2021 CIRCUITS 2

COEA NOTES

CHAPTER 1 AC FUNDAMENTALS
NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

CHAPTER 1
AC FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Introduction to Alternating Current

1.2 The A.C. Generator
1.3 Waveform
1.4 Terms Related to Alternating
1.5 A.C. Values
1.6 The Equation of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.
describe the principle of operation of an a.c. generator
distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a waveform
define instantaneous, peak, mean and rms values, and form and peak factors for
a sine wave
calculate mean and rms values and form and peak factors for given waveforms
understand and perform calculations on the general sinusoidal equation 𝑣 =
𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)
understand lagging and leading angles

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

A.C. means alternating current —The current or voltage which alternates its direction and
magnitude every time. Now a days, A. C. supply is the most common electrical energy to be
produced, transmitted and distributed.
Some of the reasons are the following:
1. AC can be generated at comparatively high voltages and this voltages can be raised or
lowered readily by means of static transformers.

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2. It is possible to build AC generators in large units to run at high speed so the

construction and operating cost per kilowatt will be lower.
3. For constant speed work, AC induction motor is more efficient than DC motor and less
in first cost and maintenance
4. The high transmission efficiencies obtainable with AC make it economical to generate
electrical energy in large quantities in a certain station and to distribute it over a large
territory.

1.2 THE A.C. GENERATOR

Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity symmetrically between the
poles of a magnet system as shown in figure below.

An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s Laws) which varies in magnitude and
reverses its direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is shown in the figure below.

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In positions,
 (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are effectively moving along the magnetic
field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced.
 (c) the maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced.
 (g), the maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced. However,
using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that
in position (c) and is thus shown as -E.
 (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such
positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the coil, one cycle of
alternating e.m.f. is produced as shown. This is the principle of operation of the ac
generator (i.e. the alternator).

1.3 WAVEFORM
If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph
is called a waveform (see figure below).

Waveforms,
 (a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with
time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and become
negative).
 (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are continually
changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).

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1.4 TERMS RELATED TO ALTERNATING QUANTITIES

PERIOD
 The time required to complete one cycle of a waveform is called the PERIOD of the
wave.
 A Period (T) of an AC waveform is one whose values are repeated at regular intervals.
 An individual cycle of any sine wave represents a definite amount of TIME. It is the
time required for the values to rise and fall through complete cycle.
 Unit is in seconds

Retrieved from Ref [1]. Period of a sine wave.

FREQUENCY
 The number of complete cycles of alternating current or voltage completed each
second is called FREQUENCY.
 It is always measured in hertz.

The relationship between time (T) and frequency (f) is indicated by the formulas

1 1
𝑇= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓=
𝑓 𝑇
Where:
𝑡 − period in seconds
𝑓 − frequency in hertz

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WAVELENGTH
 The period of the waveform is the time it takes for a sine wave to complete one cycle.
The distance travelled by the sine wave during this period is called the
WAVELENGTH.
 It is indicated by the symbol 𝜆 (read as lamda)

Retrieved from Ref [1]. Wavelength.

Retrieved from Ref [1]. Wavelength measurement.

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Example 1. An AC waveform has a period of 2ms. What is the frequency?

Solution:
Given:
Period (𝑇) = 2 𝑚𝑠
Thus, solving for the frequency (𝑓).
1 1
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑠 = 500 𝐻𝑧

Example 2. What is the period of an AC waveform whose frequency is 4 MHz?

Solution:
Given:
Frequency (𝑓) = 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
Thus, solving for the period (𝑇).
1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 0.25 𝜇 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example 3. 12 cycles of an AC waveform occur in 0.48 sec. What is the period of the
waveform?
Solution:
Since frequency has a unit of cycle/sec, we obtain
12 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑓= = 25 𝐻𝑧
0.48 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Then, solving for the period (𝑇).

