the following two types.
i. Herring bone bond
ii. Diagonal bond
i. Herring bone bond

The raking bond having bricks laid at an angle of starting from the central
line and proceeding towards the facing and backing of the wall is called herring
bone bond.
(a) First Layer (b) Second Layer

Herring Bone Bond
Suitability
This type of ranking bond is used for heating the walls having thickness
more than 4 bricks. Hearing bone bond is also used for architectural finish to face
work and making ornamental panels in bricks flooring.
ii. Diagonal bond

The raking bond having bricks laid at a suitable angle to facing and
backing in parallel rows starting from the corner of hearing of the well is known
as “diagonal bond.”
Suitability
This type of raking bond is used for hearting the walls having thickness of
2 to 4 bricks.
Diagonal bond is also used for the construction of footing of high walls.
(a) First Layer (b) Second Layer

Fig Diagonal Bond
7. Facing bond
The bond having bricks of different thickness and qualities used for facing
and backing of the wall is called facing bond.
Suitability
The bond is used when facing bricks are constiller and it is necessary to
eonomise the brick work. This bond is advantageously used for gillaffi work.
(a) English facing (b) Flemish facing
Fig Facing Bond
8. Zigzag bond
The bond having bricks laid in a zig-zag fashion is called “zig-zag bond.”
This type of bond is very similar to herring bore bond with the only
difference that in this type of bond the bricks are laid in a zig-zag way as
Suitability
This type of bond is commonly used for paving the brick floor.
Fig Zig Zag Bond
15.4 General Principles to be observed in brick masonry

The following principles and precautions should be generally considered
in brick masonry.
1. Bricks to be used for masonry work should be well burnt and of uniform
size, shape and colour. They should fulfil all the requirements of a good
brick.
2. Selection of bricks, should be done for facing work.
3. All the bricks must be properly soaked in water for at least 2 hours, before
they are used in the construction work.
4. All the bricks, to be laid on their bed with their frogs pointing upwards
unless other-wise specified to have good bond strength between different
courses.
5. Specified mortar of good quality should be used.
6. A systematic bond must be provided throughout the masonry work.
7. Bricks bats should not to be used unless they are necessary to achieve the
required bond.
8. The height of each course should be uniform.
9. All the horizontal and vertical joints should be properly filled with mortar.
The thickness of these joints should be less than 12.5mm.
10. All the horizontal joints should be parallel and truly in level.
11. All the vertical joints in alternate courses should be in the same vertical
line.
12. The junctions of walls should be properly bonded.
13. The verticality of the brickwork should be frequently checked by means of
plumb rule and a plumb bob.
14. In one day, the height of bricks masonry construction should not exceed
1.5 metres.
15. In the construction of a long wall each successive portion should be
properly raked back and the old and new brick work should be jointed
according to the bond.
16. Freshly laid brick work should be protected against rains during
construction.
15.5 Construction of Brick Masonry Wall

The art of laying bricks in specified mortar to from any structure is known
as “construction of brick masonry.”
The construction of work of various structures in brick masonry is done in
steps as discussed below.
a. Selection of bricks
Selection of bricks is done for facing work to provide uniform edges,
shapes and color to face of the wall.
b. Stacking of bricks
The bricks are staked in regular stacks each consisting of 1000 bricks, near
the size of work. The bricks should be stacked in such a manner that their corners
do not get damaged.
c. Soaking bricks
The bricks to be laid in cement or lime mortar are properly wetted with
water. For through soaking bricks shall be immersed in water in a pit. This
process is also termed as “wetting of bricks.”
Burnt bricks are soaked to achieve the following objects.
i. To prevent the bricks from absorbing any moisture from the mortar so that
the mortar can properly set.
ii. To provide better bond between the bricks and mortar as in dust is washed
away during soaking.
iii. To facilitate spreading of mortar more evenly on the surface of bricks.
d. Preparation of mortar
The specified mortar to be used for brick masonry is properly prepared in
required quantity at a time. The quantity of cement mortar prepared at a time
should be as much as can be used with in half an hour after its preparation.
e. Laying of bricks
Bricks are laid in an structure according to the required bond. In general,
bricks are laid on their bed in English bond unless otherwise specified. All the
necessary principles and precautions should be considered while laying bricks in
any structure the method of laying bricks in various structures such as walls,
pillars and their footing is practically of same nature but in each case some special
considerations are made as discussed below:-
f. Laying of bricks in walls
For laying bricks in a wall, its corners are to be constructed first and then
its in between portion is built up. The corners so constructed are also termed as
leads of the wall.
Laying of bricks in the wall is done in the following two steps.
i. Laying of bricks in footing or foundation of the wall upto plinth level.
ii. Laying of bricks in the wall above plinth level.
i. Method of laying bricks in foundation of the wall upto

plinth level.
Laying of bricks in foundation of the wall is to be done in steps starting
from the top of its foundation concrete. The height of each steps is generally kept
200mm. Each step is constructed after leaving 50mm offset on each side. The
method of laying bricks in the foundation of a wall is described below:
Concrete ofset
Fig Laying of Bricks in Foundation of a Wall

a. Spreading mortar concrete bed
For laying bricks in the first step of foundation of the wall, about 20mm
thick layer of prepared mortar is first spread on the top of concrete bed in the area
to be occupied by the corners of this step.
b. Constructing corners
After spreading the mortar, the extreme corners are constructed in two
courses after leaving the required concrete offset (generally 150mm) on each side.
The center line of the width of first course of the extreme corner must be checked
before laying the second course which should coincide with the centre line of the
foundation trench already marked. Like this, surface of these extreme corners are
made truly plumb.
c. Laying first course

For laying of bricks in the first course, two strings are stretched at its
upper level between the extreme corners to mark the external and internal edges
and to lay the bricks in the line and level with the corner bricks of this course then
bricks are laid on the layer of mortar in between these strings till the first course is
completed. After this, mortar is spread on the top of first course.
d. Laying second course
For laying of bricks in the second course, two strings are stretched at its
upper level between the extreme corners and bricks are again laid on the layer of
mortar till this is completed. Bricks are generally laid as headers in the first course
and as stretchers in the second course in English bond unless otherwise specified.
Similarly, the remaining steps of foundation of the wall are completed after
leaving brick offset (generally 50mm) on each side in every step.
ii. Method of laying bricks in the wall above plinth level
For laying bricks in the wall above plinth level, about 20mm thick layer of
prepared mortar is first spread on the top of plinth course in the area to be
occupied by the corners of the wall. Then the extreme corners of the wall are
constructed in the required bond upto 3 to 5 courses in height. The base of each
corner is extended in steps. The height of each course is checked by means of
marking gauge and then the surfaces of these extreme corners are made truly
plumb. After this each course is completed in turn by stretching two threads at its
upper level between the extreme corners to mark the external and internal edges
of the wall. In each course, the selected bricks for facing work are laid first in line
and level with the external thread on the layer of mortar according to the specified
boned. When the masonry work upto the top of height are constructed and this
process is repeated till the wall is constructed to a height about 1.5m from the
ground level.
Corner Masonry
Fig Laying of Bricks in the Wall above Plinth Level

For constructing walls beyond 1.5m in height above ground level, a
temporary raised platform is constructed for the mason to stand upon and to do
the masonry work, which is termed as “Scaffolding.”
The horizontal and vertical joints of the brickwork should be properly
silled with mortar. To ensure this the following methods of laying mortar are
adopted under different situations:
a. Trowelling
The method of laying mortar at the bed and in the sides of bricks by means
of a trowel is known as trowelling.
Trowelling
In this method, the mortar used should be stiff. This method is generally
adopted especially for thin walls.
b. Larrying
The method of moving each brick through a small horizontal distance
before it is finally laid in any brick work and pressing the same by means of brick
hammer or handle of the travel is termed as larrying.
In this methods, the mortar used should be in the semi-solid form. The
mortar coming oil the joints is cleaned off by means of a trowel this method is
adopted for interior filling of thick walls.
c. Grouting
The process of spreading the mortar in a liquid form or as grout over
bricks laid dry in required position is called ‘grouting.’
This method is adopted to provide thin joints in case of arch work ashlar
stone masonry and reinforced brick work.
2. Laying of bricks in pillars
In this case, the process of spreading mortar, laying and pressing of bricks
and filling of joints is exactly the same as in case of walls. In addition to this the
pillars should be so located as to be subjected to axial loads and also all the
surfaces of a pillar should be made truly plumb.
15.6 Stone Masonry

The art of building the structures in stones with any suitable mortar is
called “stone masonry.”
Stone is not easily and cheaply available in all parts of this country. They
are difficult to handle because of their heavy weight. They are costly in
construction so they involve high transportation and dressing charges. The use of
stone masonry is, therefore, recommended for heavy and monumental works such
as piers and abutments of bridges, docks, harbours, paving floors and streets, etc.
15.7 Classification of stone masonry

Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two
categories.
i. Rubble masonry
ii. Ashlar masonry
i. Rubble masonry
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are
laid in a suitable mortar is called ‘rubble masonry.’
In this masonry, the joints of mortar are wider and also not of uniform
thickness.
Rubble masonry is further divided into the following four types.
1. Uncoursed rubble masonry
2. Random rubble masonry
3. Coursed rubble masonry
4. Dry rubble masonry
1. Uncoursed rubble masonry

The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without forming courses in
known as ‘uncoursed rubble masonry.’
This is the roughest and cheapest type of stones masonry and is of varying
appearance. The stones to be used in this masonry are of different sizes and
shapes. Before laying, all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked off
with the mason’s hammer. Vertical joints are not plumb. Joints are filled and
finished flush. To avoid thick mortar joints, chips of stones or spalls are wedged
into the hearting. Larger stones are used at corners and jambs to increase their
strength. One through or bond stone is used for every square meter of the face
area for joining facing and backing
Suitability
This type of stone masonry is used for constructing walls of low height in
case of ordinary buildings.
Fig Uncoursed Rubble Masonry

2. Random rubble masonry
The rubble masonry in which stones are laid to somewhat level courses
with non-uniform joints is called random rubble masonry.
This type of rubble masonry is slightly superior to uncoursed rubble
masonry. In this masonry, the stones used are either hammer dressed or chisel
dressed. In general, this type of masonry shows irregular shaped stones with non-
uniform joints. But in a good work, the face stones of uniform colour and
approximately equal in size are used. The stones are laid in somewhat level
courses. In each course headers of one course height are placed at a certain
interval. All the stones are to be laid in cement or lime mortar.
Suitability
This type of masonry is used to construct residential building, go downs,
boundary, walls etc.
Fig Random Rubble Masonry
3. Coursed rubble masonry

The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints and
bedded by hammer or chisel dressing before laying them in courses is called
coursed rubble masonry.
Elevation X–Section
Fig Coursed Rubble Masonry
Suitability
Coursed Rubble masonry is mostly used for residential and public
buildings, hospitals, markets, modern residential buildings, piers abutments etc
and in hilly area where a good quality of stone is easily and cheaply available.
4. Dry rubble masonry
The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is
known a “dry rubble masonry.”
This is just similar to third class coursed rubble masonry except that no
mortar is used in the joints. This is the cheapest type of rubble masonry but it
requires more skill in construction.
Suitability
This type of rubble masonry is extensively used for compound walls,
retaining walls, pitching on bridge approaches etc. It is recommended that the
height of retaining walls to be built in this masonry should not exceed 6m. In case
the height exceeds 6m, three adjacent courses are laid in courses rubble masonry
in mortar at 3m intervals.
ii. Ashlar masonry
The stone masonry having finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime
mortar is known as “ashlar masonry.”
In this masonry, all the courses are of uniform height. All the joints are
regular, thin and of uniform thickness. This type of masonry is costlier in
construction since it involves heavy cost of dressing of stones.
Suitability
This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, piers,
and abutments of high bridges etc. Ashlar masonry is further sub-divided into the
following types.
1. Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry.
2. Random coursed ashlar masonry.
3. Rough tooled or bastard ashlar masonry.
4. Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry.
5. Chamfered ashlar masonry.
6. Block in course masonry.
1. Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry

In this type of masonry, stone blocks of same height in each course are
used.
2. Random coursed ashlar masonry
This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the
courses are of varying thickness depending upon the character of
buildings.
3. Rough tooled or bastard ashlar masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, the sides of the stones are rough tooled and
dressed with chisels.
4. Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry

This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type.
5. Chamfered ashlar masonry
It is similar to quarry faced ashlar masonry except that the edges are
beveled or chamfered to 45 for depth of 25mm or more.
6. Block in course masonry
It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an
intermediate masonry.
Suitability
Ashlar masonry is generally used in the construction of sea walls,
retaining walls etc. It is not very often used in general building work
sometimes, it is also used for big public buildings, theatres, temples,
railway stations etc.
15.8 Specifications of stone Masonry

Specifications of different types of stone masonry are discussed below:
a. Specification of random rubble masonry
The specifications of random rubble masonry are given below:

1. Random rubble masonry shall consist of stones which are not squared but
are of irregular shape.
2. Only quarry dressed stones shall be used.
3. All the stones shall be arranged to break joints vertically as much as
possible.
4. Bond or through stones shall be provided upto the full thickness of the
walls.
5. The heating or filling between the exterior and interior face work shall
consist of rubble stones, carefully laid and bedded in mortar.
6. Other specifications shall be the same as given in coursed rubble masonry.
b. Specifications of coursed rubble masonry

The specifications of coursed rubble masonry are given below:
1. All the stones shall be laid in horizontal courses not less than 150mm in
height.
2. All the stones in each courses shall be of equal height and all courses shall
be of the same height unless otherwise specified.
3. All stones shall be set full in mortar in all bed or vertical joints. All beds
shall be horizontal and joints verticals.
4. The face stone shall be squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing
with the help of masonry hammer. No face stone shall be less in breath
than its height.
5. Through stones shall be inserted at the rate of one per square metre of the
area.
6. The quoins shall be of the same height as the course in which they occur.
7. The work on the internal face shall be same as on the exterior face unless
the work is to be plastered.
8. All the stones shall be wetted before laying.

9. The whole masonry shall be carried up at a uniform level throughout.
10. In case of vertical walls, masonry shall be taken up truly plumb.
11. Mortar shall be confined to the joints and shall not come over the faces of
stones which are not to be plastered.
c. Specification of dry rubble masonry
The specifications of dry rubble masonry are given below:
1. Each course shall be built throughout the entire thickness of the wall
without mortar. But the stones shall be roughly dressed to secure the
maximum bedding surface.
2. Through or bond stones shall be provided in each course.
3. Dry stone wall higher than 6 meters shall be strengthened by laying three
consecutive courses of coursed rubble masonry in lime or cement mortar
at every 3m interval.
4. Weep holes shall be provided in dry stone walling when built against earth
or hill slopes which subject 10 saturation by surface or ground water flow.
d. Specifications of ashlar masonry
The specifications of ashlar masonry are given below:
1. Ashlar masonry shall be laid in the specified mortar and in regular courses
not less than 300mm in 0.3 in height.
2. All the courses shall be of the same height unless otherwise specified.
3. All the joints and beds shall be perfectly vertical and horizontal
respectively. All stones shall be set mortar in all beds and vertical joints.
4. All the stones shall be wetted before laying.
5. The face stone shall be laid in Flemish boad with headers and stretchers
alternatively in the same courses, unless otherwise specified.
6. To obtain sufficient transverse bond, the prescribed number of through or

bond stones shall be used.
7. Wherever practicable, the whole masonry shall be carried up at a uniform
level through out.
8. In case of vertical walls, all the masonry shall be taken up truly plumb.
9. Mortar shall be confined to the joints and shall not come over the faces of
stones which are not to be plastered.
10. Masonry laid in cement or lime mortar shall be protected during
construction from the effects of rain and frost by suitable cover, if
necessary.
11. Bed plates shall be provided under the ends of beam, girders, roof trusses
etc.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Ashlar masonry is _______ to rubble masonry.
(a) improper (b) superior
2. The stone masonry made of properly dressed stone is known as
_______.
(a) ashlar masonry (b) chamfered ashlar masonry
(c) rubble masonry (d) all of these
3. All the portions of masonry should be raised _______.
(a) rapidly (b) partially
(c) equally (d) none of these
4. The modified form of English bond is called _______ bond.
(a) Dutch (b) Flemish
(c) raking (d) header
5. In English garden wall bond, a heading. Course is provided after
_______ stretching course.
(a) 2 to 4 (b) 3 to 9
(c) 3 to 5 (d) 2 to 5
6. The appearance of Flemish bond is _______ than that of English
bond.
(a) satisfy (b) better
(c) economic (d) none of these
7. A stretching course increases the _______ strength of the wall.

