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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

SECOND SEMESTER
S.Y. 2020-2021

Module in Flexible Learning

Prelim: Jan. 25 – Feb. 26, 2021
GE 8 – ETHICS
LESSON 1
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

Introduction:

Ethics is a special branch of Philosophy that deals with human conduct or morals. Hence it is sometimes
called Moral Philosophy. To better understand the nature of Ethics is to have a good grasp of the nature of
Philosophy.

Overview:

In this lesson, we will try to answer the question, “What is Philosophy?” It focuses on the nature of
philosophy that may lead us to better understand Ethics and its purpose.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. understand the definitions of Philosophy;

2. acknowledge Philosophy as personal experience; and
3. appraise the importance of Philosophy.

PRELIMINARY TEST

 In long bond paper/yellow pad, make an essay about the question: What is your Philosophy in
Life? (Minimum of three paragraphs.)

Lesson Proper:

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

There is no perfect definition of Philosophy only collections of different claims. For example, according
to Plato, Philosophy is defined as “the love of wisdom that can face the test of critical discussions.” For
Herodotus, Philosophy is “the love of exercising one’s curiosity and intelligence.”

There are two reasons for this: first, philosophers in the past sought to confine Philosophy within
narrower boundaries, because Philosophy tended to claim too much. The quest was to search for the
appropriate subject matter of Philosophy and the method of investigation distinct to it. The second reason
is the direct consequence of the first. The attempt to narrow down the meaning of Philosophy was a
failure. The original breadth of meaning of Philosophy remained reflective of its concerns over every
facet of human existence. From the ruins of such a quest, arose its various definitions.

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However, Philosophy is technically defined as “scientia rerum per cosas primas sub lumine rationis
naturalis.” We may translate this as: “The science of all beings in their ultimate reasons, causes, and
principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone.”

Looking for the etymological meaning of Philosophy, Philosophy comes from the Greek word
philos/philia which means love, and sophia meaning wisdom. Hence, Philosophy may be defined as the
love of wisdom. Philosophy was coined by Pythagoras.

The definition Love of Wisdom is very insufficient if we desire a deeper understanding of Philosophy but
sufficient for ordinary discussions.

Dissecting the etymological meaning, the word wisdom is defined as understanding of what is true, right
or lasting. On the other hand, the Greek word sophia may be defined as more than understanding of truth
of rightness, but more on application of such understanding. Moreover, sophia is more than intelligence
because sophia is more concerned with practical application of intelligence.

PHILOSOPHY AS A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

Philosophy is meant to be experienced and not defined. All we need to do in order to understand the
meaning of Philosophy is to experience it, that is, by living and doing Philosophy. It is like understanding
the meaning of wonder. To understand the meaning of wonder is to genuinely experience the sense of
wondering, like a child looking at the moon with great awe, and asking for the first time, “Mommy,
where does the moon came from?”

Philosophy, after all, was born in us every time we allow our minds to wander and to wonder at the
everydayness of our human existence. Hence, Philosophy starts when man began to wonder. But unlike
simple wonderings, Philosophy demands more. It tells us to act, to do something about our wondering: “is
this action right?” We should not stop in our simple wonderings. We should try our best to find out and if
we discover that it is not right, “what should we do?” to answer this question and to act appropriately is to
experience philosophy.

POINTERS ON THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

Let’s now get two things straight about Philosophy:

First, Philosophy is not really a subject, it is an activity. One does not simply study it, one does it. As
an activity, Philosophy requires the cultivation of certain qualities in man, which include the following:

1. Ability to Wonder – the predisposition of the mind to wonder and to be curious about everything
from the peculiar to the very ordinary. It is also suggests the personal interest to speculate about
things.
2. Sense of Autonomy – the quality of the mind to be independent or the freedom of the will from
external control and influence. For instance, a person with a sense of autonomy would not
blindly believe what authorities claim to be the truth (even if the one claiming the truth is my
beloved pastor, before I accept his statement about X is true, he must provide some good reasons
why I should believe him), or would simply not follow instructions uncritically. Sense of
autonomy also refers to our willingness to subject even our cherished ideals and beliefs to critical
reflection and scrutiny (for instance, a person asking himself: “God is a benevolent God, but why
did God allow evil to exist?”).

