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Background concentrations of gold in different rock types

Article  in  Applied Earth Science IMM Transactions section B · December 2011

DOI: 10.1179/1743275811Y.0000000021

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Background concentrations of gold in different
rock types
I. K. Pitcairn*
The abundance of gold in crustal rocks is an important constraint on the formation of gold
deposits. Gold concentrations in unmineralised igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
range from 0?05 to 20 ppb with average concentrations commonly between 0?5 and 5 ppb.
Analytical methods with ultra-low detection limits are required to observe the full range of
concentrations. Gold concentrations in igneous rocks are strongly controlled by the behaviour of
sulphur. Higher gold concentrations occur in sulphur-undersaturated rocks compared to sulphur
saturated igneous rocks. Mid ocean ridge basalt has lower gold concentration than ocean-island
and volcanic-arc basalt, due mainly to lower oxygen fugacity at MOR settings that causes sulphur
saturation. Gold concentrations in sedimentary rocks increase with increasing abundance of
diagenetic sulphide minerals and organic matter. Gold concentrations in metamorphic rocks
decrease systematically with increasing metamorphic grade. Amphibolite facies rocks commonly
contain between 50 and 80% less gold than their unmetamorphosed protolith rocks.
Keywords: Gold concentrations, Gold analysis, Background gold

Introduction
The abundance of gold in various crustal rocks is an
important constraint on gold deposit forming processes,
especially as enrichments above background of X1000–
10 000 are usually assumed. Investigation of variations
between potential source rocks can provide significant
insight into the genesis of gold deposits such as through
identification of the source regions of metals, or the
behaviour of gold in the alteration halo surrounding an
ore deposit. The average gold concentration in the bulk
continental crust is estimated to be 1?3 parts-per-billion
(ppb; Taylor and McLennan, 1995; Wedepohl, 1995;
Rudnick and Gao, 2003). Gold commonly shows ex-
tremely heterogenous distribution in geological samples
and concentrations in unmineralised samples can range
over four orders of magnitude.
Quantification of gold in unmineralised samples with
concentrations in the parts-per-trillion (ppt) to ppb range is
considerably more complex than in ore-grade samples
where fire-assay and cupellation methods have been suc-
cessfully used for centuries (Chow and Beamish, 1967). A
large number of analytical methods have been employed to
quantify gold in unmineralised samples with extremely
variable precision and accuracy, and detection limits that
range over two orders of magnitude from 0?01 to 2 ppb.
Methods with low detection limits are critical if the full
range of background values is to be observed (e.g. Pitcairn
et al., 2006b; Webber et al., 2010). A recent study has
Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, SE-10691
Stockholm, Sweden
*Corresponding author, email Iain.Pitcairn@geo.su.se
shown that the metals enriched in the gold deposits in the
Otago Schists of New Zealand were sourced from the
metamorphic rocks in the region whose gold concentra-
tions decrease systematically with increasing metamorphic
grade (Pitcairn et al., 2006a; 2010). The identification of the
sources of metals in this region has led to a much greater
understanding of their formation mechanisms and this
approach is now being applied to other orogenic belts such
as the Victoria Gold Province in Australia and the Dalra-
dian metasedimentary belt of Scotland (Pitcairn, 2010).
This paper reviews the gold concentrations of unmi-
neralised igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
with specific focus on data produced by low detection
limit (,0?1 ppb) methods. The paper highlights the subtle
variations in gold concentration that occur in unminer-
alised rocks that are not commonly observed by investi-
gations using routine analytical methods. The paper
discusses the main controls on the distribution of gold in
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic systems and
highlights where recent advances in understanding have
been made. Previous reviews of gold concentration in
different rocks and minerals tend to review all the
available data without critical evaluation of the analytical
methodology used (e.g. Crocket, 1991).
Analytical methods and interpreting
gold data
Analytical methods
Trace-level gold analysis in unmineralised rocks gen-
erally involves three main steps:
(i) dissolution of gold from the geological material
(ii) pre-concentration of gold
(iii) quantification.