(a) traversing (b) bearing
(c) longitudinal (d) all of these
8. When a brick is cut half, lengths wise then the so cut bricks are
known as _______
(a) queen closer (b) king closer
(c) bat (d) all of these
9. Number of bricks required for one cubic meter of brick masonry.
(a) 300 (b) 500
(c) 700 (d) 1000
10. The most important tool in brick laying and spreading mortar is,
(a) Plumb Bob (b) Brick hammer
(c) Trowel (d) Showal
11. A horizontal layer of bricks laid in mortar is known as:
(a) Course (b) Stretcher
(c) Header (d) Closer
12. The Exterior angle or corner of a wall is known as:
(a) Queen (b) Mitered closer
(c) Beleved closer (d) Queen closer
13. Best bond for bond for stone masonry.
(a) English (b) Flemish
(c) Dutch (d) Indian
14. Crushing strength of a good building stone should not be less than in
kg/cm2
(a) 500 (b) 1000
(c) 1500 (d) 2000
15. A course of stone provided immediately below a cornice, is called
(a) Blocking course (b) coping
(c) Frieze (d) Parapet
Answers
1. b 2.a 3.c 4.b 5.c 6.b 7.d 8.a 9.b 10.c
11.a 12.a 13.b 14.d 15.c
Short Questions
1. Why the bricks should be laid with their frog upward?
2. Give two differences between a stretcher course and a header course.
3. Define queen closer.
4. Why queen closer is provided in brick masonry?
5. Why is brick bonding done?
6. Why all the portions of a brick masonry wall should be raised uniformly?
7. What do you understand by ‘Frog’ in a brick?
8. Define king closer.
9. State four characteristics of english bond.
10. What is the purpose of bond in a brick masonry structure?
11. Give any four salient features of flemish bond.
12. Define Bullnose.
13. Why are the stones always laid on their natural bed?
14. Enumerate the types of stone masonry.
15. Define ashlar masonry.
16. What is Queen Brick
17. Define facing?
18. Define closer and name its types.
19. Define Jamb.
20. Define bond.
21. Write principal of brick masonry.
22. Enlist types of brick bonds.
Long Questions
1. Define the technical terms related to masonry work.
2. Explain with sketches different types of bond.
3. State the general principles to be observed in brick masonry construction
4. Explain the different types of stone masonry.
5. Explain the specifications of coursed rubble masonry.
6 Mention the specifications of ashlar masonry
Chapter # 16
Damp Proof Course

 State the causes and effects of dampness in buildings.
 Explain the functions and methods of laying damp proof courses.
16.0 General
Dampness is the presence of hygroscopic moisture. It leads to unhygienic
conditions affecting badly the health and comfort of the inhabitants and seriously
deteriorating the stability of the building. Protection against damp should form
and essential feature for any type of construction.
16.1 Dampness
The access or penetration of moisture contents inside a building through
its walls, floors or roof is known as dampness.
Dampness is not only injurious to buildings but it affects adversely the
health of their inhabitants. It becomes, therefore, essential to known the causes of
dampness and methods of its prevention so that the buildings can be constructed
damp-proof.
16.2 Effects of dampness

Following are the common ill or harmful effects of dampness in a
building.
i. It causes dry rot to the wooden members provided in the building.
ii. It causes corrosion of metals used in the construction of a building.
iii. It causes peeling off and removal of the plaster.

iv. It causes the paints to get blistered and bleached, and the surface thus gets
disfigured.
v. It causes floors of the building to remain ugly since they cannot be cleaned
well.
vi. Carpet, if used on floor of a damped building, gets destroyed earlier.
vii. All electric installations get deterisrated.
viii. It reduces the life of the structure as a whole.
ix. It causes unhygienic conditions for the occupants of the building and
affects adversely their health.
x. It causes efflorescence which affects the exposed surface of the brickwork
to disintegrate and fall to powder.
16.3 Causes of dampness

Following are the causes of dampness in a building.
1. Rain Penetration
2. Level of the site
3. Drainability of the soil
4. Climatic condition
5. Defective orientation
6. Moisture entrapped during construction
7. Defective materials
8. Defective construction
9. Moisture which originates in the building itself.
1. Rain Penetration
It is considered as the chief source of dampness. Some buildings can
withstand heavy rains for a short duration whereas they fail to withstand
continuous mild showers for a number of days. Properly constructed walls offer
considerable resistance to penetration of the moisture but its rapid penetration
takes place through the joist and porous brick or stones. Rain penetration is also
possible through the roof components, cracks and joints between walls and the
roof.
2. Level of the site
The elevation of the building site has also effect on dampness. Structures,
built on a higher ground, can be drained off easily and hence they are less liable to
dampness. But low laying area cannot be easily drained off and causes dampness
in the structures.
3. Drainability of the soil
The drainability of the soil on which the building is constructed is an
important factor for causing the dampness or its prevention. Gravel and sandy soil
allow water to pass through very easily, where as clayey soil retains moisture and
also causes dampness due to capillary rise.
4. Climatic condition
Dampness is also causes due to condensation of the moisture present in the
atmosphere under very cold climate Condensation.
5. Defective orientation
The building having its walls subjected to constant splashes of rains or
getting less direct sun rays due to defective orientation is liable to dampness.
6. Moisture entrapped during construction
Walls, while being constructed are in wet conditions. These may persist
moisture for a long period after the construction is over due to the use of salty or
alkaline water which causes dampness in the building.
7. Defective materials
Dampness is also caused due to soakage of moisture by the defective
materials like porous bricks, soft stones, etc especially when they are used in
external walls.
8. Defective construction
Defective construction of various parts such as joints between parapet and
the roof capings, iron fixtures, etc in a building causes dampness by transmitting
rain water.
9. Moisture which originates in the building itself.
In case there is any leakage in sewers, down water pipes etc in kitchens or
bathrooms, it will be causing dampness in the building.
16.4 Damp-Proofing materials

The materials used for damp-proofing purposes in buildings and in other
engineering structures are called damp-proofing material.
16.5 Requirements of a good damp-proofing material

A good damp-proofing material should fulfill the following requirements.
1. It should be impervious to moisture.
2. It should be durable.
3. It should not disintegrate under loading.
4. It should not move sideways under loading.
5. It should provide uniform and homogeneous layer.
6. It should cover full thickness of the wall.
7. It should be cheaply and easily available.
16.6 Classification of Damp-Proofing Materials

The various damp-proofing materials used in buildings and other
engineering structures are broadly classified into the following two categories.
i. Flexible materials
ii. Rigid materials
i. Flexible materials
The materials which do not crack and deform their shape when subjected
to any loading are called flexible materials e.g.
a. Bitumen mastic
b. Bitumen felt
c. Hot laid bitumen
d. Metal sheets
ii. Rigid materials
The materials which cannot resist transverse stresses and liable to crack
when subjected to serve loading are known as rigid materials e.g.
a. Rick concrete
b. Mortar
c. Bricks
d. Stone slab or slates
16.7 Principles pertaining to the use of Damp-Proofing

materials
The following principles are observed white using the materials as a
damp-proof course.
i. There should be minimum number of construction joints.
ii. They should cover full thickness of the wall.
iii. Lead sheets should only be laid in lime mortar.

iv. At corners of walls, the material forming D.P.C should be properly
overlapped.
v. The D.P.C should not be carried across the door and verandah openings
where it is laid at plinth level.
16.8 Method of providing Damp-Proof courses

The various methods of providing damp-proof courses under different
situations are discussed below:
1. Under ground floors
2. At plinth and walls
3. At parapet
4. At window sill
5. In basements
1. Under ground floors
To save structure from dampness through the floor, a layer of D.P.C below
its top finish is very essential when the sub-soil water table is high. In dry place a
well rammed layer of sand about 100mm thick is laid below the floor which is
sufficient to prevent dampness due to capillary rise through the floor. The
concrete floor can be treated with a water-proof layer of mastic asphalt or bitumen
felt. A priming coat of hot bitumen can be given on the dry bedding of cement
concrete (1:8:16) laid 100mm thick. Whenever excessive uplift pressure of sub-
soil water is expected, reinforcement should be provided in concrete and mastic
asphalt or bitumen felt is laid and covered with a concrete wearing coat.
Horizontal D.P.C
(C.C. 1:2:4 with two
coats of bitumen)
D.P.C in External Wall D.P.C in Internal Wall

2. At plinth and walls
In external walls, horizontal D.P.C should be provided at 150mm to
200mm above ground level. In this case, a vertical D.P.C is also provided on the
inner face of the external wall from the horizontal D.P.C to the ground floor
topping as shown in figure. Horizontal D.P.C can also be provided at plinth level
and in that case no vertical D.P.C is required. In internal walls, horizontal D.P.C
is always provided at plinth level and vertical D.P.C is not used.
3. At parapet
A D.P.C just above the junction of the roof with parapet walls gives an
effective protection. The D.P.C should be extended to the full thickness of the
wall including the plaster as shown in figure. A metal finishing should be
provided on the external surface to improve the appearance. A D.P.C underneath
the coping may be provided when the bricks are not of good quality.
4. At window sill
The window sill should be sloped away from the wall and throated
underneath to prevent the water from trickling down the surface of the wall as
illustrated in figure.
Coping (Stone)
Throating
Metal Finish
D.P.C (Asphalt coating)
External Plaster
Plaster Bedding R.C.C Slab
D.P.C of Parapet (Roof Joint)
Sun Shade Lintel (R.C.C)

Window Frame
Window Sill
Drip Stone
Throating
D.P.C. at Window Sill

5. In basements
Vertical D.P.C is applied to the enclosing walls of a basement. Horizontal
D.P.C is applied to the flooring of the basement. There are various methods of
applying vertical D.P.C on the enclosing walls and some of them are illustrated in
figures. Mastic asphalt or biturnent felt may be used on the concrete surface of the
basement.
(a) (b)
Two Coats
of Asphalt
(c) Alternative Detail (d) A Typical Section

D.P.C in a Basement
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. In an external wall, horizontal D.P.C is provided at _______ above
ground level.
(a) 200 to 400mm (b) 175 to 200mm
(c) 150 to 200mm (d) 150 to 175mm
2. Thickness of cement concrete (1:2:4) in a horizontal D.P.C is generally
_______.
(a) 20mm (b) 40mm
(c) 15mm (d) 10mm
3. Thickness of cement plaster is kept _______ for providing a vertical
D.P.C.
(a) 16mm (b) 18mm
(c) 20mm (d) 19mm
4. Bitumen felt is a _______.
(a) rigid (b) flexible
(c) brittle (d) none of these
5. Bitumen is laid hot in two layers at the rate of _______ per square
meter of the surface area.
(a) 2 kg (b) 1.55 kg
(c) 1.65 kg (d) 1.75 kg
6. The dampness in a building is due to.
(a) Ground moisture (b) Rain water
(c) Defective construction (d) All of these
7. The most commonly used metrical for damp proofing is:

(a) Bitumen (b) Paraffin wax
(c) Cement solution (d) Cement concrete
8. For DPC at plinth level, the commonly adopted material is:

(a) Bitumen sheeting (b) Plastic sheeting
(c) Mastic asphalt (d) cement concrete
9. A semi rigid material which forms an excellent impervious layer for
damp proofing, is called:
(a) Bitumen (b) Mastic asphalt
(c) Luminal (d) Bituminous felt
10. The cavity wall is generally provided for:
(a) Preventing dampness (b) Heat insulation
(c) Sound insulation (d) All of these
11. A flexible material used for DPC is:
(a) Bitumen sheeting (b) Plastic sheeting
(c) Mastic asphalt (d) cement concrete
12. Dampness leaves such effect on the building.
(a) Bad (b) Best
(c) Dangerous (d) No-effect
13. Finished surface of floor should be ______ level of D.P.C.
(a) Above (b) Below
(c) Below (d) Any where
14. Thickness of D.P.C. layer is kept in cm.

(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 10 (d) 12
15. Thickness of vertical D.P.C. is recommended in cm.
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 10 (d) 12
Answers
1. d 2.a 3.b 4.a 5.c 6.d 7.a 8.d 9.b 10.d
11.a 12.a 13.c 14.b 15.a
Short Questions
1. Define damp proof course.
2. How do dampness produce in the buildings?
3. Write the methods of preventing Dampness.
4. Enumerate damp proofing materials.
5. What is the role of durability of soil in causing dampness in a building?
6. Why it is essential to provide a damp proof course in a brick masonry
wall?
7. What is the thickness of horizontal D.P.C vertical D.P.C When laid with
concrete?
8. Give four ill effects of dampness.
9. Why the D.P.C is not provided with in door or verandah opening?
10. What is the quantity of bitumen required for laying a damp proof course?
11. Give causes of dam proofing course?

12. Define structure causes of dampness.
13. write a note on surface treatment method of preventing dampness.
14. write a note on integral water proofing method of preventing dampness.
15. Enlist methods of preventing dampness?
16. Write a note on horizontal D.P.C.
17. Describe all effects of dampness.
18. Give principals pertaining to the use of damp proofing materials.
19. Enlist requirements of a good damp proofing materials.
Long Questions
1. What is meant by dampness and what are the effects of dampness in
buildings?
2. Explain the causes of dampness in buildings.
3. What do you mean by damp-proofing material and what are the

requirements of a good damp-proofing material ?
4. Explain the functions and methods of laying damp proof courses.
Chapter # 17
Walls
 Describe the purpose of wall.
 Explain the classification of walls according of functions and materials.
 Select suitable type of wall for given situation
17.0 Walls
In order to enclose an area, a structure in the form of wall is to be
Constructed around the area. Similarly, to divide a floor area into a number of
rooms and to Support floors and roofs of a building, walls are required to be
Constructed. Thus these structures have becomes so important in building
Construction that without them no building can be considered complete.
17.1 Walls
The structures constructed to enclose an area, to Support floors and roof or
divide the floor area of a building into a required number of rooms are known as
walls.
They are essential to provide privacy to the inmates and to protect them
from wind and weather.
17.2 Purposes of Wall

1. To enclose an area of the building.
2. To support the floors and roofs of a building.
3. To divide the floor area of a building into a number of rooms as required.
4. To protect the inmates from heavy winds.