Ethics – Prelim Modules | 2

 3. Sense of Objectivity – the ability of the mind to think reasonably and to render impartial
judgments (for example, the fact that action X is wrong will remain wrong even if the person who
commits action X is my son”). Objectivity also refers to open-mindedness and tolerance to ideas,
opinion, or beliefs of others which we may not share (for instance, the belief that, “No one is
certain that what we believe is always true. Every opinion should therefore be heard and properly
considered if we want to arrive at a more complete picture of the truth). It also refers to the
courage in accepting the wrongness of personality-held opinions and abandoning them for more
reasonable ones.

Secondly, Philosophy is largely a matter of conceptual analysis or thinking about thinking. Philosophy is
not merely about thinking, it is also about reflecting on the contents of our thoughts, reflecting about our
reflections: “Are the things which I believe to be good really good?” “Am I thinking about others
morally?” With these in mind, we are now ready for our study of the activity of life called Ethics or
Moral Philosophy.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

ESSAY: Make your answers brief and direct. You may use bond paper or yellow pad for your answer.

1. Explain why the definition of Philosophy as the love of wisdom is insufficient.

2. Philosophy is meant to be experienced, not necessarily to be defined. How do you experience
Philosophy? Cite a specific example to prove your point.
3. Why do you think wondering is important?

LESSON 2
THE STUDY OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Introduction:

Man, in the hierarchy of creation, assumes a special position. We are special not only because of our
natural gifts of reason and freedom, but also because of our moral sense or our natural propensity for
goodness. When we make moral decisions, we usually try to do the right thing. By guiding us in making
the right decisions, Ethics helps us to know how we ought to live as human beings.

Overview:

In this lesson, it contains introduction about Moral Philosophy that may widen our knowledge on the birth
of Ethics, significance, scope and limitation, and assumptions of Moral Philosophy.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. explain the definition of Moral Philosophy;

2. appreciate the significance of Moral Philosophy; and
3. apply the Socratic Way in day to day living.

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PRELIMINARY TEST

1. Give at least 5 good actions and 5 bad/evil actions.

2. Based on your given good actions, what do you think are the reasons that make them good?
Justify your answer.
3. Based on your given bad actions, what do you think are the reasons that make them bad/evil?
Justify your answer.

Lesson Proper:

THE SOCRATIC METHOD

Juan: Tell me, what is your idea of justice? How can we act justly?

Pedro: I believe that justice is giving one his due. So, one way of acting justly is to return the borrowed
property of others because returning their property is their due.

Juan: So when you borrow my bolo, it is only just for you to return my bolo because it is my property.
Is that what you mean?

Pedro: Yes. That would be acceptable.

Juan: If after borrowing my bolo, I lost my sanity and I became uncontrollably violent, would you still
return my bolo?

Pedro: Of course not. You might use it to harm yourself and other people.

Juan: But the bolo is my property, is it not?

Pedro: Yes.

Juan: And returning my property is my due, is it not?

Pedro: Yes.

Juan: And you defined justice as giving one his due, am I correct?

Pedro: Yes.

Juan: But in the case we have just considered, you are not willing to return my bolo which is my
property, and therefore my proper due. What then becomes of your definition?

Pedro: (Silent).

The short dialogue presented shows how Juan tried to demonstrate the contradiction of Pedro’s idea of
justice without directly telling him about the contradiction. All Juan did was to ask questions. This
process is called the Socratic Method. Questions are presented to guide us to think about our basic
assumptions in life. It makes us discover our mistakes in a very special way. We can see that Socrates,
through his method, displayed humility in his desire to share what he knows. He never told people what
to believe, rather, he simply asked questions and left people to realize their errors. This way, Socrates
demonstrated the importance of applying the critical methods of rational inquiry. By tearing down
unfounded assumptions, man comes closer to the truth.
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This reflects the true activity of Ethics. It is all about saying what others ought to do, but, like the activity
of a midwife, helping others give birth to their own ideas and know how to critically examine them. The
pursuit of truth by rational inquiry is the way human beings ought to live their lives.