ß 2012 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and The AusIMM

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute and The AusIMM
Received 27 September 2011; accepted 15 December 2011
DOI 10.1179/1743275811Y.0000000021 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2011 VOL 120 NO 1 31
Pitcairn Background concentrations of gold in different rock types

Dissolution methods include fire-assay, alkaline fusion,

multi-acid total digestion, Aqua-Regia (3 : 1 HCl/HNO3)
partial digestion and bromine digestion. Of critical im-
portance with the digestion stage is the release of all of the
gold from the geological material. Aqua Regia digestion
for example has been shown to produce low recoveries
of Au in comparison to fire assay and complete acid
digestion methods (Hall et al., 1989). Pre-concentration
methods involve separation of the gold from the sam-
ple matrix either through partitioning into organic
solvents such as di-isobutyl ketone through direct mixing
(Terashima, 1988) or using chromatographic columns
(Pitcairn et al., 2006b), or co-precipitation of the gold
onto a favourable chemical entity such as Te (Jackson
et al., 1990). Three methods are commonly used for the
quantification step: neutron activation analysis (Tilling
et al., 1973; Keays and Scott, 1976; Nesbitt et al., 1987),
atomic adsorption spectroscopy (Terashima et al., 1994;
Zentilli et al., 1985), and inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS; Ely et al., 1999; Pitcairn et al.,
2006b). All of these methods have the potential for
accurate quantification with low detection limits, although
ICP-MS methods most commonly produce the lowest
detection limits (Hall and Bonham-Carter, 1988). A
significant problem in accurate quantification of gold in
unmineralised rocks is the heterogeneous distribution of
gold in rocks, i.e. the nugget effect. Analysis of large
sample aliquots (e.g. .10 g) or multiple smaller aliquots
of the same sample provide more representative concen-
trations (e.g. Pitcairn et al., 2006b). The possibility that
anomalously high gold concentrations may come from
secondary enrichment processes can be evaluated by
checking for correlations with other hydrothermally
mobile elements such as As (e.g. Arne et al., 2008), and
by checking the mineral texture for evidence of precipita-
tion of secondary mineral phases.
1 Gold concentrations in different rock types. Black dots
The multiple techniques used for each stage of gold
show the average value and the black line shows ¡1
analysis means that the complete method used is rarely
standard deviation. Refer to Table 1 for the values and
consistent between different investigations, and there-
references used
fore multiple analyses of different international refer-
ence materials that cover the relevant concentration major element of igneous differentiation index but cor-
range are required to evaluate precision and accuracy. related positively with pyrite abundance. A similar study
Gold concentrations in igneous, sedimentary and meta- in the Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada carried out using
morphic rock samples are commonly ,0?1 ppb (Keays an ICP-MS-based method with a detection limit of
and Scott, 1976; Nesbitt et al., 1987; Cameron, 1989; 0?05 ppb analysed gold contents in six different plutonic
1994; Terashima et al., 1994; Pitcairn et al., 2006b;
rock series that formed during the tectonic evolution of
Webber et al., 2010). Methods with detection limits
the Abitibi belt from 2?73 to 2?63 Ga (Fig. 1; Feng et al.,
higher than 0?1 ppb do not allow the full range of
1993). The lithologies, including trondjhemite, tona-
background gold concentrations to be observed.
lite, granodiorite, granite, syenite and monzonite, yield
gold concentrations ranging from 0?05 to 10 ppb. The
Gold concentrations in igneous and plutonic series were grouped by the stage at which they
volcanic rocks were formed during orogenesis from early syn-volcanic
to syn-tectonic, late tectonic and post-tectonic (Feng
Plutonic rocks et al., 1993). Average concentrations from the different
Early reviews of the gold content of igneous rocks magmatic series range from 0?12¡0?11 to 1?8¡1?2 ppb
suggest concentrations are generally less than 5 ppb, (Fig. 1, Table 1; Feng et al., 1993). No systematic varia-
rarely exceed 10 ppb and that mafic lithologies have tion in gold concentration was observed between the
higher concentrations than felsic (Tilling et al., 1973; different plutonic series. Gold concentrations show weak
Crocket, 1991). Recent investigations are generally con- positive correlations in some of the magmatic series with
sistent with these observations (Fig. 1, Table 1). Mul- Fe, Mg, Mn and Ca and strong correlation with Th and U
tiple analyses of different Archaean granites in South (Feng et al., 1993). A large suite of gold analyses from
Africa ranging in age from 3?5 to 2?6 Ga yield gold Palaeozoic granite complexes from Transbaikalia in Russia
concentrations of between 0?3 to 7?8 ppb with a mean of also shows no co-variation with bulk rock composition
1?2 ppb (Saager and Meyer, 1984). In their investiga- (Spiridonov et al., 2010). Average gold concentrations
tion, Au content was not found to correlate with any from nine different complexes each containing a range of

