Principles of Communication Workbook p1

Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Carig, Tuguegarao City
Module 1
Principles of Communication
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Electronic Communication
• Textbook & Referencel

• Text Book-Wayne Tomasi (2004), Electronic Communication Systems,
5th Ed., Prentice Hall
• Reference Book- Roy Blake (2002), Electronic Communication
Systems, 2nd Ed., Delmar.
• Reference Book- Louis Frenzel (2014), Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems, 4th Ed,. McGraw Hill
Objective
The primary objective of this course appreciate basic Principles of
communication and its fundamental requirement
Learning Outcomes
After this course, the students are expected
• Describe the essential elements of communication systems,

• Explain the need for modulation in comm. systems
• Distinguish between baseband, carrier and modulated signal,
• Describe several types of noise and calculate noise power and voltage
for thermal noise,
• Calculate SNR, noise figure, and noise temperature for single and
cascaded stages
Topics for Chapter 1

• 1. Introduction and over view
• 2 Power Measurements(dB, dBm and Bel)
1| Prepared by: Engr. Pinky C. Tumaliuan
Faculty, EC Dept. College Engineering, CSU -Carig Campus
• 3. Electronic Communication system

• 4. Modulation and Demodulation
• 5. electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
• 6. Bandwidth and Information Capacity
• 7. Noise Analysis
Topic 1, Introduction and Over view

The word communication arises from the Latin word “commūnicāre”, which means “to
share”. Communication is the basic step for the exchange of information.
For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry that she needs her mother.
A cow moos loudly when it is in danger. A person communicates with the help of a
language. Communication is the bridge to share.
Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information through
means such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more individuals.
Need for Communication

For any living being, while co-existing, there occurs the necessity of exchange of some
information. Whenever a need for exchange of information arises, some means of
communication should exist. While the means of communication, can be anything such
as gestures, signs, symbols, or a language, the need for communication is inevitable.
Language and gestures play an important role in human communication, while sounds
and actions are important for animal communication. However, when some message
has to be conveyed, a communication has to be established.
Parts of Communication System

Any system which provides communication, consists of the three important and basic
parts as shown in the following figure.

 The Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting

station from where the signal is transmitted.
 The Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach
the destination.
 The Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving
station where the signal transmitted is received.
What is a Signal?
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can
be termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which transmits
some information. This signal helps to establish communication between a sender
and a receiver.
An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to convey a
message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.
Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types: Analog
and Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown in the following
figure.

Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity can be
termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with respect to time,
according to the instantaneous values of the quantity, which represents it.
Example
Let us consider, a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 am to 7 am).
The portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which means, after 15 mins
(6:15 am) the quarter portion of the tank gets filled, whereas at 6:45 am, 3/4th of the
tank is filled.
If you try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank, according to the varying time,
it would look like the following figure.

As the resultant shown in this image varies (increases) according to time, this time
varying quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal which represents
this condition with an inclined line in the figure, is an Analog Signal. The
communication based on analog signals and analog values is called as Analog
Communication.
Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be termed
as a Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are
not based on the previous values, as if they are derived at that particular instant of
time.
Example
Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is

plotted, it would look like the following figure.

In this figure, the values are separately stated. For instance, the attendance of the
class on Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be
considered individually and separately or discretely, hence they are called as discrete
values.
The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values.
Hence, the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals. The
communication based on digital signals and digital values is called as Digital
Communication.
Periodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is called as
a Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and is easy to be
assumed or to be calculated.
Example
If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one after the
other is a continuous and repeat procedure. For example, procuring and grading the
raw material, processing the material in batches, packing a load of products one after
the other etc., follow a certain procedure repeatedly.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented

as follows.
Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of time, is
called as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the pattern is not
repeated and is not so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.
Example
The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of many types of works which take
different time intervals for different works. The time interval or the work doesn’t
continuously repeat. For example, a person will not continuously brush his teeth from
morning to night, that too with the same time period.
Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented
as follows.

In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are analog in nature,
which are transmitted in analog or converted to digital and then transmitted, depending
upon the requirement.
But for a signal to get transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any external
interferences or noise addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a
process called as Modulation, which is discussed in the next chapter.

A signal can be anything like a sound wave which comes out when you shout. This
shout can be heard only up to a certain distance. But for the same wave to travel over
a long distance, you’ll need a technique which adds strength to this signal, without
disturbing the parameters of the original signal.
What is Signal Modulation?