THE BIRTH OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Ethics started when man began to wonder about how he should treat others and how he should live his life
with others. Man’s interest in the rightness of his actions and his desire to live the good life provides the
reason for the birth of another exciting branch of Philosophy, Ethics.

Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos” which means “character”. For the Greeks, ethics dealt with
the development of a virtuous and moral character. They believed that developing such a character would
make one know the right thing to do and the right way of life.

Socrates, the great Greek moralist (probably the first moralist), believed that the right way of life is an
examined life. An examined life is a life guided and enriched by self-awareness and self-knowledge.

WHAT MORAL PHILOSOPHY IS

We will use Ethics and Moral Philosophy to mean the same thing, so expect that these two terms will be
used interchangeably in most of our discussions.

Ethics is defined as a special branch of Philosophy which deals with the study of the principles of right
moral action. Ethics aims to study the principles underlying the desirable types of human conduct and to
prescribe the principles and methods for distinguishing right from wrong and good from bad.

Ethics – deals more on the principles and laws on the morality of human acts. It provides the person with
the knowledge that he may know what to do and how to do it. KNOWING.

Morality – the implementation of ethical principles and laws. It is the practice of Ethics. DOING.

Ethics is concerned with the questions such as:

o What makes my action right or wrong?

o How could I know it?
o How should I live my life?
o How should I treat other human beings?
o How should I be treated?

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

The significance of Ethics lies in its offer to help man secure his moral elevation and to better his world.
The reward of the study of Ethics is not material progress but moral uprightness, the discovery of the true
values of life and the inspiration to live a moral life. Ethics affords man the opportunity to rediscover his
humanity.

SCOPE OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Ethics does not deal only with human relationships but it also focuses on the moral relationship of Man
with other beings in the world. Generally, there are four areas covered by Ethics:

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 1. Man and fellow man – Ethics primarily deals with the “oughts” or “shoulds” of human existence
vis-à-vis the existence of other human beings. It investigates how a person should live his life
with others.
2. Man and his society – Ethics also deals with the study of man, as a member of a moral
community (a community of other rational beings). It investigates how man should relate to his
community and vice versa. It prescribes how man should best contribute to the welfare of his
community and how his community should best foster his personal growth and improvement.
3. Man and other sentient beings – Ethics investigates not only the moral aspects of human
relationships, it also deals with the study of the relationships between human beings and other
sentient creatures ( i.e. animals).
4. Man and his natural environment – The study of Ethics includes how man should treat his natural
environment. It tries to provide a rational basis for environmental conservation and protection in
view of the duty to respect the right of the future members of the community.

ASSUMPTIONS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Moral Philosophy proceeds from some basic assumptions. Without assuming certain qualities about
human nature, doing Ethics, would be a futile endeavor. Assumption means fundamental beliefs or
statements that are accepted to be self-evident. There are so many assumptions presented in other books
of Ethics. But let’s just consider the two most important and most common assumptions of Ethics:

1. That man is a rational being – this means that we assume that:

o Man is a thinking being
o Man acts with purpose and knows his reasons for acting
o Man is capable of moral judgment
o Aware of his intentions as well as the consequences of his actions
o Capable of judging them as right or wrong/good or evil

2. That man is a free being – this assumption means that:

o Man is free agent who acts according to his will
o Man has the capacity to exercise his choices
o It implies the capabilities of man to choose and do what is good

These two assumptions provide a basis for giving praise, blame, reward and punishment. It also provides
the reasons why we are held responsible for our actions. By assuming that we think we are free, we can
say that we are fully responsible for our actions.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

ESSAY: Make your answers brief and direct. You may use bond paper or yellow pad for your answer.

4. Discuss why the study of Ethics is important.

5. What makes the person responsible for his/her own action?
6. In your own words, define GOOD and BAD.
7. Provide a specific case (based on your own experience) on how you exercise your freedom and
rationality based on the two assumptions of Ethics. For example, you decided to help an old man

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 crossing the street (this would be an element of freedom) because you want him to be safe (this
would be an element of rationality).

LESSON 3
THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

Introduction:

Man, in the hierarchy of creation, assumes a special position. We are special not only because of our
natural gifts of reason and freedom, but also because of our moral sense or our natural propensity for
goodness. When we make moral decisions, we usually try to do the right thing. By guiding us in making
the right decisions, Ethics helps us to know how we ought to live as human beings.