32 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2011 VOL 120 NO 1
 Pitcairn Background concentrations of gold in different rock types

lithologies dominated by granite but commonly including
granodiorite, diorite, and gabbro ranged from 1?2 to
4?5 ppb, with no systematic variation with Si, Fe or Mg
content (Fig. 1; Spiridonov et al., 2010). Gabbro from
layered mafic intrusions contains higher gold contents
than those rocks that occur as minor components of
granite complexes (Fig. 1, Table 1). Gold concentrations
in layered series gabbros from the Bushveld Complex,
South Africa, Skaergaard Intrusion in Greenland and
Jimberlana Intrusion in Australia contains between 0?5 to
9 ppb Au with average concentrations of around 5 ppb
(Fig. 1; Keays and Campbell, 1985; Barnes et al., 1985;
Crocket, 1991). Cumulate layers have highly variable
gold contents ranging from ,1 ppb up to ore grade
depending on whether sulphide minerals have been incor-
porated in the cumulate (Keays and Campbell, 1981).
Volcanic rocks
Gold concentrations in fresh, unaltered Mid Ocean Ridge
Basalt (MORB) range from 0?1 to 2?7 ppb and yield
average concentrations of 0?75¡0?7 ppb (Figs. 1 and 2;
Keays and Scott, 1976; Hertogen et al., 1980; Tatsumi

Table 1 Gold concentration in different rock types*

Reservoir Mean Au/ppb St. dev. Max. Min. N References

Primitive Mantle 0.88 Palme and O’Neill (2003)