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 25 𝐻𝑧 = 40 𝑚𝑠

Example 4. An AC waveform has a frequency of 16 kHz. How much time is required for 200
cycles to occur?
Solution:
Using unit analysis,
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
= 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

Thus, solving for the time,

200 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑇= 16 𝐾𝐻𝑧
= 12.5 𝑚𝑠

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RADIAN
 Radians is the angle subtended by an arc whose length is equal to its radius
 It is the SI unit for angle
 It is related to degrees by:

2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 360𝑜
360𝑜
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2𝜋

1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ 57.2957𝑜

1 Radian

Example 1. Convert 45 degrees to radians.

Solution:
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
45𝑜 × = 0.7854 𝑟𝑎𝑑
360𝑜

Example 2. Convert -1.5 radians to degrees.

Solution:
360𝑜
−1.5𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −270𝑜 = 90𝑜

Example 3. Convert 1 rad to degrees.

Solution:
360𝑜
1𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 57.296𝑜

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ANGULAR VELOCITY OR ANGULAR FREQUENCY

GIVEN: A SINE FUNCTION

A rapid rotating radius will produce more cycles per second than a slowly rotating
radius. The speed of rotation is measured by the amount of angle the radius sweeps through
a given amount of time, This speed is called angular velocity, 𝜔.

𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄
𝜔= 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡

where 𝜃 is the no. of radians of angle generated in 𝑡 seconds.

𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
The sine wave can be expressed as a function of time by

sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜔𝑡
Note that one cycle is the same as 2𝜋 radians. Since frequency is the no. of cycles produced
in 1.0 sec, the no. of radians also produced in 1 sec is 2𝜋 times frequency. Unit conversion
shows,

𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄ 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄ 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒⁄

𝑠𝑒𝑐 = ( 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 )

Thus,

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄
𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Example 1. Given the equation of a waveform as: y(t)=sin 3141.6t, find the following:
a. Angular velocity
b. The Frequency
c. Period of the waveform
d. Sketch y(t) vs. time
Solution:
a. From 𝑦(𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡, we can see that the angular velocity is 3141.6 rad/sec.
b. From the formula 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, we can equate the equation to,
𝜔 3141.6
𝑓 = 2𝜋 = = 500 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋
1
c. From the formula 𝑇 = 𝑓, we obtain
1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 500 = 2 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐

d.

y(t)

0.5 1 1.5 2

Example 2. What is the period of the sine wave 𝑦(𝑡) = sin(2𝜋 𝑥 106 )𝑡 ?
Solution:
We can observe that the angular velocity is 𝜔 = 2𝜋 × 106 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Then we can solve for frequency to be,

𝜔 2𝜋×106
𝑓 = 2𝜋 = = 1𝑀 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋

Finally, we can obtain for the period

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 1𝑀 𝐻𝑧 = 1 𝜇 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Example 3. Find the angular frequency of the AC current shown:

i(t)

T(𝜇𝑠)
50 150 200
100

Solution:
We can inspect that the graph has a period of 𝑇 = 200 𝜇𝑠
Then we can solve for the frequency
1 1
𝑓 = 𝑡 = 200 𝜇𝑠 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Hence, solving for angular frequency

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 (5𝑘 𝐻𝑧) = 10000𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example 4. If the angular frequency of a sine wave is 1.2 × 105 rad/sec, at what point in
time does the first cycle reach its maximum positive value?
Solution:
Given:
𝜔 = 1.2 × 105 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
First, we solve for the frequency from the formula 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 1.2 ×105
𝑓 = 2𝜋 = = 19098.59 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋

Then we can now for the period to be

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 19098.59 𝐻𝑧 = 13.09 𝜇𝑠

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1.5 A.C. VALUES

PEAK AND PEAK-TO-PEAK VALUE

PEAK VALUE (𝑽𝑷 )
 The maximum value reached by an AC waveform.
 Also called as amplitude, maximum value, or crest value.

Retrieved from Ref [1]. Maximum or peak value.

PEAK-TO-PEAK (𝑽𝑷−𝑷 )
 The difference between the (+) Peak and the (-) peak

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Retrieved from Ref [1]. Peak and peak-to-peak value.

INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
Instantaneous value of an AC waveform is its value at a specific instant of time or one
particular instant. It may have a zero value when a particular instant is the time in the cycle
at which the polarity of the voltage is changing or peak value when a selected instant is the
time in the cycle at which the voltage or current stops and starts decreasing. There are
infinite number of instantaneous values between zero and peak value.

Ex. The instantaneous value of 𝑖(𝑡) = 3 sin 100𝑡 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 at 𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑠 is,

𝑖(𝑡) = 3 sin(100 × 2 × 10−3 ) = 0.596 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠.

Example 1. Find the instantaneous value of 𝑣(𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) volts at the following:
a. 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐
b. 25 𝜇𝑠
c. 65 𝜇𝑠
Solution:
a. Given:
𝑡 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Substituting the time to the equation, we obtain
𝑣(𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 (0)) = 0 𝑉
b. Given
𝑡 = 25 𝜇𝑠

Substituting the time to the equation, we obtain

𝑣(𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 (25 × 10−6 )) = 5 𝑉

c. Given
𝑡 = 65 𝜇𝑠

Substituting the time to the equation, we obtain

𝑣(𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 104 (65 × 10−6 )) = −4.045 𝑉

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Example 2. Find the value of 𝑡 at which the instantaneous value of 𝑖(𝑡) = 0.6 sin(400𝑡) 𝑚𝐴
equals its peak value.
Solution:
Given,
Instantaneous current 𝑖(𝑡) = 0.6 sin(400𝑡) 𝑚𝐴
𝜔 = 400 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solving for the frequency,
𝜔 400
𝑓 = 2𝜋 = = 63.33 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋

Then, the period is,

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑓 = 63.33 𝐻𝑧 = 15.71 𝑚𝑠

Hence, to obtain for the peak value, we divide the period into four (see figure below)

0.6
i(t) 3.9275 11.7825

7.855 15.71
0.6

𝑇 15.71 𝑚𝑠
𝑡=4= = 3.9275 𝑚𝑠
4

Example 3. Write the mathematical expression for a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage having value of
80V. Sketch the waveform vs. 𝑡.
Solution:
Given,
𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
𝑉𝑃 = 80 𝑉
First we solve for 𝜔,
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋(50) = 100𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Thus, we can write the expression to

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𝑣(𝑡) = 80 sin 100𝜋𝑡 𝑉

In order to graph, we need to find for the value the period,
1
𝑇 = 50 𝐻𝑧 = 20𝑚𝑠

Sketching the graph,

80

5 5 5 5
-80

AVERAGE OR MEAN VALUE

- is the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the
average value is zero).

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

For sine wave,

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.637 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (rms)

- The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the
same heating effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective value is called the
root mean square (rms) value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is
assumed to be the rms value.
- For a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in the figure below, the rms value is given
by:

2 2
𝑖 +𝑖 +...+𝑖𝑛 2
𝐼=√1 2
𝑛

For sine wave,

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𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

The values of form and peak factors give an indication of the shape of waveforms.

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Example 1. For the periodic waveforms shown in the figure below, determine for each: (i)
frequency (ii) average value over half a cycle (iii) rms value (iv) form factor and (v) peak
factor

Solution:
(a) Triangular waveform (Figure (a))

(i) Time for 1 complete cycle = 20 ms = periodic time, T

Hence frequency f,

1 1 1000
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 20×10−3 = = 50 𝐻𝑧
20

(ii) Area under the triangular waveform (𝐴𝑇𝑊 ) for a half cycle
1 1
(𝐴𝑇𝑊 ) = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = × (10 × 10−3 ) × 200 = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
2 2

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Average value (𝐴𝑣𝑒) of waveform

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 1000
(𝐴𝑣𝑒) = = 10×10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = = 100𝑉
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10

(iii) In Figure (a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided into 4 intervals.