5. To provide privacy to the inmates.
17.3 Classification of Walls

Walls are classified into the following categories,
i. According to function.
ii. According to material used.
i. According to Function
According to functions, walls are classified as described below:-
a. Load Bearing Walls.
b. Non-Load Bearing Walls.
a. Load bearing Walls

The walls which support the floors or roof of a building are called load
bearing walls.
These wall take and transfer the load coming over them to their
foundations lying underneath. Load Bearing Walls may be solid or hollow but
thick in cross-section.
Suitability
These walls are usually constructed as main walls of a building.
b. Non-Load Bearing Walls
The walls which do not Support floors or roof of a building are called non-
load bearing walls.
These walls do not take any super-imposed load but should be strong
enough to take own load.
Suitability
These walls are constructed only for screening and partitioning so as to

divide the floor are of a building into a number of rooms as required. These walls
are generally solid but thin in Cross-Section.
ii. According to material used

According to the material of construction, walls are classified as discussed
below:-
a. Brick masonry wall.
b. Stone masonry wall.
c. Re-inforced brick masonry walls.
d. Re-inforced Concrete walls.
e. Precast hollow Concrete block walls.
f. Composite Masonry walls.
a. Brick masonry Wall

The Walls constructed of brick masonry are called brick masonry walls.
Suitability
These Walls are generally Constructed as main or partition walls of a

building in plain area.
b. Stone Masonry Walls
The Walls Constructed of Stone masonry are called Stone masonry Walls.
Suitability
These Walls are generally Constructed as main walls in hilly areas where
stone of good quality is easily and cheaply available in large quantity.
c. Reinforced brick masonry Walls
The Walls Constructed of reinforced brick masonry Walls are called
reinforced brick masonry Walls.
The reinforcement used in such Walls is in the form of iron Straps 25 to
40mm wide and 12mm thick two mild steel rods of 6mm diameter or a wire mesh
provided after every fourth or fifth course.
Suitability
These Walls are stronger than ordinary brick Walls and are generally used
as think partition Walls 100mm thick.
d. Reinforced Concrete Walls
The Walls constructed of reinforced Concrete are called reinforced
Concrete Wall.
These Walls can be conveniently constructed and form one of the
strongest partition Walls.
Suitability
These Walls can be constructed as retaining Walls of basement for
resisting the lateral pressure of earth and the load, if any coming over them.
e. Precast hollow Concrete block Wall
The Walls constructed of precast hollow Concrete blocks are called
precast hollow Concrete block Walls. The hollow Concrete blocks used in such
Walls are moulded in machines to the required shape and size.
Suitability
These walls are stronger them ordinary brick or stone walls and can be
advantageously used as main or partition walls.
f. Composite masonry Walls
The Walls having their facing and backing constructed of different

materials are called composite masonry Walls.
Suitability
These Walls are usually constructed as front Walls of a building for
providing architectural appearance.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Walls are constructed protect the inmates from wind and _______.
(a) sun (b) light
(c) weather (d) none of these
2. Load Bearing walls are generally provided with_______.
(a) foundation (b) super structure
(c) column (d) all of these
3. Hollow concrete block walls provide economy in _______ and mortar.
(a) shape (b) material
(c) size (d) cost
4. Non-Load bearing walls are _______ in cross-section.
(a) thin (b) thick
(c) heavy (d) all of these
5. Partition walls should provide privacy in respect of sight and _______.
(a) sound (b) air
(c) sun (d) none of these
6. The thickness of reinforced brick partitions is generally kept _______.
(a) 200mm (b) 500mm
(c) 350mm (d) 100mm
7. A partition wall may be:
(a) Folding (b) Collapsible
(c) Fixed (d) All of these
8. The wall talking and transferring the load of floors and roof.
(a) Partition wall (b) Load bearing wall
(c) hollow wall (d) Composite wall
9. For heat and sound proofing walls are suitable.
(a) None load bearing wall (b) Load bearing wall
(c) Hollow wall (d) Composite wall
10. Minimum thickness of outer side of hollow block should be in cm.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 15 (d) 20
11. Hollow space between hollow blocks is kept as in cm.
(a) 4-7.5 (b) 7.5-10
(c) 10-15 (d) 15-20
12. Arches are made in hollow block masonry.
(a) Hollow (b) Single
(c) Double (d) Solid
13. In ordinary hollow block masonry, ratio of cement mortar is kept.
(a) 1:2 (b) 1:3
(c) 1:4 (d) 1:5
14. Masonry walls should be cured for ______ days.
(a) 5 (b) 8
(c) 8 (d) 15
15. Hollow walls are mostly made of,
(a) Bricks (b) Stones
(c) Stones (d) All of these
Answers
1. d 2. b 3.b 4.a 5.a 6.c 7.d 8.b 9.c 10.b
11.a 12.d 13.c 14.b 15.a
Short Questions
1. What are the types of walls according to load bearing?
2. What are the types of walls according to material?
3. What are hollow walls?
4. What are partition wall?
5. What are materials used in partition walls?
6. What is wall and why is constructed?
7. Give classification of walls?
8. Give purpose of wall.
9. Define non load bearing walls.
10. Give utility of non-load bearing walls?
11. What a brick masonry walls?
12. What is reinforced bricks walls?
13. Give utility of reinforced brick walls?
14. What is reinforced concrete walls?
15. Give utility of reinforced concrete walls?
16. Give advantages of precast hollow concrete block walls.
17. what is composite masonry walls?
18. What is meant by partition
19. What is wooden partition walls?

20. Give principles of construction of hollow walls.
Long Questions
1. Define a wall and describe the purposes of wall.
2. Explain the classification of walls according of functions and materials
used.
3. Select suitable type of wall for given situation
Chapter # 18
Arches and Lintels

 Explain the functions of arch and lintels and their suitability in construction
work.
 Label the parts of common arch.
 Explain with sketches common types of arches and lintels and their respective
suitability in construction work.
 Explain the general procedure of construction of arches and lintels.
18.0 General
Openings for doors, windows, ventilators, etc are required in a wall. An
arch is a structure which is constructed to span across such an opening. It
generally consists of small wedge-shaped units which are jointed together with
mortar. However, arches made of steel and R.C.C are built in single units and they
are used for bridge construction.
18.1 Arches
The structural member having mechanical arrangement of wedge shaped
bricks, stone or concrete blocks joined together with mortar in the form of a curve
is called an arch.
The bed joints in case of an arch, except the monolithic arch are radial.
The arches are quite strong for uniform loading but are weak under the point
loading. They provide good architectural appearance tot eh buildings.
Suitability
Arches are not commonly used these days as they require strong end
supports to take their lateral thrust and also provide unnecessary rise to the
structure. They can be easily constructed and are, therefore, mostly used to
provide a good aesthetic appearance to the buildings. They can also be used for
providing inverted arch footings in case of bridges.
18.2 Parts of an Arch

The different parts of an arch are discussed below:
1. Abutments
The end supports of one or a series of arches are called abutments
2. Pier
Any intermediate support in a series of arches is called a pier.
3. Arch ring
The curved ring of masonry forming an arch is called an arch ring.
4. Voussoirs
The wedge shaped bricks or blocks forming an arch are called voussoirs.
5. Key
The central voussoir of an arch ring is called key, and the stone used for
this purpose is called a key stone
6. Bed joints
The radial joints of mortar of an arch are called bed joints.
7. Intrados
The inner curve of an arch ring is called intrados.
8. Soffit
The under surface of an arch is called soffit.
9. Extrados
The outer curve of an arch ring is called extrados.
10. Back
The upper surface of an arch is called back.
11. Crown
The highest point on the extrados of an arch is called crown.
12. Skew back

The sloping surface of a pier or abutment from where the arch springs
(starts) is called skew back.
13. Springing points
The points from where an arch springs are called springing points.
14. Springing line
The line joining the springing points of a arch is called springing line.
15. Springer
The lowest or first voussoir placed adjacent to the skew back of an arch is
called springer.
16. Span
The horizontal distance between the supports of an arch is called span.
17. Rise
The vertical distance between the springing line and the highest point on
the intrados of an arch is called rise.
18. Depth of arch
The radial distance between the intrados and extrados of an arch is called
depth of the arch.
19. Haunch
The lower half portion between the crown and skew back of an arch is
called haunch.
20. Spandril
The triangular portion between any two adjacent arches and the line
jointing to their crowns is called spandrel.
21. Centre of an arch

The geometrical centre from where the curve of an arch ring is drawn is
called centre of the arch.
Depth
Intrados Crown Key Arch Ring
Exrados
ch
n
Rise Vossoirs Back

Hau
Soffit Bed Joints

Sporting Centre Intrados
point Skew Back
Soffit
Abutment Pier
Springing Line
18.3 Classification of arches

Arches may be classified into the following four categories:
a. According to the material used for their construction
b. According to their function
c. According to their geometrical shape
d. According to number of their centres.
a. Classification according to the material used

Arches are classified according to the material used in their construction
into the following types:
1. Brick arches
2. Stone arches
3. Concrete arches
4. Timber arches
5. Metal arches
1. Brick arches
The arches constructed of bricks laid in any suitable mortar are called
brick arches.
Brick arches are further classified according to the quality of bricks used
in their construction, into different types as discusses below:
i. Plain brick arches
The brick arches constructed of ordinary bricks without any cutting are
called plain or rough brick arches (see fig)
Each Ring Consisting

of Half Brick Thick
Fig. Plan Brick Arch

The width of bedding joins of plain brick arches goes on increasing
towards their extrados. These arches are, therefore, constructed in a number of
arch rings. The depth of each ring is limited to 100mm. These arches do not
provide good appearance.
Suitability
These arches are used for ordinary purposes where appearance is not of
prime importance.
ii. Axed brick arches
The brick arches constructed of roughly cut wedge shaped bricks are
known as axed or rough-cut brick arches or simply as axed arches.
Each Ring consisting

of full brick thick
Axed brick arch

The width of bedding joints of axed brick arches is roughly uniform.
These arches also provide rough appearance.
Suitability
These arches are commonly used in brick work but not in facing work.
One and a half

brick arch ring
gauged brick arch
iii. Gauged brick arches

The brick arches constructed of uniform wedge shaped moulded bricks are
called gauged brick arches.
The bedding joints of gauged brick arches are very fine and uniform. They
are costly in their construction but provide good appearance.
Suitability
These arches are used for facing work, where appearance is of prime
importance.
2. Stone arches
The arches constructed of dressed stones laid in cement or lime mortar are
called stone arches.
Stone arches are further classified according to the type of dressing of
stones before laying them in position as discussed below:
i. Rubble stone arches
The stone arches constructed of roughly dressed stories are called rubble
some arches or simply rubble arches.
Rubble arch
Suitability
These arches are used in ordinary stone work, where appearance is not of
prim importance.
ii. Ashlar stone arches
The stone arches constructed of finely dressed wedge shaped stone block
are called ashlar stone arches or simply ashlar arches.
The bedding joints of ashlar arches are thin and uniform. These arches are
good in strength and provide pleasing appearance.
Ashlar arch
Suitability
These arches are used for high class buildings, where appearance is of
prim importance.
3. Concrete arches
The arches constructed of pre-cast blocks of concrete or reinforced
concrete at site of work are called concrete arches.
Concrete arches are further classified according to their method
construction as discussed below:
i. Concrete block arches
The concrete arches constructed of pre-cast wedge shaped cement
concrete blocks are called concrete block arches.
The shape of these arches is similar to that of ashlar arches. The joints f
such arches are thin and uniform. These arches are quite strong, durable and
provide good appearance.
Suitability
These arches are suitable where good quality of stones are not cheaply and
easily available in large quantity.
ii. Monolithic concrete arches

To concrete arches constructed at site are called monolithic concrete
arches.
These arches are without bed joints and are generally constructed of
reinforced cement concrete.
Suitability
These arches are not commonly used in ordinary buildings. Such arches
are used for carrying suspended floors and improving appearance of important
buildings. They can also be used in the construction of a bridge super-structure for
carrying the communication route over them.
4. Timber arches
The arches fabricated with wooden members are called timber or wooden
arches.
Suitability
These arches are not in common use. They are only used where wooden
lining is to be provided on the wall.
5. Metal arches
The arches fabricated with steel members are called metal arches.
Suitability
These arches are used for heavy structures like bridge arches, roof arches
of big factories etc.
b. Classification according to function
Arches are classified according to their function into different types as
discussed below:
1. Relieving arches
The arches provided over weak lintels or flat arches just to relieve them
from taking any load of masonry work provided above their level are called
relieving arches.
Relieving Arch
Core
Lintel
Relieving arch
These arches may be constructed of any suitable material and are
generally segmental in shape. Relieving arches should be started from ends of the
lintel and its skew backs should be in the same radial line as those of the flat
arches lying underneath.
Suitability
These arches are used over door and window openings, whee there is a
provision of wooden lintel or when a flat surface is desired over such openings.
2. Inverted arches
The arches constructed with their curvature downward are called inverted
arches.
Piers
River Bed
Springing line
Inverted arches
Inverted arches
In an inverted arch, its crown lies below the springing line. Such arches
may be constructed as reinforced cement concrete arches.
These arches are constructed, where heavy concentrated loads are to be
taken by the vertical supports and it is required to divide the loads on larger area
so as to bring the intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the sub-
soil.
Suitability
These arches are mostly used for foundation work of bridges.
3. Trimmer arches
The arch constructed over a trimmer just to carry fire place in the upper
timber floor is called a trimmer arch.
Suitability
The arches constructed to avoid the close proximity of wooden members
from the flue or the hearth of a fire place.
4. Jack arches
The arches constructed over rooms to support a roof or floor over them are
called Jack arches.
Lime concrete filling
Jack arch Concrete covering

Tie rod R.S.Joist
Side wall
Jack arches
These arches are usually segmental in shape and rest on R.S. joists, spaced
1.0 to 1.5m apart. The rise of such an arch varies from 1/8th to 1/6th of the span.
These arches impart side thrust and hence the end arches are bonded with the
walls by iron bars called tie rods as shown in
Suitability
There arches were mostly used for providing roofs or upper floors of
buildings in place of roof slabs. They are not being commonly used these days as
they provide unnecessary rise and are also difficult to construct.
c. Classification according to geometrical shape

Arches are classified according to their geometrical shape into different
types as discussed below:
1. Circular arches
An arch in the form a complete circular masonry ring is called a circular or
bull’s eye arch.
A circular arch is used for steining (brick work) of a well.
2. Horse shoe arches
An arch in the form of a circular masonry ring more than a semi-circle is
called a horse she arch.
This arch is so called as its shape conforms the iron shoes which are fixed
to the feet of horses. Its centre lies above its springing line. These arches are used
where more head is desired for architectural appearance.
3. Semi-circular arches
An arch in the form of half of a circle is called a semi-circular arch.
The centre of a semi-circular arch lies at the middle of its springing line.
In its case, the reaction at the supports is vertical. This is, therefore, considered as
the most simple arch. Such arches are not provided where the sufficient head-
room is not available or the space is limited. These arches are used where more
head-room is required.
4. Stilted arches
An arch in the form of a semi-circular masonry ring provided with vertical
supports so that its centre lies above its springing line is called a stilted arch.
These arches are used where more head-room is required.
5. Segmental arches
An arch in the form of a circular masonry ring less than a semi-circle is
called a segmental arch.
The centre of a segmental arch lies below its springing line. These arches
are commonly used to avoid more rise in the building.
6. Flat arches
An arch having its intrados horizontal and bed joints radiating towards a
common centre is called flat arch.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Rise
Span Span
(f) (g) (h)