Magmatic Rocks
MORB 0.75 0.7 2.67 0.08 34 Keays and Scott (1976);
Tatsumi et al. (1999);
Webber et al. (2010)
OIB 2.4 2 13 0.3 40 Fryer and Greendough (1992);
Tatsumi et al. (1999, 2000);
Webber et al. (2010)
BAB 4.7 3.6 11.4 0.04 59 Allan and Gorton (1992);
Cawood and Fryer (1994)
Forearc basalt 2.0 1.37 6.1 0.1 38 Terashima et al. (1994)
Forearc andesite 1.0 0.77 3.2 0.2 30 Terashima et al. (1994)
Forearc dacite 0.48 0.45 1.3 0.1 9 Terashima et al. (1994)
Boninite 1.95 0.84 3.3 0.68 12 Hamlyn et al. (1985)
Komatiite – Barberton 1.25 0.5 2.4 0.9 19 Anhaeusser et al. (1975);
Pitcairn (unpublished date)
Komatiite – Ontario 2.1 0.6 3.5 1.2 12 Brugmann et al. (1987)
Komatiite – Gorgona 4.7 1.6 7.7 2.1 12 Brugmann et al. (1987)
CFB – Deccan 4.6 4.5 27 1.1 31 Keays and Lightfoot (2010)
CFB – Siberian Traps (S-unsat) 2.5 0.78 4.3 0.9 41 Lightfoot and Keays (2005)
CFB – Siberian Traps (S-sat) 0.67 0.54 2.29 0.01 33 Lightfoot and Keays (2005)
CFB – Victoria (S-sat) 0.32 0.14 7 0.6 23 Vogel and Keays (1997)
Rhyolite (non-peralkaline) 0.2 0.14 0.6 0.05 30 Connors et al. (1993)
Rhyolite (peralkaline) 0.76 0.58 3.2 0.2 31 Connors et al. (1993)
Granitoids – Abitibi – syn volcanic 1.8 1.16 4.89 1.3 10 Feng et al. (1993)
Granitoids – Abitibi – syn tectonic 0.7 0.7 4.88 0.05 21 Feng et al. (1993)
Granitoids – Abitibi – late tectonic 0.45 0.4 1.57 0.05 15 Feng et al. (1993)
Granitoids – Abitibi – post-tectonic 0.7 0.6 2 0.13 8 Feng et al. (1993)
Gabbros – granitoid related 1.47 0.6 2.8 1 10 Feng et al. (1993);
Spiridonov et al. (2010)
Gabbros – layered intrusions 5.1 3.9 9 0.5 Keays and Campbell (1981);
Barnes et al. (1985);
Crocket (1991)
Sedimentary rocks
Otago greywacke 0.82 0.41 1.7 0.38 10 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago siltstone 1.86 0.82 2.67 0.59 8 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Black shale 7 1 20 3 148 Ketris and Yudovich (2009)
Carbonate 1.5 1 5.5 0.2 24 Crocket (1991)
Metamorphic rocks
Otago QFS subgreenschist 0.91 0.49 6.98 0.20 17 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago QFS greenschist 0.29 0.25 1.31 0.01 35 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago QFS amphibolite 0.20 0.14 0.60 0.07 15 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago MB subgreenschist 0.90 0.52 1.85 0.18 11 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago MB greenschist 0.87 0.59 2.07 0.25 11 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Otago MB amphibolite 0.21 0.07 0.31 0.11 7 Pitcairn et al. (2006a);
Pitcairn (unpublished data)
Upper amphibolite/granulite 0.22 0.10 96 Cameron (1989, 1994)
*Mean values, standard deviation, maximum, minimum values and the number of samples are shown. Where the variation in
concentrations is so high that the standard deviation exceeds the mean value, the median value is given instead of the standard
deviation and this is highlighted in bold type. References from which the data were taken are also listed.