A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish
a reliable communication, it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which
should not affect the original characteristics of the message signal.
The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also
alters. Hence it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal
can travel up to a longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances.
We take the help of such high frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to
transmit our message signal. Such a process is simply called as Modulation.
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Need for Modulation
The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to
travel longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high
frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not
introduced. The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a
distance without getting distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the
communication systems.
 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.
 Communication range increases.

 Multiplexing of signals occur.

 Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
 Reception quality improves.
Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.
Message or Modulating Signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message

signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get
transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude but
contains no information, is called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used
to carry the signal to the receiver after modulation.
Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as the modulated
signal. This signal is a combination of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Types of Modulation
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques
used, they are classified as shown in the following figure.
10 | Prepared by: Engr. Pinky C. Tumaliuan

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and
pulse modulation.
Continuous-wave Modulation
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier

wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle
Modulation.
The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase
modulation.
o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.

o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Phase Modulation.
Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier

wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal,
then such a technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse
Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the
resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed
as Delta Modulation (DM), which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence,
PCM is a technique where the analog signals are converted into a digital form.
n any communication system, during the transmission of the signal, or while receiving
the signal, some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it
unpleasant for the receiver, questioning the quality of the communication. Such a
disturbance is called as Noise.
What is Noise?
Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and
corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication

process, leads to the message getting altered. It is most likely to be entered at the
channel or the receiver.
The noise signal can be understood by taking a look at the following example.
Hence, it is understood that noise is some signal which has no pattern and no constant
frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures are usually
taken to reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
Most common examples of noise are −
 Hiss sound in radio receivers
 Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
 Flicker in television receivers, etc.
Effects of Noise
Noise is an inconvenient feature which affects the system performance. Following are
the effects of noise.
Noise limits the operating range of the systems
Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise. A

system’s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest
signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers
Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified
quality output. Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually
affects the output.
Types of Noise
The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it
shows or the relation it has with the receiver, etc.
There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is through some external
source while the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver section.
External Source
This noise is produced by the external sources which may occur in the medium or
channel of communication, usually. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The
best way is to avoid the noise from affecting the signal.
Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are −

 Atmospheric noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere).
 Extra-terrestrial noise, such as solar noise and cosmic noise.
 Industrial noise.
Internal Source
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The components
in the circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of noise. This
noise is quantifiable. A proper receiver design may lower the effect of this internal
noise.
Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are −

 Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise).

 Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes).
 Transit-time noise (during transition).
 Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise which includes flicker, resistance
effect and mixer generated noise, etc.
Signal to Noise Ratio

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
The higher the value of SNR, the greater will be the quality of the received output.
Discussion
What Is Communication?
• The word communication arises from the Latin word “commūnicāre”,
which means “to share”. Communication is the basic step for the
exchange of information.
• For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry that she needs
her mother. A cow moos loudly when it is in danger. A person
• communicates with the help of a language. Communication is the bridge
to share.
• Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of
information through means such as words, actions, signs, etc., between
two or more individuals.
• “The systems and processes that are used to convey information from a
source to a destination efficiently and reliably, especially by means of
electricity or radio waves.”
• is the process of exchanging information. People communicate to convey
their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others. The process of
communication is inherent to all human life and includes verbal,
nonverbal (body language), print, and electronic processes
Need for Communication

• Any living being, while co-existing, there occurs the necessity of exchange
of some information. Whenever a need for exchange of information
arises, some means of communication should exist. While the means of
communication, can be anything such as gestures, signs, symbols, or a
language, the need for communication is inevitable.
• Language and gestures play an important role in human communication,
while sounds and actions are important for animal communication.
However, when some message has to be conveyed, a communication
has to be established.
Two of the main barriers to human communication are language and

distance
• Language barriers arise between persons of different cultures or

nationalities. Communicating over long distances is another problem.
Communication between early human beings was limited to face-to-face
encounters. Long-distance communication was first accomplished by
sending simple signals such as drumbeats, horn blasts, and smoke signals
and later by waving signal flags (semaphores). When messages were
relayed from one location to another, even greater distances could be
covered.
• The distance over which communication could be sent was extended by
the written word. For many years, long-distance communication was
limited to the sending of verbal or written messages by human runner,
horseback, ship, and later trains
• Human communication took a dramatic leap forward in the late

nineteenth century when electricity was discovered and its many
applications were explored. The telegraph was invented in 1844 and the
telephone in 1876. Radio was discovered in 1887 and demonstrated in
1895.
Electronic Communications Time Line
(listing important milestones in the history of electronic communication)