Different types of arches according to their Geometrical shape
The centre of a flat arch lies below its springing line. Usually, a nominal
rise of 10mm per metre span is given to the intrados to check settlement of such
an arch when loaded. The arches are weak in strength and arc, therefore, used to
obtain flat surface over door and window openings alongwith relieving arches.
7. Parabolic arches
An arch conforming to the shape of a parabola is called a parabolic arch.
This type of arch has more rise as compared to its span. These arches are
used to provide architectural appearance to the face of a building.
8. Elliptical arches
An arch conforming to the shape of an ellipse is called an elliptical arch.
This type of arch has less rise as compared to its span. These arches are
used for providing architectural appearance to the building when height is
restricted.
9. Gothic arches
Arches in the form of masonry rings, struck from two centres laying on
their springing lines are called gothic arches.
These arches are suitable when series of opening of variable spans, are to
be ridged over with arches of the same rise.
Gothic arches are further classified into different types as discussed below:
i. Equilateral gothic
A gothic arch having rise equal to its span is called equilateral gothic.
ii. Acute or lancet gothic
A gothic arch having rise more than its span is called acute or lancet
gothic.
R R R
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
(a) (b) (c)

Gothic Arches
iii. Obtuse, drop or blunt gothic
A gothic arch having rise less than its span is called obtuse, drop or blunt
gothic.
10. Two cusped arches

Arches in the form of masonry rings struck from four centres are called
two cusped arches.
These arches are used for enhancing the architectural appearance of
historical and religious buildings.
R
C 3 C4
R R
C1 C2
Two cusped arch Ogee arch
11. Ogee arches

Arches in the form of masonry rings struck from more than four centres
are called multi-centred or ogee arches.
18.4 Method of Arch Construction

The method of construction of various arches differs widely according to
their span, width of soffit, shape and the material to be used in their construction.
However, the construction work of every type of arch involves the following
process:
1. Construction of skew backs
2. Erection of centring
3. Construction of the arch
4. Striking and removal of centring
1. Construction of skew backs

The top surfaces of vertical masonry supports are made sloping in case of
a segmental arch. The purpose of constructing skew backs is to provide full
bearing to the ends of the arch to be constructed over them.
2. Erection of centring
The temporary structure provided to support a newly constructed arch till
it attains strength is called centring.
A well designed centring should be strong enough to support load of the
arch and workmen moving over it during its construction. It should also be easy in
erection and quick in removal after the arch is set.
In case of very small arches, mud masonry can be used to make the
centring to the shape of soffit of the arch. Timber centring is generally used for
arch construction except in case of large projects, where mild steel centring in the
form of trusses can be employed. Since the initial cost of mild steel centring, is
high, this type of centring is, therefore, recommended where a large number of
similar arches are to be constructed.
Timber centring usually consists of built up ribs or trusses. The top surface
of an arch rib or truss is made to the shape of the intrados of the arch to be
constructed. These ribs are supported by vertical timber posts or props at their
ends. Folding wedges are used over these props for tightening the centring.
Turning piece
Wedges
Props
(a) (b)
Single Rib Centring
Laggings
Ri
bs
Two Rib Centring

In case the soffit of the arch is only 100mm wide, a single rib centring
consisting of a thick wooden plank, is sufficient. When the soffit width is more
than 100mm, two rib centring is used. These ribs are connected at their top by
meanss of 40 × 20mm wooden pieces, called laggings. For arches having very
wide soffit and also for roof arches, a built-up centring in the form of frame work
is used. The built-up ribs or trusses are spaced 1m to 1.25m apart and are
connected at the top by a suitable type of laggings. The frame work is supported
at its ends over horizontal wooden members, called joists or bearers which rest on
vertical props provided with the folding wedges.
B
Laggings
Ribs
Bracket
Tie
Bearer
Pair of
Props wedges
A Bearer
Elevation Section at AB
Built-up Centring
The type and spacing of laggings depend upon the material used in the
construction of arches and the accuracy required. For concrete arches or when
great accuracy is required, close laggings of wooden planks is used or G.I.sheets
are nailed to the top of ribs. The length of laggings is kept 12mm less than the
thickness of the wall.
In case of monolithic concrete arches, form work is also constructed
alongwith centring for preventing spreading of concrete outside the required
space.
3. Construction of the arch
After preparing the suitable centring the arch is constructed with the
specified material starting from the skew back on either side as discussed below:
1. Construction of brick arches
Brick arches are generally constructed of cement, lime or mud mortar in
any one of the two bonds as discussed below:
i. Concentric rings of half or full brick

In this bond, the bricks are laid as headers in concentric rings of half brick
thickness. Bond blocks are introduced between the adjacent concentric rings to
prevent failing of the arch when the line of thrust passes through the joint between
the two rings.
This bond is used when a plain-brick or an axed-bricks arch is to be
constructed. It does not provide good appearance.
ii. Header and stretcher bond

In this bond, bricks are laid on their edge and on their end alternately in
the same ring. The bed joints are continuous and their thickness at the extrados is
more.
This bond is used when one and a half-brick arch is to be constructed. It
provides good appearance.
The laying of voussoirs is started from skew back on either side, according
to the required bond. Then the key i.e. the last voussoir is fixed at middle of the
arch ring for tightening al the voussoirs provided in the arch.
2. Construction of stone arches

Stone arches are constructed with dressed stone blocks of the specified
shape and size, generally laid in cement or lime mortar. Rubble stone arches upto
380mm thick and ashlar arches upto 600mm thick are constructed with stone
blocks, extending to the full thickness of the arch ring. Arches having thickness
more than this are laid in two stones but their springers and key stones must be
laid as through stones.
The procedure of laying the voussoirs in stone arches is same as describe
in case of brick arches.
3. Construction of concrete arches
Concrete block arches are constructed with precast concrete blocks
moulded to the required shape and size. The concrete blocks are laid in cement
mortar in a similar manner as described in case of brick arches.
For constructing monolithic concrete arches, form-work is to be
constructed alongwith centring for placing the concrete in specified width and
thickness of the arch. After completing the form-work and centring, all the
existing holes are plugged with mud mortar. The top surface of the centring is
made even by spreading sand. Then the reinforcement according to the design is
laid in the required position. After this, the surface of centring is sprinkled over
with water and and the prepared concrete is laid in a uniform layer, starting from
the skew back. The concrete should be laid continuously without any break so as
to have monolithic construction.
When the concrete work is completed, it is cured for 8 to 10 days for
proper hardening of concrete.
4. Striking and removing the centring
The process of easing the centring slightly is called striking the centring.
This is done to allow the arch to consolidate itself and also for easy
removal of the centring. For the facilitating easing of the centring of arches in
case of large projects, sand boxes are conveniently used. The sand boxes are
provided under the vertical props. When the centring is to be slightly eased, the
holes of sand boxes are opened and the sand is allowed to move out by the
required amount. When the arch has attained its strength, the centring, alongwith
form-work, if any, is removed carefully without disturbing the arch.
18.5 Principles to be observed while designing and

construction arches
The following principles should be observed while designing and
constructing arches for their stability.
i. The supports of an arch must be strong enough to take the load and lateral
thrust of the arch.
ii. The material used in the construction of an arch must be sound to resist the
load safely.
iii. The curvature of an arch should be so designed that the line of thrust falls
within the middle-third of the depth of arch.
iv. The depth of the arch ring must be sufficient to take the load of the
masonry work to be constructed above its level.
v. Al the bed joints must be radiating from the centre of the arch so that line
of thrust may be normal to the joints.
18.6 Lintels
The horizontal structural members constructed to bridge over door
window and verandah openings are called lintels.
These are generally preferred to arches these days because these are
simple in their construction and do not provide unnecessary rise to the buildings.
Advantages of lintels
The advantages of lintels are discussed below:
i. They are simple and easy in their construction.
ii. They do not provide any unnecessary rise to a structure.
iii. They require economical supports as they do not exert lateral thrust.
iv. They are quite strong under uniform concentrated loads.

v. They provide good appearance where simplicity is required.
18.7 Classification of lintels

Lintels are classified into the following five types according to the
material used for their construction:
1. Wooden lintels 2. Stone lintels
3. Concrete lintels 4. Reinforced brick lintels
5. Steel lintels
1. Wooden lintels
The lintel in the form of a long rectangular wooden member is called a
wooden lintel.
These lintels are easy in their construction and are liable to decay and also
lack in fire-resisting qualities. The minimum thickness of a wooden lintel is kept
as 100mm and is taken 80mm per metre span according to thumb0rule.
Suitability
Wooden lintels were very common prior to the development of reinforced
brickwork or concrete work when the timber was cheaply available. They are
rarely used these days except in case of ordinary buildings in rural areas.
2. Stone lintels
The lintel in the form of a long rectangular block of stone is called a stone
lintel.
These lintels are quite strong but cannot be easily handled. They should be
placed on their natural bed. The thickness of a stone lintel is taken as 100mm per
metre span according to thumb rule.
Suitability
These lintels are commonly used in hilly areas where a good quality of
stone is easily and cheaply available. Their use is not recommended in plains as
they involve heavy dressing and transportation charges.
3. Concrete lintels
The lintel consisting of concrete, whether plain or reinforced, is called a
concrete lintel.
Concrete lintels are further classified into different types as discussed
below:
1. Plain concrete lintels
The lintels consisting of a long rectangular precast block of plain concrete
are known as plain concrete or cast stone lintels.
The thickness of plain concrete lintel is taken as 100mm per metre span
according to thumb rule.
Suitability
The use of these lintels is recommended for light loads upto 1m span only.
4. Reinforced brick lintels
The lintels consisting of reinforced cement concrete are kknown as
reinforced concrete lintels.
In these lintels, reinforcement in the form of steel bar is provided to take
up the tensile and excessive shear stresses. They are cheap and convenient in
construction. The thickness of reinforced lintels is taken as 80mm per metre of the
span according to thumb rule. Practically, the thickness is kept equal to a multiple
of the thickness of a masonry course in the wall for convenience. Upto 1.2m span,
reinforcement consisting of a 8mm diameter rod per 150mm width of the lintel
will be sufficient. Minimum three rods (two straight on the sides and one bent-up
at the centre) are used for construction of such lintels. A cover of 50mm of
concrete is provided on the side and 30mm at the bottom and top of the
reinforcement in such a lintel.
For 1.2 to 2m spans, four 8mm diameter rods with two bent-up or three
16mm diameter rods with one (central) bent up, are used, Above 2m span, the
lintel should be designed as a reinforced concrete beam.
Suitability
Reinforced concrete lintels are commonly used in all important modern
buildings these days.
Reinforced concrete lintels are further classified into different types are
discussed below:
i. Precast concrete lintels
The reinforced concrete lintels constructed before their actual use are
called precast reinforced concrete lintels or simply precast concrete lintels.
These lintels are very suitable for small spans upto 1.25m. They should be
carefully handled during their transportation and placing on top of the openings to
be bridged over in the walls.
ii. Cast-in-situ concrete lintels
The reinforced concrete lintels constructed at site are known as cast-in-situ
concrete lintel.
These lintels should be properly designed before their actual construction.
Spacer
Board
Bracket
Bearer
Strut
Posts
Braces
Centring and form work of a

Cast-in-Situ R.C.C Lintel
Method of construction of cast-in-situ concrete lintels
Cast-in-situ concrete lintels are constructed as follows:
For constructing a cast-in-situ concrete lintel, centring and side shuttering
(form-work) is properly constructed over the opening. The bed is leveled and the
requisite reinforcement is properly laid. The reinforcement is then raised above
the bed in order to provide the required cover of concrete. After this freshly mixed
concrete is placed and compacted to the required thickness. Then the lintel is
cured after 24 hours of placing of concrete. Curing is continued for 7 to 15 days,
depending upon the span. When the concrete is properly hardened, the centring
alongwith shuttering is removed and the lintel is plastered. A cast-in-situ R.C.C
concrete lintel with the detail of its reinforcement is shown in fig.
Masonry work above lintel
160 160
A
V.Stirrups 160
Main cranked bar
Main straight bars
Thickness of
Span (2m) wall
(a) Sectional Elevation (b) Section at AB
Cast-in-situ R.C.C Lintel

5. Reinforced brick lintels
The lintel consisting of reinforced brickwork is known as reinforced brick
lintel.
Masonry work Projection for
above lintel B plastering
16cm Steel
reinforcement
Steel bars A
Span
Thickness
of wall
(a) Sectional Elevation (b) Section at AB
Reinforced brick lintel
These lintels are always constructed at the site. They are designed on the
same principles as observed for R.C.C lintels. In their case, well burnt and sound
bricks are used instead of concrete.
For constructing a reinforced brick lintel, only centring is constructed and
bricks are placed on sides and ends for shuttering purposes. The wetted bricks are
arranged in parallel rows according to the design, leaving 20 to 40mm spaces
lengthwise for reinforcement. After this, spaces are partly filled with rich cement
mortar (1:3) and the steel reinforcement is embedded into the mortar as shown in
Fig. 9.19. All the joints are then completely filled with mortar. After 24 hours of
construction, curing of lintel is done for 7–10 days, depending upon its span.
Suitability
Reinforced brick lintels are commonly used for comparatively small spans
in common residential buildings.
6. Steel lintels
The lintel consisting of a rolled steel section is known as steel lintel
Cut stone slab

R.S.Joist Spacer
Bolt R.S.Joist
Cut stone
bed block
Thickness Thickness
of wall of wall
Steel linted Bressumer
In these lintels, the rolled steel sections are general embedded in concrete
to protect them from rusting and to make them fire-resistant. Such steel sections
covered with concrete are known as bressumers.
They are quite strong but uneconomical in their construction.
Suitability
These lintels are rarely used over large openings when subjected to heavy
loads of solid walls to be constructed over them.
Note
According to thumb rule, the bearing of a lintel at its ends on the wall is
kept equal to its depth or minimum 100mm.
19.8 Comparison between arches and lintels

The comparison between arches and lintels is given in Table 9.8
Table 19.8 Comparison between arches and Lintels
Points of
S.No Arches Lintels
Comparison
1. Shape They are curved in shape. They are horizontal

and straight in shape
2. Bed joints Their joints are radial except in Their joints, if any, are
monolithic construction. horizontal.
3. Rise They provide unnecessary They do not provide

rise to the structure. any unnecessary rise
to the structure.
4. Lateral thrust They exert lateral thrust on They do not exert

their vertical supports. lateral thrust on their
vertical supports.
5. Strength They are quite strong for They are equally

uniform loading but are weak strong for uniform as
under point loading. well as for point
loadings.
6. Appearance They provide good architectural They provide simple

appearance to the buildings. appearance.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. Outer curve of an arch is called _______.
(a) extrados (b) soffit
(c) crown (d) key
2. The highest point on extrados of an arch is called _______.
(a) intrados (b) crown
(c) voussoirs (d) none of these
3. The lower half portion of the extrados between skewback and the
crown is called _______.
(a) spandril (b) springer
(c) haunch (d) rise
4. Under surface of an arch is called _______.
(a) bet joint (b) arch ring
(c) soffit (d) all of these
5. The usual rise given to a flat arch is _______ of the span.
(a) 150 mm per meter (b) 125 mm per meter
(c) 100 mm per meter (d) 260 mm per meter
6. A concrete lintel constructed at site is called _______ lintel.
(a) per cast (b) cast in situ
7. Minimum end bearing for lintel for span over 1.2m should be
_______.
(a) 100 mm (b) 175 mm
(c) 200 mm (d) 150 mm
8. The wedge shaped blocks used to construct an arch are called
_______.
(a) crown (b) voussoirs
(c) rise (d) none of these
9. The lower portion of an arch between the skew back and crown is
called:
(a) Depth (b) Rise
(c) Haunch (d) Intrados
10. Under side of the arch is calld,
(a) Span (b) Intrados
(c) Extrados (d) Soffit
11. Outer curve of an arch is called
(a) Hunch (b) Intrados
(c) Extrados (d) Soffit
12. The Surface of the abutment on which the arch rests is
(a) Skew back (b) Key
(c) Soffit (d) Voussoirs
13. A horizontal member which is palced across the opening of doors and
windows;
(a) Slab (b) girder
(c) Lintel (d) None of these
14. Arches are made in hollow black masonry

(a) Single (b) Hollow
(c) Double (d) Solid
15. The minimum bearing of lintel on door or window is kept inches.
(a) 2.25″ (b) 4.5″
(c) 6″ (d) 4.5″
Answers
1. a 2. b 3.a 4.c 5.a 6.b 7.c 8.b 9.c 10.d
11.c 12.a 13.c 14.b 15.c
Short Questions
1. Differentiate between voussoir and key stone.
2. What is difference between rise and depth of an arch?
3. What is the difference between soffit and intrados of an arch?
4. Why rise is provided in case of flat arches?
5. Why are the arches not being commonly used in buildings these days?
6. Why lintels consisting of rolled steel sections are usually embedded in
concrete?
7. Define lintel.
8. Define arches.
9. Give two differences between lintel and arch.
10. Define abutments of arch.
11. Define Arch Ring.
12. Define bad joints of arch.