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2011 VOL 120 NO 1 33
Pitcairn Background concentrations of gold in different rock types
2 Gold concentration versus MgO content for mafic and
ultramafic volcanic rocks. Abbreviations are discussed
in text. Average values are also shown in Table 1
et al., 1999; Webber et al., 2010). Concentrations of gold
in plume-related Ocean Island Basalt (OIB) such as from
Iceland, Hawaii, or the Ontong Java Plateau range from
0?3 to 13 ppb with average values of 2?4¡2 ppb, more
than three times higher than MORB (Figs. 1 and 2;
Zentilli et al., 1985; Fryer and Greenough, 1992; Ely
et al., 1999; Tatsumi et al., 1999; 2000; Webber et al.,
2010). Volcanic rocks from volcanic arc settings are
reported to have higher average gold concentrations than
MORB. Back-arc basalt (BAB) has gold concentrations
ranging from 1 to 15 ppb with an average concentration
of 4?7¡3?6 ppb (Figs. 1 and 2; Allan and Gorton, 1992;
Cawood and Fryer, 1994; Moss et al., 2001). Volcanic
rocks from the Izu-Bonin fore-arc setting also have higher
gold concentrations than MORB lavas with concentra-
tions ranging 0?1 to 6?1 ppb (Terashima et al., 1994). In
these samples the gold concentrations appear to decrease
with increasing silica content with basalt, andesite and
dacite containing average Au concentrations of 2?0¡1?3,
1?0¡0?77 and 0?48¡0?45 ppb respectively (Terashima
et al., 1994). Mg-rich, low Ti lavas such as Boninites that
also occur in fore-arc settings have gold concentrations
ranging between 0?7 and 3 ppb (Fig. 1; Hamlyn et al.,
1985).
Volcanic rocks generated in the continental crust
show a similar range in concentrations to those from the
oceanic crust. An investigation of the gold concentration
of a large set of glassy silicic volcanic rocks reports
concentrations ranging from 0?05 to 4 ppb but dom-
inantly below 1 ppb (Fig. 1; Connors et al., 1993). The
gold content was higher in peralkalic rhyolite than sub-
alkali and peraluminous rhyolites, and correlated posi-
tively with FeO/CaO (Connors et al., 1993). Continental
flood basalts show a large range in gold concentrations
(Figs. 1 and 2, Table 1). Gold concentration in the Newer
Volcanic Province of Victoria, a Tertiary to Quaternary
anorogenic flood basalt, range from 0?16 to 0?7 ppb with
average concentrations of 0?32¡0?14 ppb (Fig. 1; Vogel
and Keays, 1997). Gold concentrations in the Karoo
flood basalts from South Africa range 0?5 to 10 ppb
(Fig. 1; Maier et al., 2003). These values are similar to
those reported from the Siberian Trap (Au ranges 0?01 to
4?4 ppb; Brugmann et al., 1993; Lightfoot and Keays,
2005). Higher gold concentrations are reported in basaltic
rocks from the Deccan Traps in India, and from East
Greenland with values ranging from 1?1 to 27 ppb
(Momme et al., 2002; Keays and Lightfoot, 2010).
34 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2011
Komatiite from the Barberton greenstone belt, South
Africa ranges in concentration from 0?3 to 2?4 ppb Au
with an average concentration of 1?25¡0?55 ppb (Figs. 1
and 2; Anhaeusser et al., 1975; Pitcairn, unpublished
data). Canadian Abitibi Belt komatiites have marginally
higher concentrations that range between 1?2 and 2?6 ppb
Au with an average of 2?1¡0?6 ppb (Figs. 1 and 2;
Brugmann et al., 1987). Mesozoic aged komatiite from
Gorgona Island, Colombia have considerably higher gold
concentrations that range from 2?1 to 7?7 ppb with
average concentrations of 4?7¡1?6 ppb (Figs. 1 and 2;
Brugmann et al., 1987).
The gold content of the mantle
The gold concentration in the primitive mantle esti-
mated from chondrite values is 0?88 ppb (Fig. 1; Palme
and O’Neill, 2003; Lyubetskaya and Korenaga, 2007).
Gold concentrations in mantle xenoliths range in con-
centration from 0?1 to 6?9 ppb (Fig. 1; Mitchell and
Keays, 1981; Barnes et al., 1985; Schmidt et al., 2003).
An even greater range of values is observed in peridotite
from Alpine complexes and ophiolitic tectonites (0?1 to
23?5 ppb Au; Fig. 1; Barnes et al., 1985; Lorand et al.,
1989; Luguet et al., 2003). Average concentrations of
Au in mantle rocks are close to those estimated from
chondrite values but the range in values indicates
heterogeneous distribution of Au in the mantle. This
heterogeneity has been interpreted to indicate mantle
metasomatism (Lorand et al., 1989; Schmidt et al.,
2003).
Controls on the gold content of igneous
rocks
The gold concentration in plutonic and volcanic rocks is
controlled by: (i) the behaviour of sulphur in the magmatic
system, (ii) the oxygen fugacity of the magmatic system,
(iii) the degree of partial melting and (iv) fractional
crystallisation. Gold has a sulphide/silicate partition co-
efficient of around 10 000 (Peach et al., 1990) and
therefore the behaviour of sulphur in the magmatic
system is critical. Gold will strongly transition into a
sulphide melt phase in sulphur-saturated melts (Stone
et al., 1990; Cygan and Candela, 1995; Simon et al., 2000).
Rocks that are produced from sulphur-saturated melts
will either contain very high gold concentrations if the
sulphide phase has been incorporated into the volcanic or
plutonic rock, or as is more commonly observed, have
low gold concentrations due to the dense sulphide melt
phase remaining in the source region of the melting.
MOR basalt is considered to be sulphur-saturated (e.g.
Mathez, 1976) and their relatively low gold concentra-
tions are suggested to be due to the separation of a
distinct sulphide melt phase that sequestered gold and
remained in the depleted mantle source region (Fig. 1;
Hertogen et al., 1980; Hamlyn et al., 1985; Hamlyn and
Keays, 1986). In sulphur-saturated melts gold behaves as
a compatible elements and partitions into the sulphide
phase. This can be observed in some plutonic systems
where gold concentration correlates with sulphide con-
tent (e.g. Saager and Meyer, 1984). An example of rocks
produced from a sulphur-undersaturated melt is the
continental flood basalt from the Deccan Traps, India
(Keays and Lightfoot, 2010). In this case the sulphur and
siderophile elements including gold were incorporated
into the silicic melt that produced the basaltic rocks, thus
VOL 120 NO 1