𝑣12 +𝑣22 +𝑣32 +𝑣42 252 +752 +1252 +1752

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = √ =√ = 114.6𝑉
4 4

(Note that the greater the number of intervals chosen, the greater the accuracy of the
result. For example, if twice the number of ordinates as that chosen above are used, the rms
value is found to be 115.6 V)

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 114.6

(iv) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = = 1.15
100

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 200

(v) 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 114.6 = 1.75
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

(b) Rectangular waveform (Figure (b))

(i) Time for 1 complete cycle = 16 ms = periodic time, T

Hence frequency,

1 1 1000
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 16×10−3 = = 62.5 𝐻𝑧
16

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

(ii) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
10×(8×10−3 )
= 8×10−3
= 10𝐴

2 2 2
𝑖 +𝑖 +...+𝑖𝑛
(iii) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = √ 1 2 𝑛 = 10𝐴
however many intervals are chosen, since the waveform is rectangular.

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𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 10
(iv) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 10 = 1

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 10
(v) 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 10 = 1
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Example 2. Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A

Solution:
For a sine wave,
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 20 = 14.14 𝐴

1.6 THE EQUATION OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM

In the figure below, OA represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an
angular velocity of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.

WAVEFORM WITH PHASE SHIFT

 Figure 1 shows a sine wave without phase shift

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NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

 Figure 2 shows a positive phase shift of 45 degrees

 A positive phase shift causes the waveform to shift left along the horizontal axis

 Figure 3 shows a negative phase shift of 45 degrees

 A negative phase shift causes the waveform to shift right along the horizontal
axis

THE LEAD-LAG RELATIONS OF SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS

A sine curve may not always start at 0°. To show this a periodic function is represented by
𝑦 = sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜑), where 𝜑 is the phase (or angle) difference compared with 𝑦 = sin 𝑤𝑡.
In Figure (a),

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NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

𝑦2 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) starts 𝜑 radians earlier than 𝑦1 = sin 𝜔𝑡 and is said to lead 𝑦1 by 𝜑

radians or we can say that 𝑦1 lags 𝑦2 by 𝜑 radians.

Figure (b) shows the time when 𝑡 = 0 of phasors 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 .

Note that when two waveforms have different phase angles, the one shifted furthest to the
left is said to lead the other.
 Figure 1 below shows current and voltage waveform in-phase.

 And Figure 2 shows voltage waveform leading the current waveform by 45 degrees.

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NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

GENERAL SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)

where:
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2𝑉𝑚 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠
2𝜋
𝑇= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜔

𝑓 = 𝜔⁄2𝜋 𝐻𝑧 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓) = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)

Example 1. An alternating voltage is given by 𝑣 = 75 sin(200𝜋𝑡 − 0.25) volts.

Find
(a) the amplitude
(b) the peak-to-peak value
(c) the rms value
(d) the periodic time
(e) the frequency
(f) the phase angle (in degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200𝜋𝑡

Solution:

Comparing 𝑣 = 75 sin(200𝜋𝑡 − 0.25) with the general expression 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)

gives:
(a) Amplitude, or peak value = 75 V

(b) Peak-to-peak value = 2 × 75 = 150𝑉

(c) The rms value = 0.707 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 75 = 53𝑉

(d) Angular velocity, ω D 200= rad/s

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NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
Hence periodic time, 𝑇 = = 200𝜋 = 100 = 0.01 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 10𝑚𝑠
𝜔

1 1
(e) Frequency, 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 0.01 = 100 𝐻𝑧

(f) Phase angle, 𝜑 = 0.25 radians lagging 75 sin 200𝜋𝑡

180𝑜
0.25 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = (0.25 × ) = 14.32𝑜
𝜋
Hence phase angle = 14.32𝑜 lagging

21
NOTES: CIRCUITS 2

Reference:
[1] Jackson, Ray. “Module 2: Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers.” United
States – Navy. September 1998.
[2] T. F. Bogart Jr, Electric Circuit 2nd Edition, 1988
[3] J. Bird. Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (Revised 2nd Edition). 2003

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