13. Define springing line of arch.
14. Define skew back of arch
15. Define soffit of arch.
16. Define spandrel of arch.
17. write a note on inverted arch.
18. write a note on stone arch.
19. Write a note on concrete block arch
20. Enlist types of arch according to geometrical shape.
21. Write a note on semicircular arch.
22. write a note on parabolic or elliptical arch.
23. write a note construction of skew back.
Long Questions
1. Explain the functions of arch lintels and their suitability in construction
work.
2. Label the parts of common arch.
3. Explain with sketches common types of arches and their respective
suitability in construction work.
4. Explain the general procedure of construction of arches and lintels.
5. Define lintel. Write down the classification of lintel according to the
material used.
6. Give the comparison between arches and lintels.
Chapter # 19
Doors
 Explain with sketches common and special types of doors and windows.
 Describe the method of fixing door frame and window in a wall.
 Enlist the fittings and fastenings used for door and windows.
 State the standard sizes of doors, windows and ventilators.
19.0 Doors
Doors are provided to give an access to the inside of the room of a
building. Hence, they should be so located that freedom of movement in and out
of the room is ensured keeping in view. The maximum use of accommodation in
the room and privacy of the occupants. Doors should be preferably placed in the
corner of the room.
19.1 Technical terms

i. Frame
A group of members assembled and placed along the top, bottom and
sides of an opening so as to form an enclosure and a support for a door.
ii. Sill
The horizontal member forming the bottom of the frame.
iii. Head
The horizontal member forming the top of the frame.
iv. Post
The vertical members forming sides of the frame.
v. Shutter
Paneled or otherwise which fit in the frame.
vi. Top Rails

The topmost horizontal member of a frame work.
vii. Lock rail
Vertical outside members of a shutter or frame work.
viii. Bottom rail
The lower most horizontal member of a frame work.
ix. Jamb
Vertical face of a door opening which supports the frame.
x. Reveal
External jamb of a door opening at night angles to the face of the wall.
xi. Panel
The area included between the rails.
xii. Sash bar
Light weight units of a frame which carry the glass with in a door-frame.
xiii. Mullion
The vertical member running though a shutter or a frame.
xiv. Louver
An inclined piece of wood fixed in a frame-work.
xv. Transom
Horizontal dividing member in a door frame.
xvi. Style
Up right or vertical outside members of a frame work.
19.2 Types of Wooden doors

a. Battened and ledged doors.
b. Battened, ledged and braced doors.
c. Framed, ledged, Battened and Braced doors.
d. Framed and paneled doors.
e. Panelled and glazed doors.
f. Flush doors.
g. Louvered doors.
Other doors
1. Revolving door.
2. Sliding door.
3. Collapsible door.
4. Wire-gauged door.
a. Battened and ledged doors.
This is the simplest type of wooden door and is used for narrow openings
and where cost is the main consideration. It consist of vertical battons fixed with
horizontal members called ledges. The battens are joined together in the various
ways. Ledges are normally three in number.
Top ledges 10cm x 2.5cm to 10 cm x 4cm.
Middle ledges 15cm x 2.5cm to 20 cm x 4cm.
Bottom ledges 15cm x 2.5cm to 20cm x 4cm.
b. Ledged, battened and braced door

This door is made in a manner similar to the battened and ledged door.
The joint between the ledge and the brace is shown in figure. It has a tendency to
droop at the ‘nose’. To prevent this tendency and also tot strengthen the door, it is
customary to insert sloping braces between the ledges. These braces must incline
upwards from the hanging edge or else they will not be useful in preventing the
droop. The position of the middle ledge should allow the braces to have the same
inclination the width of braces varies from 10cm to 15cm and are usually 2.5cm
to 4cm thick.
c. Battened, ledged, braced and framed door
This door is stronger than the battened ledged and framed type. In addition
to the members of that door, cross braces inclining upwards from the hanging side
are used.
The middle and bottom rails are mortised and tenoned into styles and the
braces are either housed into the rails at about 4cm from the style or taken into the
corners and tenoned into the styles. The sizes of braces is 1.5cm to 12cm.
Generally the thickness of the top rail or the styles is equal to that of the braces
and the battens together.
d. Framed and panelled door
Framed and panelled doors consist of a frame in which wooden or

glass panels are fitted.
The object of using such a type of door is to obtain skeleton frame work in
which the tendency to shrinkage is reduced.
Meeting style Hanging style
Pane 25 thick Chowkat
(a) Sectio nal Plan at XY

Head
Horn
Top rail
Hanging style Hanging style
Po st
Post
X Y
Lock rail
Panel
Bottom rail
Floor Level
(b) Elevat ion

(All Dimensions are in mm)
Moreover a vary pleasant appearance is obtained by paneling. A panelled

door consists of a frame which is grooved on the inside edges to receive one or
more panels. The styles are continuous from top to bottom.
The top middle, intermediate and bottom rails are joined to the styles. The
mullions are joined to the rails the thickness of the shutter frame is dependent on
the size of the door, the situation of the door, the type of lock to be fixed, the
thickness of panels and the size of panel moulding. They are generally 4 to 5cm
thick. They may be divided into a number of panels. The styles are at lest 10cm
wide and the bottom and lock rail are 15cm wide.
e. Glazed Doors
When light is desired to be admitted inside a room through a door, its
upper part may be glazed and the lower part panelled. These are called partially
glazed doors. The latest trend is however to provide fully glazed doors. Usually 5
to 8mm thick polished plate glass is used.
The glasses are fixed in the rebates of sash bar and they are secured with
putty or by wooden beads fixed to the frame. The sash bars do not add to the
strength of the door.
f. Flush doors
This type of door provides a clean surface and is extensively used these
days. The flush surface, when polished gives a beautiful appearance.
g. Louvered doors
This type of door allows sufficient amount of air circulation even when
closed and at the same time maintains privacy. The louvers are fixed in a series so
that the top back edge of any louver in above the lower front edge of the next
higher louver. The louvers may be fixed into the style or made moveable.
louvers
Raised panel
Floor Level
Louver ed Door
Other doors
1. Wire guage doors
These doors enable air to pass into the room and do not allow flys or
insect to come in. They are made of vertical and horizontal styles into which wire
guage is fixed. The styles and rails shall be of the same size so that of the other
door. The entire area of he wire guage with in a panel shall not have any joint.
Wire guage is fixed to the leaf by rails and 2cm x 2cm heads are fixed double leaf
wire guage door shall closed with a melting styles abutting against each other.
Wire-guage Door
2. Collapsible door
A collapsible door consists of a mild steel frame. Two vertical piece of

mild steel channels about 15mm to 20mm wide are joined together with the
hollow portion of the channel inside. A vertical gap of about 12mm to 15mm is
created. Such pieces are spaced at bout 12cm C/L and are joined to one another by
cross iron pieces. The cross iron pies are usually 10mm to 15mm wide and 15mm
thick. Rollers mounted on horizontal piece are provided at top and bottom ends of
vertical pieces. The door can be opened or closed by a slight pull or push.
3. Revolving Doors
A revolving door consists of a central support to which four radiating re
attached. The shutter maybe fully glazed. At the rubbing ends of shutters vertical
rubber pieces are provided which prevent a draught of air. Arrangement are made
such that radiating shutters can be folded and the opening can be closed.
A revolving door simultaneously provides enterance on one side and exist
on the other end at the same time, it keeps the opening automatically in closed
position when not in use.
19.3 Ventilators
The ventilators are windows of small heights and they are generally fixed
at the top of doors or windows.
19.4 Doors
Internal doors of residential buildings should not be less than 09.9m x 2m.
However the size of doors leading to bathrooms can be reduced to 0.75m x 2m. It
should be aimed that two persons walking shoulder to shoulder should pass
through the door.
Common criterion for the sizes of door.
Width = (0.4 to 0.6) height
Doors of garages should as a rule be not les than
2.5m to 2.25m
19.5 Windows
Distribution and control of day light, desired vision of outside privacy,
ventilation control and heat loss are some of the factors which have to be
considered in the location of the windows. It is desirable that the movement of air
is downwards and across a room for proper ventilator.
19.6 Types of Windows

The common varieties of windows used in building construction are as
follows.
1. Casement window.
2. Sliding window.
3. Louvered window.
4. Circular window.
5. Corner Window.
6. Dormer Window
7. Bay window.
1. Casement windows
These are the windows, the shutters of which open like doors. The
construction of a casement window is similar to door construction and it consists f
a frame, style rails, a vertical and horizontal sash bars and sometimes it also
includes mullions and transoms.
2. Sliding Window
These windows are similar to sliding doors and the shutters move on the
roller beaming, either horizontally or vertically. Suitable opening are provided in
the walls to receive the shutters when windows are opened.
3. Louvered windows
In this type of windows, louvers are provided as in case of louvered doors.
They allow free passage of air when closed and at the same time they maintain
sufficient privacy.
4. Circular Window
These are pivoted windows of circular shape they are useful for factories
workshop etc.
5. Corner Window
These windows are provided at the corner of a room. They are placed at
the corner of a room. To take advantage of breeze or to improve the appearance of
a building.
Wall
Wi ndow Frame
Wall
6. Dormer Window
These are the windows provided on the sloping roofs. The main purpose
of providing dormer windows is to admit light and air to rooms which are
constructed with in or below the roof slopes.
7. Bay Window
These windows project outside the external walls of a room. They may be
square, splayed, circular, polygonal, or of any shape. The projection of bay
windows may start from floor level or sill level. These windows admit more light,
increase opening area, provide ventilation and improve the appearance of the
building.
.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. The vertical members used in a door frame are called _______.
(a) sill (b) rail
(c) post (d) shutter
2. The projections of the head of a door or window frame embedded in
the masonry are called _______.
(a) post (b) frame
(c) horns (d) style
3. The vertical outside member of the shutter is called _______.
(a) transom (b) style
(c) panel (d) sashbar
4. The vertical member running through the middle of frame work of a
shutter is called _______.
(a) reveal (b) jamb
(c) rail (d) mullion
5. An inclined member (piece) of wood fixed in the frame work of a
shutter is called _______.
(a) style (b) rail
(c) none of these (d) louver
6. The wooden block fixed on the back side of a door frame to prevent
damaging of the plastering of jambs is called _______.
(a) stop (b) sash bar
7. The vertical members of the frame of door are called,

(a) Shutter (b) Posts
(c) Styles (d) Sills
8. Upper horizontal member of the frame of door is called.

(a) Head (b) Shutter
(c) style (d) Panel
9. The width of jambs is:
(a) 57mm to 76mm (b) 76mm to 114mm
(c) 114mm to 138mm (d) 138mm to 152mm
10. A window fixed at flat roof is called
(a) Gable window (b) Bay window
(c) Dormer window (d) Lantern window
11. The bottom horizontal member of frame of door is called,
(a) Shutter (b) Panel
(c) Style (d) Sill
12. Sky light is a type of,
(a) Door (b) Electricity
(c) window (d) All of these
13. The vertical outer member of the shutter of door is called,
(a) Posts (b) Panel
(c) Styles (d) Sills
14. A window fixed at vertical triangular portion of wall under sloppy

roof is called,
(a) Gable window (b) Bay window
(c) Dormer window (d) Sky light
15. The bottom or lower most horizontal part of a window frame is
known as:
(a) Sill (b) Mullion
(c) Posts (d) jambs
Answers
1. c 2.c 3.d 4.a 5.b 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.b 10.d
11.d 12.b 13.c 14.c 15.a
Short Questions
1. State the purpose of door in building.
2. Write the materials used for doors.
3. Enlist the types of moveable doors.
4. Define wire gauged doors.
5. What is post in frame?
6. What is head in frame?
7. Define sill in frame.
8. Write the work of Lock rail in shutter.
9. Define frame doors.
10. What are sash bar in doors and window?
11. Write shortly on revolving doors.

12. Which door is used in shops?
13. Which type of doors are used in houses?
14. What types of doors you suggest for bath rooms and dinning room of a
modern residential building?
15. When is a sliding door provided?
16. State the purpose of Windows.
17. Give a list of different types of doors.
18. Give a list of different types of windows
19. Name four parts of paneled doors.
20. Write four fittings used for doors and windows.
Long Questions
1. Explain with sketches common types of doors.
2. Explain with sketches special types of doors.
3. Describe the method of fixing door frame and window in a wall
4. What is the function of windows in buildings also enumerate the types of
windows ?
5. Enlist the fittings and fastenings used for doors and windows.
Chapter # 20
Roofs
 State the functions of roofs.
 State the classification of roofs.
 Explain with sketches the different types of pitched roof.
 Explain with sketches common types of flat roofs.
 State different roof covering materials.
 Explain the construction of common types of flat roofs.
 Explain with sketches the different types of wooden and steel trusses.
 Describe construction of false ceiling.
20.0 General
An enclosure made for a building is essentially provided with a covering
in the form of roof at its top to provide protection to the inmates from the sun, rain
wind etc. The roof also protects the interior of a building from direct exposure to
the weather.
20.1 Roof
The covering provided over the top of an enclosure made for a building to
keep out the Sun, rain, wind and to protect the interior from exposure to weather
is known as roof.
A roof usually consists of frame work provided with a suitable covering at
its top.
20.2 Classification of roofs

Roofs are broadly classified into the following four types.
1. Sloping, pitched or pent roofs.
2. Flat or terrace roofs.
3. Shelled roofs.
4. Domes.
1. Sloping, pitched or pent roofs

The roofs provided with a considerable slope are known as sloping,
pitched or pent roofs.
These roofs are suitable where rainfall is heavy and also in snowfall areas.
20.3 Types of sloping roofs

Sloping roofs are mainly classified into six types as discussed below.
1. Shed roof
2. Gable roof
3. Hipped roof
4. Gambrel roof
5. Mansard roof
6. Saw-tooth or north light roof
1. Shed roof
A sloping roof having slope only in one direction is called shed roof.
This is the simplest type of sloping roof and is used for smaller spans.
Shed roof
2. Gable roof
A sloping roof having slope in two directions is called a gable roof.
This type of sloping roof is used for larger spans.
Gable roof
3. Hipped roof
A sloping roof having slope in four directions is called hipped roof. This
type of sloping roof is mostly used for buildings in hilly area.
4. Gambrel roof
A sloping roof having slope in two directions with a break in the slope is
known as gambrel roof.
This type of sloping roof is mostly used for buildings in hilly area.
Gambrel roof
5. Mansard roof
A sloping roof having slope in four directions with a break in the slope is
known as mansard roof. This type of roof is also used for buildings in hilly area.
Mansard roof
6. Saw-tooth or north light roof