explaining their higher gold concentrations (Fig. 1; Keays
and Lightfoot, 2010). The Siberian Trap continental
flood basalts contain some sulphide-undersaturated
basaltic units with higher gold concentrations and others
that were sulphide-saturated and contain much lower
gold concentrations (Lightfoot and Keays, 2005). The
Ni–Cu–PGE sulphide deposits in the Siberian Trap are
considered to be the product of the periods of sulphide
saturation during the evolution of the magmatic system
(Keays and Lightfoot, 2010). In sulphur-undersaturated
magmatic systems, gold behaves as an incompatible
element and should correlate positively with Y, Zr, and
Rb (e.g. Zentilli et al., 1985).
Whether a magmatic system is saturated or under-
saturated in sulphur depends on:
(i) the oxygen fugacity of the system
(ii) the initial sulphur content
(iii) the major element composition (particularly Fe)
(iv) the temperature and pressure.
The oxygen fugacity of a magmatic system controls the
maximum amount of sulphur that can be dissolved in a
melt (Jugo et al., 2005; Mungall et al., 2006; Jugo, 2009).
Oxidised magmas where sulphate is the dominant sulphur
species can contain 10 times more dissolved sulphur than
reduced magma, and therefore have much higher potential
to remain sulphur-undersaturated leading to higher gold
contents (Jugo, 2009). Island arc, back-arc and ocean island
settings have higher oxygen fugacities than MOR settings
(Ballhaus, 1993) and therefore magmas produced in these
settings will have higher sulphur saturation thresholds and
are more likely to be sulphur-undersaturated leading to
higher gold concentrations (Fig. 1). Basaltic melts have a
higher sulphur capacity than intermediate and felsic melts
due to higher melting temperature and higher Fe-content
(Jugo et al., 2005). This partially explains the trend of
higher gold contents in mafic versus felsic rocks in some
systems (e.g. Terashima et al., 1994). Oxidised magmatic
systems are more likely to produce gold (and Cu) rich
hydrothermal fluids as these elements will remain in
the melt phase rather than being trapped in a sulphide
phase, and therefore be available for partition into an
exsolving hydrothermal fluid (Goff et al., 1994; Mungall
et al., 2006).
The degree of partial melting exerts control on the
gold content of a magmatic system because melts
produced from low proportion partial melts will be
sulphur saturated due to the incompatible behaviour of
sulphur and its transition into the melt phase (Keays,
1995). Magmas produced from higher proportions of
partial melting (e.g. above 25%) are much more likely to
be sulphur-undersaturated and therefore should contain
more gold (Keays, 1995). Komatiites and boninites are
an example of this behaviour as they formed from high
degrees of partial melting. In these systems gold shows a
negative correlation with MgO because gold acts as an
incompatible element in sulphur-undersaturated systems
and therefore has been diluted by higher proportions of
partial melt (Fig. 2). Boninites formed in forarc settings
through melting of previously depleted mantle and
could potentially incorporate the segregated sulphide
phase that formed during the first phase of melting
leading to higher gold concentrations (Hamlyn et al.,
1985).
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Pitcairn Background concentrations of gold in different rock types
Gold concentrations in sedimentary
rocks
Due to the variable nature of source rocks, it would be
expected that sedimentary rocks contain a large range of
gold concentrations. Sedimentary rocks include those
whose source area contained gold deposits, and those
with a strong hydrothermal input of metals such as
banded iron formations and sulphide-rich metalliferous
sediments. These rocks contain anomalously high gold
concentrations compared to ‘normal’ sedimentary rocks.