Overview:

In this lesson, recognizing the notions of good and bad, right and wrong, are the primary concern of
ethics. In order to start, it would be useful to clarify the following points.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. identify the ethical aspect of human life;

2. explain the terms that are relevant to ethical thinking; and
3. evaluate the difficulties that are involved in maintaining certain commonly-held notions of ethics.

PRELIMINARY TEST

REACTION PAPER: In your own words, what makes your good action, good? (Minimum of three
paragraphs.)

Lesson Proper:

VALUE

Ethics, generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing that we should pursue and the bad
thing that we should avoid; the right way in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting.
It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. It may involve obligations that we are
expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we are required to respect, or ideals that we are encouraged to meet.
Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the values with particular and
special significance to human life.

KINDS OF VALUATION

Our first point of clarification is to recognize that there are instances when we make value judgments that
are not considered to be part of ethics. For instance, I could say that this new movie I had just seen was a
“good” one because I enjoyed it, or a song I had just heard on the radio was a “bad” one because it had an
unpleasant tone, but these are not part of a discussion of ethics. I may have an opinion as to what is the
“right” dip (sawsawan) for my chicken barbecue, or I may maintain that it is “wrong” to wear a leather
vest over a Barong Tagalog, and these are not concerns of ethics. These are valuations that fall under the
domain of aesthetics. The word “aesthetic” is derived from the Greek word aesthesis (“sense” or
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“feeling”) and refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we
see, hear, smell, or taste.

Similarly, we have a sense of approval or disapproval concerning certain actions which can be considered
relatively more trivial in nature. Thus, for instance, I may think that it is “right” to knock politely on
someone’s door, while it is “wrong” to barge into one’s office. Perhaps I may approve of a child who
knows how to ask for something properly by saying, “please” and otherwise, disapprove of a woman that
I see picking her nose in public. These and other similar examples belong to the category of etiquette,
which is concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which might be considered not quite grave
enough to belong to a discussion on ethics. To clarify this point, we can differentiate how I may be
displeased seeing a healthy young man refuse to offer his seat on the bus to an elderly lady, but my
indignation and shock would be much greater if I were to see a man deliberately push another one out of a
moving bus.

We can also consider how a notion of right and wrong actions can easily appear in a context that is not a
matter of ethics. This could also be when learning how to bake or play basketball, for instance. I am
instructed that it is against the rules to walk more than two steps without dribbling the ball; again, obeying
this rule to not travel is something that makes sense only in the context of the game and is not an ethical
prohibition. We derive from the Greek word techne the English words “technique” and “technical” which
are often used to refer to a proper way (or right way) of doing things, but a technical valuation (or right
and wrong technique of doing things) may not necessarily be an ethical one as these examples show.

Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation allows us to have a rough guide as to
what belongs to a discussion of ethics. They involve valuations that we make in a sphere of human
actions, characterized by certain gravity and concern the human well-being or human life itself.
Therefore, natters that concern human well-being such as poverty, inequality, or sexual identity are often
included in discussions if ethics. However, this general description is only a starting point and will require
further elaboration.

One complication that can be noted is that the distinction between what belongs to ethics and what does
not is not always so clearly defined.

DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE

A descriptive study reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without making
any judgment either for or against these valuations. This kind of study is often the work of the social
scientist: either a historian (studying different moral standards over time). A normative study of ethics, as
is often done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the question: What could or should be considered
as the right way of acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what we ought to maintain
as our standards or bases for moral valuation.

ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGMENT, AND DILEMMA

It may be helpful to distinguish a situation that calls for moral valuation. It can be called a moral issue.
For instance, imagine a situation wherein a person cannot afford a certain item, but then the possibility
presents itself for her to steal it. This is a matter of ethics insofar as it involves the question of respect for
one’s property. We should add that “issue” is also often used to refer to those particular situations that are
often the source of considerable and inconclusive debate.

Ethics – Prelim Modules | 8

When one is placed in situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform, she is called to make
a moral decision. For instance, I choose not to take something I did not pay for. When a person is an
observer who makes an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone, she is making a moral
judgment. For instance, a friend of mine chooses to steal from a store, and I make an assessment that it is
wrong.