A sloping roof having glazing fixed on the steep sloping sides of the roof
is called saw-tooth or north-tight roof.
In this type of sloping roof, its steep sloping side is kept towards north
direction. This type of sloping roof is generally used in factories where more light
is required.
Saw Tooth or North light roof
Flat Roofs
The roofs having their surfaces as horizontal are known as flat roofs.
These roofs are extensively used in plain areas where the rainfall is
meagre. But with the advent of very reliable water-proofing materials, flat or
terrace roofs are now commonly used even in localities where the rainfall is
heavy.
Types of flat roofs
Depending upon the methods of construction, flat roofs are classified into
the following five types.
1. Battened flat roof (Mud roofs)

2. Reinforced brick slab roofs.
3. Reinforced cement concrete slab roofs.
4. Jack arch flat roofs.
1. Battened flat roof
These roofs consist of wooden or R.C.C battens placed 300mm centre to
centre. They are supported on walls and intermediate wooden, steel or R.C.C
beams.
In case of first class mud roofing, 2 layers of tiles 300 × 150 ×30mm are
supported on battens. First layer of tiles is laid over a mortar bed by breaking
joints in both the directions. With the first layer line underneath. The top of tiles is
plastered after curing it is covered with two coats of bitumens. Mud plastered is
then laid over the bitumen coat and over that about 100mm earth is placed and
ramed. It is then finished of with another layer of mud plastered or tiles. The
underside of the tiles is neatly flush pointed.
Coping
Parapet Thic k mud plaster
Drip course
Ce ment plaster
Re mmed earth
Ba tte n
Thic k cement plaster

Two layers of tiles covered with two coats of hot bitumen
First Class mud roofing
2. Reinforced brick slab roofs

These roofs consist of a re-inforced brick slab supported on walls and also
on intermediate steel or R.C.C beams for lager spans. The top surface of the slab
is plastered with 20mm thick cement plastered. Over the plastered surface, two
course of hot bitumen are applied. On the top of bitumen layer, 100mm thick
ramed earth is provided. The top surface of the ramed earth is finished with a
layer of tiles.
The top surface of these tiles is usually pointed flush with a rich cement
mortar.
Suitability
These roofs are used for common buildings these days.
3. Reinforced cement concrete slab roofs
This type of roof consist of a reinforced cement concrete slab supported on
walls and also on intermediate steel or R.C.C beams for bigger span. The top
surface may be provided with 100mm thick lime concrete and finished by
providing suitable outward slope towards supports or pumalas of the roofs.
Usually the detail of construction of this type of roof above slab level is same as
describe in case of re-inforced brick slab roof.
Coping
Drip course
Parapet height
Thic k lime concrete (1:6:12)

Thic k R.C.C Slab
Transverse reinforcement
Ma in reinforcement
Reinfo rced Concrete Flat Ro of
Suitability
These roofs are commonly used for ordinary and important public
buildings these days.
4. Jack arch flat roofs

These roofs are similar to jack arch floors however a covering of 100mm
thick earth filling which is usually plastered at the top may be provided in case of
tack arch roofs.
Shelled roofs
Such type of roofs are used frequently these days for covering big
structures. The shell type of construction has an advantage that a lot of material is
saved as the section needed is very thin.
Moreover enough space inside the roof is available for use as there are no
projections with in it. For big buildings, reinforced concrete shells are used where
as for small building shells of catenary tile made either of bricks or plain concrete
are used.
Domes
A dome is a roof of semi-spherical or semi-ehptical shape. They are
constructed of stone or brick or concrete and are supported on circular or regular
polygon shaped walls. The structure of the domes is such that with in certain
height and diameter ratios very small thickness is needed. They are used where
architectural treatment is needed e.g. in monumental structure or where roofs have
to be build on buildings circular in plane.
Roof Covering materials

Following roof covering materials are general used;
1. Thatch
2. Slates
3. Tiles
4. Asbestos cement sheets
5. G.I sheets
1. Thatch
This is one of the cheapest and lightest roof covering material. It consist of
bundles of reeds or straw, secured to battens made of bamboo with the help of
ropes. It is easily combustible, absorbs moisture and gives out a foul odour. It has
to be renewed frequently. The slope of the roof is kept about 45°. It is desirable to
make thatch worm-proof so that it may not be easily attacked by insects, and birds
do not make their nests inside it.
Uses
This is mostly used for covering roofs of buildings and sheds of low cost
in rural areas.
2. Slates
Slate is a strainified metamorphic rock and is obtained from open quarries.
It is normally blue or grey in colour and is available in thin sheets.
A good slate should be free from white patches, hard, tough, durable and
give a sharp metallic ringing sound when struck with each other. A good slate
should be easily holded. It should not split and absorb water more then 2% of its
weight when soaked for 24 hours.
Uses
Slates are commonly used for covering sloped roofs in hilly area.
Laying of slates
There are various methods of fixing the slates. Some commonly employed
methods are;
1. By mailing near the head
2. By nailing near the middle
3. Tiles
These are largely used as roof coverings. If properly selected and laid, tiles
are impervious, fire resisting, non-conductor of heat and also strong, durable and
economical day tiles are mostly used after they have been burnt thoroughly.
Various kinds of tiles are used for covering the roofs such as;
1. Flat tiles
2. Pan tiles
3. Semi-circular tiles
4. Allahabad tiles
5. Mangalore tiles
Uses
Tiles are commonly used for covering sloped roofs of comparatively small
buildings mostly in hilly area.
4. Asbestos cement sheets
These sheets consists of a mix of asbestos and Portland cement. These
sheets are cheap, tough, durable, quite impervious and perfectly fire and vermin
proof. These sheets do not rust and need no protective coating of any other
material. The main disadvantage of these sheets is that in cold climate,
condensation is introduced on the under side of the roof.
These sheets may be plain or corrugated and available in various sizes. In
case of corrugated sheets, the pitch is generally 140mm.
5. Galvanized Iron sheets

Corrugated galvanized iron sheets are commonly used as a roofing
material. These are light in weight, easy to handle and fixing. These are also very
durable and fire proof. The iron sheets are galvanized with zinc to protect them
from rusting. The main disadvantage of this tape of sheets is that it transmit heat
and cold easily. It also creates condensation problem on the inner side in cold
climates.
Uses
These sheets are used for covering roofs of workshops sheds etc.
Pitched roof
A sloping roof is known as a pitched roof. The definition of technical
terms used in connection with the pitched roof are given below:
1. Barge boards
These are the wooden plank or boards which are fixed on the gabel end of
roof. They connects the ends of ridge, purlin and wall plates.
2. Batten
These are thin stripes of wool which are fixed on the rafters or ceiling.
They support the roof ceilings.
3. Cleats
These are small blocks of wood which are fixed on trusses to prevent the
sliding of purlins.
4. Dragon bearns
The lower end of hip rafter is generally support on a diagonal piece of
wood which is laid across the corner of the wall.
5. Eaves
The lower edges of a roof which are resting upon or projecting beyond the
supporting wall are known as eaves.
6. Gable
The triangular upper part of wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is
known as gable.
Building with a pitched roof

7. Hip
The angle form at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as hip.
8. Pitch
The inclination of sides of a roof with the horizontal plane is known as
pitch.
9. Purlins
The wooden pieces placed horizontally on principal rafters to carry the
common rafters are known as purlins.
10. Rafters
These are the pieces of timber which extend from the eaves to the ridge.
11. Ridge
A wood piece provided at the ridge line of a sloping roof is known as
ridge.
12. Span
The horizontally distance between the internal faces of walls or supports is
known as a span.
13. Template
A bedding block is generally provided at the end of a truss. This block is
known as a template.
14. Verge
The edge of a gable running between the eaves and ridge is known as
verge.
15. Valley
When two roof surfaces meet together and form an internal angle a valley
is formed.
16. Wall plates
These are the long wooden members which are embedded on top of walls
to receive the common rafter.
Truss
Types of pitched roofs

Pitched roofs are classified into the following three categories.
1. Single roofs
2. Double or purlins roofs
3. Trussed roofs
1. Single roofs
In this type of roofs common rafters are provided to earth slope without
any intermediate support. Following are be vanities of single roofs.
i. Lean to roofs
ii. Couple roof
iii. Couple-close roof
iv. Collar bean roofs
i. Lean to roofs
This is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is also known as pent or
aisle roof. In this type of roof one wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the
other on to give necessary slope to the roofs.
ii. Couple roof

In this type of roof the common rafters slope upwards from the opposite
walls and they meet on a rich piece in the middle. The common rafters are fir only
secured in position at boths the ends, one end being on a rich pieces and other on
the wall plate. A couple roof is suitable for spans upto about 3 to 60m.
Eaves Board
Lean-to roof
Tie Beam
Couple-close roof
iii. Couple-close roof

This roofs is just similar to couple roof except that the legs of common
rafters are connected by a tie beams. The tie beams prevent the tendency of rafters
to spread out and thus, the danger of over turning of the walls is avoided. The tie
beam can also be used as a ceiling joist when required. A couple close roof can be
adopted economically upto a span of 4 to 20m.
iv. Collar beam roofs

This roof is a variation of a couple close roofs. The tie beam is raised and
placed at a higher level. The tie beam is than known as a collar or a collar beam
The collar beam is usually fixed at one third to one half. The vertical height from
the wall to the ridge. The lower is the collar, strung is the roof. This roof can be
adopted up to a maximum spans of 4 to 80m.
Collar beam roof
Double or purlin roof
2. Double or purlins roofs

When the span exceeds about 22 to 40m. The necessary size for the rafters
become uneconomical. Hence in order to reduce the size of rafters, intermediate
supports, called purlins or introduce under the rafters. Such a roof is known as a
double or purlin roofs and it can be economically adopted up to a span of 4 to
80m.
3. Trussed roofs
When a span exceed 4 to 80m and when these are no inside supporting
walls or partition for the purlins framed structures known as trusses are used. The
spacing of trusses depend upon the load on roof, position of cross walls, span and
material of the truss but the spacing is generally 3m for wooden trusses. Trusses
carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the common rafter rest. Some are the
usual former of roof trusses are as follow.
1. King post truss
2. Queen post truss
3. Mansard truss
4. Truncated truss
5. Belfast truss
6. Steel trusses
7. Composite trusses
1. King post truss
In this type of truss, the central post, known as a king-post, forms a
support for the tie beam. The inclined members, known as struts, prevent the
principal rafters from bending in the middle. A kin-post truss is suitable for roofs
of span varying from 5 to 8 meters.
Ridge
Eaves Board
King-post truss roof

Suitable joints are provided between rafter and tie beam, between
principal rafter and king-post, between king-post and tie beam and at the ends of
struts. The joints are further strengthened by straps or bats.
2. Queen post truss

This truss differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical members,
known as queen-posts. The upper ends of the queen-posts are kept in position by
means of a horizontal member, known as a straining beam. A straining sill is
introduced on the tie beam between the queen-posts to counteract the thrust of
struts. Additional purlins are supported on the queen posts.
3. Mansard truss
This truss is named after a French architect, Francois Mansard
(1598-1666), who designed this truss to satisfy the requirements of municipal
laws. This truss is a combination of king-post and queen-post type and the upper
portion is of king-post type, Mansard truss has two pitches. The upper pitch varies
from 30 to 40 degrees and the lower pitch varies from 60 to 70 depress. Use of
Mansard trusses results in the economy of space and a room may be provided in
the roof. This truss has become obsolete, mainly because of its somewhat ugly
appearance.
Ridge
Eaves Board
4. Truncated truss
This truss is just similar to Mansard truss except that the top is finished
elate.
It is used when a room is required in the roof.
Ridge
Details of Mansard truss

Slope
Truncated truss
5. Belfast truss
This truss is in the form of a bow. It consists of thin sections of timber.

This truss can be used for long spans of about 30 meters, provided light roof
covering is used.
6. Steel trusses
For spans greater than 12m, it becomes economical to use steel trusses.
Mild steel is easily available in rolled sections of standard shapes and sizes. This
facilitates roof construction. For small spans, steel trusses consist of angles
riveted or welded together through plates, known as gusset plates. As steel can
resist both the stresses, compression and tension the design of steel truss is
simplified. The arrangement and sizes of various members of a steel truss depend
on the span, loading and wind pressure. Steel truss suitable for spans of 4 to 6
meters.
4m to 6m 6m to 9m
Steel truss Steel truss
Composite truss
7. Composite trusses
These trusses are composed of wooden members and steel or wrought-iron

members. Steel is used for members which have to resist tensile stresses. A
composite truss is light in weight and economical.
Factors for roof covering of pitched roofs

Following factors should be considered before selecting the type of roof
covering for a pitched roof;
i. Climate of the locality
ii. Nature of the building
iii. Initial cost and maintenance cost
iv. Resistance to fire and heat
v. Special features of the locality
EXERCISE
M.C.Q’s
1. The roof which slopes in four direction is called _______.
(a) hipped roof (b) trussed roofs
(c) composite truss (d) none of these
2. The roof used in factories where light is admitted from glazing fixed
on steep sloping side is called _______.
(a) saw-toothed (b) Belfast truss
(c) domes (d) flat roof
3. The lower edges of the surface of a sloping roof is called _______.
(a) hip (b) purlins
(c) eaves (d) none of these
4. Purlins are members which are laid horizontally to support _______
when span of the truss is large.
(a) queen closer (b) common rafters
(c) king closer (d) all of these
5. As a pitched roof covering C.G.I sheets are used where C.G.I stands
for _______.
(a) covered galvanized iron (b) both of these
(c) corrugate galvanized iron (d) none of these
6. A flat mud roof having two layers of tiles is ______ mud roof.
(a) First class (b) Second class
(c) R.B (d) R.C.C
7. A truss consisting of king post and queen posts constructions is

termed.
(a) Mansard (b) Shed
(c) Gable (d) Gambrel
8. An inclined member of a roof truss.
(a) Purlin (b) Rafter
(c) Cleat (d) Wind tile
9. A type of roof suitable in plain areas where rainfall is less.
(a) Shell (b) Dome
(c) Flat (d) Sloping
10. R.C.C. slab roof is the type of roof.
(a) Shell (b) Dome
(c) Flat (d) Sloping
11. A horizontal member used to support the common rafter of truss.
(a) Principle rafter (b) Purlin
(c) Cleat (d) Sloping
12. Slop of the sloping roof is termed as,
(a) Hip (b) Ridge
(c) Rafter (d) Pitch
13. The roof having slopes in two directions.
(a) Mansard (b) Hipped
(c) Gable (d) Shade
14. The lower edge of sloping roof is termed as
(a) Ridge (b) Mode
(c) Eave (d) Purlin
15. False ceiling is termed as,

(a) Insulate the roof (b) Voice absorption
(c) Making roof beautiful (d) All of these
Answers
1. a 2. b 3.c 4.d 5.c 6.a 7.a 8.b 9.c 10.c
11.b 12.d 13.d 14.c 15.a
Short Questions
1. Define roof.
2. Enlist the various types of roof.
3. Enumerate the different types of pitched roofs.
4. What is the difference between Gambrel roof and Mansurd roof?
5. Define Domes.
6. Enlist the various roof covering materials.
7. Define barge.
8. Define purlin.
9. Define cleat.
10. define flat roof.
11. Name types of flat roof.
12. Give advantages of flat roof.
13. Give demerits of flat roofs.
14. Define sloping roofs.
15. Name classification of pitched roof
16. What is meant by couple roof?