The gold concentrations in banded iron formations and
sulphide-rich sediments occurring within basaltic lavas
range between 0?1 and 1000 ppb (Crocket, 1991). The
most common sedimentary rocks; shales, siltstones,
sandstone and conglomerates are commonly reported
to contain gold concentrations that range from 0?1 to
30 ppb (Crocket, 1991) which is a larger range than is
generally observed in plutonic and volcanic rocks. In
general, sandstone and siltstone tend to have lower
concentrations than shale (Fig. 1, Table 1). Siltstone
and greywacke samples from the Torlesse Terrane, New
Zealand have Au concentrations ranging from 0?4 to
2?5 ppb with marginally higher concentrations occurring
in siltstone (Fig. 1; Pitcairn et al., 2006a). Sandstone and
mudstone from the Shimanto Belt in Japan yielded
Au concentrations ranging from 1 to 2?5 ppb (Fig. 1;
Yokohama et al., 1996). Black shales from the same area
contain between 2?3 and 6?3 ppb Au (Yokohama et al.,
1996). Ketris and Yudovich (2009) suggest a global
average gold concentration in black shales of 7¡1 ppb
(Fig. 1, Table 1). The average is based on over 9000
analyses from 148 samples whose gold concentrations
range from 3 to 20 ppb (Fig. 1; Ketris and Yudovich,
2009). Carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks have similar
gold concentrations to organic matter-poor siliceous sedi-
mentary rocks with average concentrations of 1?5¡1 ppb
(Fig. 1, Table 1; Crocket, 1991).
Gold concentrations in sedimentary rocks are con-
trolled by two trends; the incorporation of discrete gold-
rich mineral grains and the precipitation of gold in
diagenetic sulphide minerals from pore water during
diagenesis. Gold placer deposits and their lithified
equivalents represent the end-member of sedimentary
rocks that contain discrete gold rich mineral grains.
Sedimentary rocks that contain higher proportions of
diagenetic sulphide minerals also have higher gold con-
centrations (Pitcairn et al., 2006a; Ketris and Yudovich,
2009). Gold in greywacke and siltstone occurs in
framboidal-textured pyrite that grew during diagenesis
(Pitcairn et al., 2010). The higher concentration of Au in
black shales is considered to be due to organic
complexation of Au from seawater in anoxic organic-
rich mud which is eventually incorporated into diage-
netic sulphide minerals (Helz et al., 1996). Diagenetic
processes are at least as important as source area
variation for controlling the concentration of gold in
sedimentary rocks.
Gold concentrations in metamorphic
rocks
Gold concentrations have been shown to decrease
systematically during metamorphism (Fig. 1, Table 1).
In a study of the Otago and Alpine Schists, New
2011 VOL 120 NO 1 35
Pitcairn Background concentrations of gold in different rock types
3 Gold concentration versus metamorphic temperature
for quartzofeldspathic rocks from (A) the Otago and
Alpine Schists of New Zealand, and (B) the Dalradian
metasedimentary belt of Scotland. The black line repre-
sents the mean and the dashed lines ¡1 standard
deviation. Metamorphic temperatures are estimated
from mineral assemblages and regional mapping of
metamorphic isograds
Zealand average gold concentrations in quartzofelds-
pathic rocks decreased systematically from 1?2 ppb in
unmetamorphosed greywacke and siltstone to 0?29 ppb
in greenschist facies and 0?20 ppb in amphibolite facies
(Figs. 1 and 3, Table 1; Pitcairn et al., 2006b). Metabasaltic
rocks from the Otago and Alpine Schists also show a
decrease in gold concentration from around 1 ppb in
unmetamorphosed samples down to 0?2 ppb in amphi-
bolite facies rocks (Figs. 1 and 3; Pitcairn et al., 2006a).
A similar trend has also been observed in psammite to
pelite metasedimentary rocks of the Dalradian terrane,
Scotland (Pitcairn et al., 2010). Here average concentra-
tions decrease from 1?1 ppb in lower greenschist facies to