Finally, going beyond the matter of choosing right over wrong, or good over bad, and considering instead
the more complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing
between the lesser of two evils: this is referred to as a moral dilemma. We have a moral dilemma when
an individual can choose only one from a number of possible actions, and there are compelling ethical
reasons for the various choices.

REASONING

Why do we suppose that a certain way of acting is right and its opposite wrong? The study of ethics is
interested in questions like these: why do we decide to consider this way of acting as acceptable while
that way of acting, its opposite, is unacceptable? To put it in another way, what reason do we give to
decide or to judge that a certain way of acting is either right or wrong?

A person’s fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him a reason for acting in a certain way. It
is common to hear someone say: “I did not cheat on the exam because I was afraid that I might get
caught,” or “I looked after my father in the hospital because I wanted to get a higher allowance.”

Asking “why” might bring us to no more than a superficial discussion of rewards and punishments, but it
could also bring us to another level of thinking. Perhaps one can rise above the particulars of a specific
situation, going beyond whatever motivation or incentive is present in this instance of cheating. In other
words, our thinking may take on a level of abstraction, that is, detaching itself from the particular
situation and arriving at a statement like, “Cheating is wrong,” by recognizing proper reasons for not
acting in this way. Beyond rewards and punishments, it is possible for our moral valuation to be based on
a principle. Thus, one may conclude that cheating is wrong based on a sense of fair play or a respect for
the importance and validity of testing.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

Make your answers brief and direct. You may use bond paper or yellow pad for your answer.

1.Look for a newspaper article or in the internet that tackles an ethical issue. (Cut-out and indicate the
issue).
Consider the following questions:
a. What makes this a matter of ethics?
b. What is your own ethical judgment on this case?
c. What are your reasons for this judgment?

CASE ANALYSIS: Try working the case below.

CARDO DALISA

Cardo desperately needed money for his son’s expensive heart transplant. After
doing everything, he still failed to raise the amount necessary for the operation.
“I am sorry, Cardo”, the surgeon told him when he tried to beg; “It’s the policy.
No cash or no insurance policy, no operation.” Watching his dying son, Cardo
Ethics – Prelim Modules | 9
 was left with no options. He took out his gun and seized the hospital staff. “My
son dies, you all die. He lives, you can all go home.” Cardo desperately
announced to the horror-stricken doctors. “Now, doctor, fix my son’s heart.”

1) What makes this a matter of ethics?

2) Analyze the action of Cardo, does his action right or wrong?
3) Based on your answer in # 2, what makes the action of Cardo right or wrong?
4) What is your ethical judgment on this case?
5) If you are Cardo, what would you do?

ASSESSMENT /EVALUATION RUBRICS

Grades Rubrics Points Rating Scale for Module Output

A+ Shows complete understanding of the question. Very informative and well organized. Can able to relate the
(96-100%) topic to his/her personality with ease.
A Shows substantial understanding of the question. Good solid response with clear explanation with some
(92-95%) minor yet non-trivial gaps in their reasoning ability.
B+
Response shows some understanding of the question. Meet the requirements of the problem.
(87-90%)
B Shows unclear yet related answer to the problem. Student may have starter out correctly, but gone on a
(84-86%) main concept or not finished the problem.
C+
Shows incomplete answer to the problem.
(80-83%)
C
Misses key points.
(75-79%)
D No answer at all

PRELIM PROJECT

BE CREATIVE:

Collage Making: In long bond paper, create a diagram of the following topics:

AS A STUDENT:

1. How do you properly treat other people?

2. How do you properly treat animals?
3. How you properly treat the environment?
4. What is/are your responsibility/ties in your community/Brgy?

*Indicate short explanation on each diagram

*1 bond paper per diagram

References:

 Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong Jr., et. al. (2018)
 Moral Philosophy: An Introduction by A. C. Articulo (2004)
 Philosophy: A Reviewer for the Philosophy Comprehensive Examinations compiled by Ranilo B. Hermida, Ph. D.

Prepared by:

Ethics – Prelim Modules | 10

JOHN REY R. BUAN
CAS-INSTRUCTOR

Ethics – Prelim Modules | 11