17. Give advantages of steel trusses.
18. Name roof covering for pitched roof.
Long Questions
1. Define roof and state the functions of roofs.
2. State the classification of roofs.
3. Describe the types of flat roofs.
4. Describe the different roof covering materials and their uses.
5. Explain with sketches the different types of pitched roof.
6. Explain with sketches common types of flat roofs.
7. Explain the construction of common types of flat roofs.
8. Explain with sketches the different types of wooden and steel trusses.
9. Describe construction of false ceiling.
Chapter # 21
Surface Finishing
 Describe purpose and types of plastering.
 Explain the methods of cement plastering.
 Explain the specifications and procedures of white washing/ colour
 State the purpose of pointing.
 Explain the types and methods of pointing with sketches.
 Explain the purpose and method of painting new and old wall surfaces.
 Explain the methods of painting wood work and steel work.
 State the defects in painting.
 Explain the use of graffito and Rockwall and finishing, tile finishing &
panel finishing.
21.0 Surface finishing

The finished surfaces of walls, constructed in brick or stone masonry,
ceilings, timber o steel work in a building are irregular, water absorbent and are
liable to be affected by the weathering agencies such as rain, wind, foul, gases etc.
Therefore, such surfaces are to be finished with a suitable covering material in the
form of plasters, paints washes, etc. to make them smooth, water repellent,
weather resisting and to provide them a pleasing appearance.
In this chapter, all the important topics concerning surface. Finishes have
been discussed as to provide adequate knowledge to the students/ readers about
their purpose and method of application
21.1 Surface finishes

The art of treating the surface with suitable covering material to make
them weather resisting and elaborative is called surface finishing, and the
covering materials used for surface finishing are called surface finishes.
Examples
Plasters, paints, varnishes, white wash, colour wash.
21.2 Plastering
The art of covering the surface of the masonry work with a suitable plaster
is called plastering.
The plaster used may be cement plaster, lime plaster or any other specified
plaster.
The finished surfaces of walls, constructed in bricks or stones, are
generally so coarse textured that they provide unsuitable finish for the internal
walls of most of the buildings. These surfaces are rendered smooth by the
application of two coats of plaster. The ceilings are also rendered smooth with
plaster.
21.3 Purposes of plastering

i. To provide an even, smooth, regular clean and durable finished surface.
ii. To protect the surface from the effects of weathering agencies.
iii. To conseal the defective workmanship.
iv. To cover inferior quality of materials used in the masonry.
v. To provide a smooth base for decorative surface finishes.
vi. To protect the surface against dust, dirt and vermin nuisance in case of
internal plastering.
21.4 Requirements of an ideal plaster

i. It should adhere firmly to the surface.
ii. It should not contract in volume while drying and setting.
iii. It should be durable enough to resist the effects of weathering agencies.
iv. It should offer good insulation against sound.
v. It should offer good resistance against fire.
vi. It should provide a smooth, non-absorbent and washable surface.
vii. It should provide the surface with required decorative effect.
21.5 Types of plastering

The various types of plastering are classified as follows:
a. Cement plastering b. Lime plastering
c. Stucco plastering d. Moghul plastering
a. Cement plastering
The mix of the mortar in case of cement plastering with one coat depends
upon the nature of the work to be plastered. For every fine plastering, e.g. inside
bath rooms, W.Cs, etc., 1:3 cement plaster mix is used. For general plastering of
walls, 1:5 to 1:8 cement plaster mixes are used.
Cement plastering is done in steps as discussed below:
i. Preparation of the surface
Before applying the plaster, the surface should be prepared. The joints of
the masonry are properly raked to a depth of 10 to 15mm to provide key to the
plaster. The surface is then thoroughly wetted with water, washed well and kept
wet for 6 hours. When the surface is ready, the plaster is applied.
ii. Screed work for plaster.

In order to obtain uniform thickness and true surface of plaster, wooden
screeds 7.5cm wide and of required thickness of the plaster are generally fixed
vertically 2.4 to 3m apart. Careful plumbing should be done in fixing of these

screeds.
iii. Preparation of cement plaster
The cement plaster is prepared in batches so as to lay and finish the
plastered surface with each batch within half an hour after adding water to the dry
cement sand mix. Before adding water care should be taken that cement and sand
are properly mixed to obtain a homogeneous mass of the plaster.
iv. Application of plaster coats The cement plaster is applied in one

or two coats. In case of single coat, the mortar is dashed against the surface
between the screeds. Surplus plaster is removed with the help of mason’s straight
edge and then the plaster is pressed well with a wooden float so that the plaster
may fill in the joints of the masonry. The surface is then finally polished with a
trowel or iron float. The thickness of this coat should not be more than 12mm.
In case plastering is to be done in two coats, the first coat is applied as
described above with the only difference that it is not polished. Before applying
second coat, the first coat is allowed to set but it should not become dry, and
roughened with a scratching tool to provide a key to the second coat. The second
coat is then applied in a thin layer, not exceeding 3mm in thickness within 48
hours after applying the first coat. It is then well trowelled and rubbed perfectly
smooth with the help of a steel float. It is then allowed to set for 2 days.
v. Curing
The plastered surface is then cured by sprinkling water over the surface
and keeping it wet for one to two weeks.
Unless otherwise specified, thickness of plaster should not exceed 12mm
and not less than 6mm. Plaster should be laid to true and plumb surface.
Suitability
Cement plastering forms an ideal coating for external finishing. It is also
used for internal rendering of common as well as important buildings. It is
specially suited for damp conditions. i.e. bath-rooms, kitchens, etc.
b. Lime plastering
The proportioning of the ingredients of a lime plaster is adopted according
to the number of coats to be applied. If the plaster is to be applied in one coat, 1
part of lime to 1½ –2 parts of sand is used. If two coats are to be applied, the
proportion for 1st coat is same as above, while the second coat consists of 2 parts
of lime and 1 part of sand and if three coats are to be applied, the proportion of
the third coat consists of 4 parts of lime to 1 part of sand. But in actual practice,
all the coats consists of 1 part of lime to 2 parts of sand. Thickness of the lime
plaster varies from 20 to 25mm.
Lime plastering is done in the following steps:
i. Preparing the surface
The method of preparing the surface is same as described in the case of
cement plastering.
ii. Application of first coat
It is applied by dashing the lime plaster with the help of trowel against the
wall surface between the screeds. Plaster is pressed well in the joints. Function of
this coat is to fill all the irregularities of the surface. Average thickness of the coat
is 10 to 12mm. This coat is left to set for 3 to 4 day, before applying the second
coat.
iii. Application of second coat

Before applying this coat, the first coat is well washed and scratched over
with the edge of a trowel. The second coat is then pressed against the wall with
mason’s trowel and rubbed with straight edge. Thickness of this coat varies from
6 to 10mm. Then this coat is also allowed to set for two days.
iv. Application of final or finishing coat

This coat usually consists of fat lime which is called lime putty. It is
applied on the second coat and is made perfectly plain and then rubbed first with a
wooden float and then with a steel float to polish the surface. It is about 3 to 6mm
I thickness. It is allowed to dry for two days and then the surface is cured for 7 to
10 days.
Suitability
Lime plastering is suitable for internal rendering of buildings. But it is not
commonly adopted these days.
c. Stucco plastering
Stucco is the name given to a decorative type of plaster which provides an
excellent finish like that with marble lining.
After preparing the surface, stucco plastering is usually done in three
coats. Each coat should be permitted to set to become hard before applying the
next coat.
For internal surfaces, the first coat, also known as scratch coat, consists of
lime plaster 12mm in thickness. The second coat or the brown coat consists of
rich lime plaster in 10mm thickness. The final coat or finishing coat consists of a
mixture of very fine lime and well ground white stone (Marble or Quartz) 3mm in
thickness. It is carefully polished with a bag of linen containing moist chalk in the
first instant and then chalk and oil to achieve a good finish.
The surface is then finally finished by rubbing it with only oil so as to
make it smooth and bright.
For external surfaces the first and second coats are 10 to 12mm thick and
finishing coat is 3 to 6mm thick .The proportion of ingredients for the first two
coats are 1 part of cement to 3 parts of sand with 10% by weight of hydrated lime.
The finishing coat consists of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of sand in which some
coloring pigment is added or colored cement is used.
Method of applying this plaster is same as described in the case of cement

or lime plastering.
Suitability
Stucco plastering is suitable for external as well as for internal surfaces of
historical or religious buildings to provide and excellent finish.
d. Moghul plastering
It is generally applied in two coats of lime mortar by mixing lime, sand
and surkhi in the ratio of 4:3:1 alongwith glue and powdered gull-nut. The surface
is well wetted and the first coat of about 12.5mm thickness of stiff mortar is
applied. The second coat of 12.5mm thickness is applied when the first coat is
hardened. The finished plastered surface is kept wet for 3 weeks.
Suitability
Moghul plastering is suitable for internal surfaces of high class buildings
but it is not commonly applied these days.
21.6 Pointing
Final treatment with cement or lime mortar made to the joints of the
masonry to provide neat appearance is termed as pointing.
The joints on the face of stone or brick masonry are roughly filled in while
the walls are being raised. They are afterwards neatly finished off to make them
water tight. The joints, thus finished, give a better appearance to the surface and
prevent rain water from entering the interior of the masonry.
21.7 Purposes of pointing

i. To prevent the moisture and rain water from entering the interior of
masonry walls through joints and to make them durable.
ii. To improve the appearance of the structure.
Suitability
Pointing is preferred to plastering under the following circumstances:
i. Where a smooth and even surface is not essentially required?

ii. Where it is desired to exhibit to view the natural beauty of the materials
(bricks or stones) used in the construction?
iii. Where the material can withstand the weathering action?
iv. Where the workmanship is neat and good.
21.8 Types of Pointing

The selection of a particular type of pointing depends upon the type of
bricks or stones used and the appearance required. Thus pointing is mainly
classified into the following types:
a. Flat or flush pointing b. Struck pointing
c. Recessed pointing d. V-pointing
e. Weather pointing f. Keyed or grooved pointing
g. Tuck pointing
a. Flat or flush pointing

In this type of pointing, the mortar is pressed tightly and joints are filled
up and made flush with the face of the wall as shown in fig
Mortar joint
Flush pointing Struck pointing

This is the simplest type of pointing and is provided extensively. It is
economical and durable because it requires less labour than all other pointings. It
also does not afford a lodging place for dust.
b. Struck pointing
In this type of pointing, the face of the mortar joint, instead of keeping it
vertical, its upper side is kept about 12mm inside the face of the masonry and the
bottom is kept flush with the face of the wall as shown in fig.
This pointing has a better effect of throwing rain water. This is also known
as ruled pointing. This pointing is the best in ordinary circumstances.
c. Recessed pointing
In this type of pointing, the face of the mortar joint is pressed inside by
means of a suitable tool and is left vertical instead of being made inclined as
shown in fig.
This type of pointing is provided when the work of good textured bricks is
provided and also good quality of mortar is used.
d. V-pointing
This type of pointing is provided by forming a V-shaped groove inside the
mortar of the joint with a special tool (steel or iron jointer) as shown in fig.
This type of pointing is generally recommend for brick work in case of
government or public buildings.
Mortar joint
Recessed pointing V-Pointing
e. Weather pointing
This is similar to V-pointing but in this case instead of pressing a V-
shaped groove inside, it is projected outside the wall surface as shown in fig.
This type of pointing is generally recommended for superior brick work.
Mortar joint
Weather pointing Keyed pointing
f. Keyed or grooved pointing

In this type of pointing the joints are first filled up flush, then a circular
piece of steel or iron is pressed and rubbed in the middle of joints. Grooved
pointing has a big groove in the face than keyed pointing as shown in fig and
respectively.
Mortar joint
Grooved pointing Tuck pointing

Keyed pointing gives an attractive appearance to the structure and is
generally used for superior brick work.
g. Tuck pointing
In this type f pointing, the mortar joints are filled flush with the face of the
wall. Then 6mm wide and 3mm deep groove is immediately and carefully formed
in the centre of the joint and the groove is filled with or tucked in the with white
lime putty as shown in fig. The lime putty is given a maximum projection of
6mm.
Tuck pointing has a neat and attractive appearance. But the lime putty is
not durable and in due course of time, it becomes defective.
21.9 Method of pointing

The following procedure is adopted to do pointing on brickwork:
i. Preparation of the surface

Before pointing all the mortar joints on the face are raked by a special tool
to a depth of about 8mm to provide key for the mortar to be used for pointing.
Surface is then cleaned and worked thoroughly and kept wet for few hours.
The mortar used for pointing may be lime mortar 1:1 (1 part lime and 1
part surkhi) or cement mortar 1:2 (1 part cement and 2 parts sand).
ii. Filling the joints
The joints, thus prepared, are carefully filled with lime or cement mortar.
The mortar is well pressed into the joints with the trowel to obtain firm contact
with the internal old mortar joints.
iii. Finishing the joints
The excess mortar is then carefully scrapped away and the joints are
finished according to the recommended type of pointing.
iv. Curing
The finished pointing is kept wet for about 3 days in case of lime mortar
and for 10 days in case of cement mortar used for this purpose.
Pointing may be done either as the work proceeds or after the completion
of the work. Pointing in the first case is more stronger and durable while in
second case, it is clean and has a better appearance.
21.10 Painting
The art of covering a surface with required number of coats of paint is
called painting.
The surface of timber or steel work in a building are not weather resisting.
The timber is liable to decay and steel surface may become rusty. To prevent this,
the surface of such materials are covered with the specified paint of required
shade to make them water repellent, weather resisting and to improve their
appearance. Washable paints are also being used these days for painting walls of
living rooms of important modern buildings.
21.11 Purposes of painting

i. To preserve the timber and steel work in a building.
ii. To provide pleasing appearance.
21.12 Preparation of an oil paint

The base to be used in the preparation of paint is first thoroughly ground
in a small quantity of a solvent such as linseed oil. The past thus formed is
softened and made smooth by adding a small quantity of oil Then a colouring
pigment of desired shade, well ground and mixed with some oil, is added to the
paste already prepared. The whole mixture is then brought to the consistency of
cream by adding sufficient quantity of the solvent. The paint is then strained
through a fine canvas or a fine sieve. When the paint is to be used, it is thinned
down to the required consistency by adding a thinner such as terpentine oil. The
drier (generally litharge) is added when the painted surface is to be dried earlier.
Sometimes, an intert filler such as powered chalk is also added to make the paint
economical.
A large number of ready mixed or ready made paints are available in the
market these days. While using these ready made paints, if they are too thick, they
can be thinned by adding a small quantity of oil. But these paints are generally
more expensive. A good paint wheather ready made or mixed, to be used at the
work, should flow freely with brush when applied on the surface to be painted.
21.13 Painting of wood work

Wooden surfaces are painted for protection from weather and cleanliness
decoration. New wood work usually requires 3 or 4 coats (preferably four coats)
i.e. one prime coat, two under coats and one finishing coat.
The wood work to be painted may either be new or old one. The methods
of painting both these types of wood work are described below:
21.14 Painting new wood work

The painting of a new wood work is usually done in the following steps:
1. Preparation of wood work