0?42 ppb in sillimanite zone amphibolite facies (Figs. 1
and 3, Table 1). In both of these metasedimentary belts
the depletion in Au occurs independent of protolith
composition and is controlled by a change in the sta-
ble sulphide mineral assemblage from pyrite-dominated
to pyrrhotite-dominated (Pitcairn et al., 2006a; 2010;
Pitcairn, 2010). Low gold concentrations also occur in
high-grade amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphic
rocks in the Bamble Belt of south Norway and in the
Lewisian Complex of Scotland (Fig. 1; Cameron, 1989;
1994). In these localities, quartzofeldspathic and metaba-
saltic upper amphibolite and granulite facies samples
range in concentration between 0?05 and 0?37 ppb with
average values commonly less than 0?2 ppb (Fig. 1;
Cameron, 1989; 1994). All of these studies show that
gold depletion with increased metamorphism occurs with
36 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2011
depletion of As and Sb and with dehydration of the
samples implying that the elements were leached and
removed during prograde metamorphic devolatilisation
(Cameron, 1989; 1994; Pitcairn et al., 2006a; Pitcairn,
2010).
Conclusions
More accurate definition of the background concentra-
tions of gold leads to a better understanding of ore
formation; enrichment factors can be more accurately
constrained, and the source areas for metals such as
fertile lithologies can be identified. The variation in the
gold concentrations in igneous rocks is a function of the
behaviour of sulphur in the magmatic system. Sulphur
saturated rocks such as MORB have low gold concen-
trations (Fig. 1) as gold partitions into the sulphide melt
phase that remains in the mantle source region. Sulphur-
undersaturated magmatic rocks such as some continen-
tal flood basalts have higher gold concentrations as the
gold remains in the melt rather than being extracted into
a separate sulphide phase. Whether or not magmatic
rocks are sulphur-saturated depends strongly on their
oxygen fugacity with more oxidised systems being able
to contain significantly more sulphur (as sulphate)
before saturation. This explains why ocean island and
volcanic arc basalts have generally higher gold concen-
trations than MORB (Fig. 1) as these rocks were formed
in more oxidised settings than MORB. The gold con-
centration in magmatic rocks can be of great use in
exploration geochemistry as they give an indication of
the sulphur saturation state of the magmatic system.
Sulphur-saturated magmas may have produced a gold-
rich sulphide phase that could either be directly
exploitable as an ore, or be a fertile source of elements
for later hydrothermal processes. Gold concentrations in
sedimentary rocks show a very large range due to
inclusion of discrete gold-rich mineral grains and the
incorporation of gold from pore fluid during diagenesis.
High abundances of diagenetic sulphide minerals and
organic matter in sedimentary rocks such as in black
shales leads to higher gold concentrations and a poten-
tially fertile source of gold during later hydrothermal
processes. Gold concentrations in metamorphic rocks
decrease systematically with increasing metamorphic
grade. Amphibolite facies metasedimentary and meta-
basaltic samples commonly contain between 50 and 80%
less gold than their unmetamorphosed protolith rocks,
and these depletions represent the source area from
where gold has been mobilised in the formation of
orogenic gold deposits.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges research funding from
Stockholm University and from the Swedish Research
Council (Personal Research Grant 621-2007-4539). The
author would also like to thank Dr Simon Jowitt and an
anonymous reviewer for insightful reviews that improved
the quality of the manuscript, and to Professor Neil
Phillips for his editorial comments.
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