The wood work should be thoroughly seasoned and absolutely dry before
painting. The surface should be carefully cleaned off dirt, dust etc. and rendered
smooth. All nails should be punched so that their heads are about 3mm below the
surface.
2. Knotting
This consists in killing or covering all the knots with a substance such as
red lead and size, shellac dissolved in methylated spirit or with lime. This will
stop the resin from coming out of the knots and percolating through the painted
film. This will also prevent excessive absorption of the paint by the surface.
The different methods of knotting are described below:
i. Ordinary or size knotting
This consists in applying first a hot coat of red lead ground with strong
glue size in water. When this coat becomes dry, a coat of red lead ground in raw
linseed oil and thinned with boiled linseed oil or turpentine oil, is applied.
ii. Patent knotting
This consists in applying two coats of varnish made by dissolving shellac
in methylated spirit or naptha.
iii. Lime knotting
This consists in keeping the knots covered with hot lime for about 24
hours and then they are scraped off. After scraping, the surface is given a coat of
red lead ground with strong glue size in water. When this coat is dry, a coat of red
lead ground in oil and thinned with boiled linseed oil or turpentine oil is applied.
3. Priming or first coat
After knotting, the priming coat is applied to the whole surface. It forms a
hard and opaque covering which fills up all the pres existing on the surface of
wood work. It may consist of which fills up all the pores existing on the surface of
wood work. It may consist of white lead, red lead, boiled linseed oil and litharge
in suitable proportions. Priming coat is usually applied before the wood work is
fixed in position.
4. Stooping and filling
Stopping is done after the application of priming coat. It consists in
rubbing down the dried primed surface with pumice stone or glass paper or both.
The cracks, nail-holes or other holes are then filled up with putty. When it
becomes dry, the surface is again rubbed down with sand paper so as to make the
surface smooth.
5. The second or succeeding coats
These coats are applied to the surface prepared by knotting, priming,
stopping and filling, The function of such under coats is to increase the durability,
smoothness, riding power and uniformity in colour of the paints. These coats
should always be applied longitudinally in thin uniform film and crossed with a
good brush so carefully that no mark is visible on the painted surface. The brush
should be held perpendicularly to the surface being painted. Each coat must be
allowed to dry perfectly before the next is applied. All the succeeding coats,
except the final, should be gently and slightly rubbed down with sand or glass
paper after each becomes dry.
6. Final coat
After applying second and other required number of succeeding coats, the
final coat is applied in the same manner. Care should be taken that no brush mark
is left on the finished surface after applying the final coat.
21.15 Painting old wood work

The old surface must be thoroughly cleaned and all the cracks, holes, etc.
are filled with putty before repainting. If the old paint is blistered, the surface
must be rubbed down, scrapped and prepared as for the new wood work. If
necessary, the old paints may be burnt off by hot blower or burner before rubbing
down the surface. After this, 2 or 3 coats of oil paint are applied carefully so that
no brush marks are left on the surface. Each succeeding coat should be applied
only after the previous one becomes perfectly dry.
21.16 Painting of steel work

Steel surfaces are painted for decoration and protection from weather so
that they may not become rusty. The steel work to be painted may be either new
or old. The methods of panting both these types of steel work are described
below:
21.17 Painting new steel work

Painting of the new steel work is usually done in the following steps:
1. Preparation of steel surface
Before applying the paint on a new steel work, the surface is cleaned off
all dirt. Loose scales are removed by means of wire brushes, scrapers etc. The
grease is removed with lime and water or caustic soda and water. The cleaned
surface is then treated with dilute phosphoric acid which protects the surface from
rust and provides a clean surface to which paint will adhere better.
2. Application of paint
After preparing the surface, when the surface becomes dry, the priming or
first coat of fine red lead powder dissolved in boiled linseed oil is applied with a
good brush. This coat is allowed to dry. After drying the first coat thoroughly, a
second or under coat of paint is with the brush or by spraying. When the under
coat becomes dry, the final coat is provided such that no brush mark is left on the
surface. The paint used for outer or finishing coat should be of elastic and durable
character. The finished surface should be perfectly smooth and even.
21.18 Repainting old iron or steel work

Before repainting, the old surface must be thoroughly cleaned with soap
and water. The grease should be removed with lime and water. If necessary, the
old paint may be removed by burning. If the old surface has blistered, it should be
rubbed down and scrapped.
After preparing the surface, one or two coats of the paint are applied as
discussed in the case of painting the new steel work.
21.19 Painting plastered surfaces

Painting should be avoided on a freshly plastered surface for atleast six
months. The surface should be white or colour washed in the first instance
because alkalies, present in the plaster, will destroy, bleach and discolour the
paint and also prevent it from drying. The new surface should be treated with
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid and then washed with water. The acid should
be added to water and not water to the acid. The surface is then given a coat of
sizing (glue mixed with water). It will fill up all the cracks and reduce suction of
the paint. The surface may also be given a coat of boiled linseed oil before
applying the paint. The surface is generally given four coasts of paint.
The first two coats of the paint consist of white lead and boiled linseed oil.
The third coat may be white lead tinted to approach the desired colour and mixed
with raw or boiled linseed oil and small proportion of turpentine oil. The last coat
may consist of large proportion of turpentine oil with a little varnish. Ready made
or ready mixed paints are available in the market which can be applied directly on
the newly plastered surfaces. The surface is then finally painted with a good brush
as explained in the case of wood work.
21.20 White washing and colour washing

The art of applying two or three coats of white wash on the plastered
surface is called white washing, and if colour wash is used it is known as colour
washing.
The plastered surfaces of walls and ceiling provide dull appearance and do
not help in distribution of light properly inside the rooms of a building. They are,
therefore, white washed or colour washed for providing pleasing appearance,
better distribution of light and for sanitary reasons.
21.21 Method of white or colour washing

White or colour washing is done in steps as discussed below:

1. Preparation of white wash and colour wash
The white wash is prepared by mixing quick or fat lime in water. The
quick lime is put in an iron tub with sufficient quantity of clean water. When
slaked, it is stirred and thinned by adding more water to have the required
consistency of the wash. The wash is then strained through coarse cloth or sieve
in an other tub. Gum or rice water, in required proportion, is then added and the
whole mixture is stirred thoroughly.
The colour wash is usually prepared by adding the necessary colouring
pigment in suitable proportion to the prepared white wash. A sufficient quantity
of colour wash for the day’s work should be prepared at a time to provide uniform
shade throughout the work.
2. Preparation of the surface
Before applying the wash, the surface should be well cleaned, brushed and
brought in dry condition. The surface should not be very smooth. It should be
rubbed with sand paper otherwise the wash will not properly stick to the surface.
The holes should be filled in with lime putty. The greasy spots should be given a
coat of rice water and fine sand.
In case of re-white washing or re-colour washing, the surface should be
cleaned off all loose old wash and rubbed with a sand paper.
3. Application of white wash or colour wash
After preparing the surface, the white wash or colour wash should be
applied with a brush. Three coats are generally required for a new wash and also
in the case of scraped surfaces. The coats are applied alternately vertically and
horizontally. The vertical stroke is given from top downward and from bottom
upward and similarly, the horizontal stroke is applied from right to the left and
then to the right. Each coat should be allowed to dry before applying the next
coat.
In case of re-write washing or re-colour washing annually, the washing

may be done in single coat only. The wash is applied first in vertical strokes with
the brush followed by its horizontal strokes.
In colour washing, the new surface should be given one coat of white
wash and one or two coats of colour wash. The colour wash should be stirred
continuously during use with a stick.
After drying, the white or colour wash should neither show any sign of
cracking, nor it should come off readily when rubbed with finger.
21.22 Distempering
The art of applying two or three coats of distemper on the plastered or
white washed surface is called distempering.
21.23 Method of distempering

Distempering of any surface is done in steps as discussed below:
1. Preparation of distemper
To prepare the distemper, required quantity of whiting (powdered chalk) is
soaked in sufficient water and it is then covered for several hours. It is them
stirred well to form a smooth paste. After this, the paste is thinned down by
adding more water and whole mixed is strained through a coarse cloth. Then
required quantity of size is added. In case of coloured distempers, the colouring
pigment is added before mixing it with the size. The prepared distemper is kept in
a cool place and diluted with water, if required.
Ready mixed or ready made distempers are also available in tins in the
form of a stiff paste or dry powder in the market. They are mixed with water
before use.
2. Preparation of the surface
The surface should be carefully cleaned of all dust, dirt etc. It should be
absolutely dry. Old distempered walls should be well cleaned and brushed and
should be thoroughly washed with water. Non-washable distempers should be
carefully removed. If the surface is rough, a coat of white wash mixed with glue
should be applied.
3. Application of distemper
After preparing the surface, a priming coat is applied and allowed to dry.
For local made distempers, priming coat of milk is generally used and for ready
distempers, the priming coat is usually recommended by the makers. Then second
coat of the distemper is applied uniformly on the primed surface. The second coat
is applied only after the fist coat becomes dry and hard. They should be applied
with broad stiff brushes in dry weather. On new surfaces, two or three coats are
applied on the priming coat. But on white washed surfaces, and coat of distemper
without priming coat can be used.
In applying the distempers, brush is applied vertically and then
immediately crossed off horizontally. After day’s work, the brush should be
washed in hot water. Distempering should not be done in wet weather.
21.24 Graffito
Is the name for images or lettering scratched, scrawled, painted or marked
in any manner on property.
Graffiti or Graffito is any type of public markings that may appear in the
forms of simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, Graffito has existed
since ancient times with examples dating back to Ancient Greece and the Roman
Empire.
In modern times, paint, particularly spray paint and marker pens have
become the most commonly used graffito materials.
21.25 Rockwall finishing

Rockwall finishing is applied over a plastered surfaces which is made
rough and smooth before is process then a sticky and shiny material is applied on
it. This finish is obtained in different beautiful colour and design.
21.26 Panel Finishing

Sizable marble ceramic concrete plate are made and stuck to the surface of
buildings, walls, and roofs with to make them aesthic than a good looking point is
applied on it which is called panel finishing.
Materials used in panel finishing
Following are the material used in panel finishing.
a. Marble
b. Ceramic
c. Thin concrete plate
d. Plaster of pair
e. Wooden sheet
21.27 False ceiling

False ceiling is applied below the roofs of building which hide the actual
roof which gives beautiful appearance. These roofs are used for residential and
office building.
EXERCISE
M.C.Qs
1. The art of covering the surface of the masonry work with a suitable
plaster is called _______.
(a) pointing (b) painting
(c) plastering (d) all of these
2. Ideal plaster offer good resistance against _______.
(a) fire (b) Water
(c) sound (d) all of these
3. The selection of a particular type of pointing depends upon the
_______ or _______.
(a) tiles, terracota (b) bicks, stone
(c) bricks, earthern ware (d) none of these
4. _______ gives an attractive appearance to the structure and is
generally used for superior brick work.
(a) pointing (b) painting
(c) graffito (d) all of these
5. The art of applying coats of distemper on the surface is called
_______.
(a) distempering (b) painting

(c) graffito (d) none of these
6. The special Tratment provided to plastered wall at lower level usually
in bath room and kitchen
(a) Chalking (b) Dado
(c) Crazing (d) Hacking
7. Base layer of surface finishing is termed as,
(a) Under coat (b) Priming coat
(c) Peeling (d) Hacking
8. The best type pf pointing in ordinary cases.
(a) Struck pointing (b) Flush pointing
(c) Weathered pointing (d) Truck pointing
9. First coat of paint is
(a) Under coat (b) Upper coat
(c) Render coat (d) Priming coat
10. Scratching of plaster or paint is called,
(a) Under coat (b) Peeling
(c) Rendering (d) Dubbing
11. Making the surface rough before finishing the surface.
(a) Peeling (b) Rendering
(c) dubbing (d) Hacking
12. Thickness of single layer of plaster is kept mm thick.
(a) 8 (b) 12
(c) 20 (d) 24
13. Prepared surface for finishing the wall is called.
(a) Back board (b) Rendering

(c) Dubbing (d) front ground
14. Filling the cavities with mortar before plastering is.
(a) Peeling (b) Rendering
(c) Dubbing (d) Hacking
15. First layer of plastering is

(a) Back ground (b) Rendering/Rough course
(c) Carzing (d) Cracking
Answers
1. c 2. d 3.b 4.c 5.a 6.b 7.a 8.b 9.d 10.b
11.d 12.b 13.a 14.c 15.b
Short Questions
1. What do you meant by surface finishing?
2. Define plastering.
3. State four purposes of plastering.
4. Give any four requirements of an ideal plaster.
5. Enumerate types of plastering.
6. Define curing.
7. Define pointing.
8. Enlist types of pointing.
9. State purposes of painting.

10. Define distempering.
11. Define Graffito.
12. What is dubbing out?
13. Define finishing out.
14. What is under coat?
15. What is peeling?
16. What is Blistering?
17. Define dado.
18. Name types of plastering?
19. What is struck pointing?
20. What is recessed pointing?
21. What is v- pointing?
Long Questions
1. Describe purpose and types of plastering.
2. What is meant by plastering and what are the purposes and requirements
of an ideal plaster.
3. Explain the methods of cement plastering.
3. Explain the specifications and procedure of white washing/ colour
4. State the purposes of pointing.
5. Explain the types and methods of pointing with sketches.
6. Explain the purpose and method of painting new and old wall surfaces
7. Explain the methods of painting wood work and steel work.

8. State the defects in painting.
9. Explain the use of graffito and Rockwall and finishing, tile finishing &
panel finishing.

Civil-113 - Construction & Engg. Material

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Civil-113 - Construction & Engg. Material

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1 Engineering Materials and Construction Techniques, Civil-113

2 Engineering Materials and Construction Techniques, Civil-113

Member Review Committee:-

PRINCIPAL Jr. Instructor

DAE CIVIL TECHNOLOGY YEAR 1

1. Understand about the manufacture, properties and uses of building materials in

2. Understand the fundamentals of building construction and gain skills through

1.1 Merits as a building material

4.1 Composition & manufacture

5.1 Sources and classification

6.1 Introduction and Classification of mortars.

7 Concrete and Concreting Operations 6 Hours

7.1 Composition and proportioning.

7.4 Transportation of concrete

8 Ferrous Metals and Non Ferrous Metals 4 Hours

8.1 Types of ferrous metals

9 Paints and Varnishes 2 Hours

9.1 Types and uses of paints-oil paints, Enamel, color wash

10 Advanced Construction Materials. 6 Hours

10.1 Introduction to modern materials

11 Composite materials 3 Hours

11.1 Fundamentals of composite materials.

12 Miscellaneous Materials 3 Hours

12.1 Asbestos, characteristics and uses

13 Introduction to Building Construction. 2 Hours

13.1 Definition of building and Building classification.

16 Damp Proof Course. 2 Hours

16.1 Causes and effects of dampness

17.1 Purpose of walls.

18 Arches and Lintels. 2 Hours

18.1 Arches-definition, terminologies, parts, and functions

19 Doors, windows and ventilators 3 Hours

19.2 Doors, windows and ventilators

20.1 Definition, functions

1.1 State the classification of bricks according to specifications

2. Understand Selection of Stones and their Acceptability for

3. Understand the Types and Uses of Lime for Construction Work

4. Understand the Manufacturing Process and Uses of Cement for

5. Understand the Characteristics of Sand

5.3 Explain the bulking of sand

6. Understand the Principles of Preparation of Mortars for

7. Understand the Principles of Preparation of Concrete

8. Know the Properties and Uses of Ferrous Metals in

9. Know the Selection of Suitable Paints and Varnishes for

10. Understand the Properties and Uses of Advance Materials i.e.

11. Understand different types of Composite materials, their

12. Understand the Characteristics and Uses of Miscellaneous

12.5 Define resin and state its uses

13. Know the Classification of Building as Per Building Code

14. Understand the Suitability and Design of Common Types of

15. Understand Masonry Work

16. Understand the Function of Damp Proof Course in Building

17. Understand the Types and Suitability of Various Types of

18. Understand the Constructions and Suitability of Various

19. Understand the Construction and Methods of Fixation of

20. Understand the Methods of Construction of Roofs

20.5 Explain with sketches common types of flat roofs.

21. Understand the Finishes Provided Over Masonry Wood Work

LIST OF PRACTICALS HOURS

1.1 Brick as Building Material

1.2 Classification of bricks

b. Second class bricks