1830: American Scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first
practical electrical signal.
1837: Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the telegraph.
1843: Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
1861: Johann Phillip Reis completed the first nonworking telephone.
1864: James Clerk Maxwell released his paper “Dynamic Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field”, which concluded that light electricity,and
magnetism were related.
1865: Dr. Mahlon Loomis became the first person to communicate wireless
through the Earth’s atmosphere.
1866: First transatlantic telegraph cable was installed.
1876: Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson Invented the telephone.
1877: Thomas Alva Edison invents the phonograph.
1880: Heinrich Hertz discovers electromagnetic waves.
1887: Heinrich Hertz discovers radio waves.
Marchese Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates wireless radio wave propagation.
Heinrich Hertz detects and produces radio waves. Heinrich Hertz
conclusively proved Maxwell’s prediction that electricity can
travel in waves through the Earth’s atmosphere.
1894: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi builds his first radio equipment,
a device that rings a bell from 30 ft. away.
1895: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground wave
propagation.
1898: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link
between England and France.
1900: American Scientist Reginald A. Fessenden the world’s first
radio broadcast using continous waves.
1901: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi transmits telegraphic radio
messages from Cornwall, to Newfoundland.
Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the World’s first radio broadcast
using continuous waves. First successful transatlantic
transmission of radio signal.
1903: Valdemar Poulsen patents an arc transmission that generates
continuous wave transmission 100-kHz signal that is receivable
150 miles away.
1904: First radio transmission of music at Graz, Austria.
1905: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi invents the directional radio
antenna.
1906: Reginald A. Fessenden invents amplitude modulation (AM).
First radio program of voice and music broadcasted in the
United States by Reginald Fessenden.

Lee DeFrorest invents triode (three-electrode) vacuum tube.
1907: Reginald Fessenden invents a high- frequency Electric generator that
produces radio waves with a frequency of 100 kHz.
1908: General Electric develops a 100-kHz, 2-kW alternator for radio
communications.
1910: The Radio Act of 1910 is the first concurrence of government regulation of
radio technology and services.
1912: The Radio Act of 1912 in the United States brought order to the radio
bands by requiring station and operators licenses and assigning
blocks of the frequency spectrum to the existing users.
1913: The cascade-tuning radio receiver and the heterodyne receiver are
introduced.
1914: Major Edwin Armstrong develops the superheterodyne radio receiver.
1915: Vacuum-tube radio transmitters introduced.
1919: Shortwave radio is developed.
1920: Radio Station KDKA broadcasts the first regular licensed radio transmission
out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1921: Radio Corporation of America (RCA) begins operating Radio Central on
Long Island. The American Radio League establishes contact
via shortwave radio with Paul Godley in Scotland, proving that shortwave
radio can be used for long distance communication
1923: Vladimir Zworykin invents and demonstrates television.
1927: A temporary five- member Federal Radio Commission agency was
created in the United States.
1928: Radio station WRNY in New York City begins broadcasting television shows.
1931: Major Edwin Armstrong patents wide- band frequency modulation (FM).
1934: Federal Communications Commission (FCC) created to regulate
telephone, radio, and television broadcasting.
1935: Commercial FM radio broadcasting begins with monophonic transmission.
1937: Alec H. Reeves invents binary coded pulse-code modulation. (PCM)
1939: National Broadcasting Company (NBC) demonstrates television
broadcasting. First use of two-way radio communications
using walkie-talkies.
1941: Columbia University Radio Club opens the first regularly scheduled FM
radio station.
1945: Television is born. FM moved from its original home of 42 MHz to 50 MHz to
88 MHz to 108 MHz to make room.

1946: The American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) inaugurated

the first mobile telephone system for the public called MTS
(Mobile Telephone System).
1948: John Von Neumann created the first store program electronic digital
computer. Bell Telephone Laboratories unveiled the transistor, a joint
venture of scientist William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain.
1951: First transcontinental microwave system began operation.
1952: Sony Corporation offers a miniature transistor radio, one of the first mass
produced consumer AM/FM radios.
1953: RCA and MBC broadcast first color television transmission.
1954: The number of radio stations in the world exceeds the number of
newspapers printed daily.
1954: Texas Instruments becomes the first company to commercially produce
silicon transistors.
1956: First transatlantic telephone cable systems began carrying calls.
1957: Russia launches the world’s first satellite. (Sputnik)
1958: Kilby and Noyce develop first integrated circuits.
NASA launched the United States first satellite.
1961: FCC approves FM stereo broadcasting, which spurs the development of
FM. Citizens band (CB) radio first used.
1962: U.S. radio stations begin broadcasting stereophonic sound.
1963: T1 (transmission 1) digital carrier systems introduced.
1965: First commercial communications satellite launched.
1970: High-definition television (HDTV) introduced in Japan.
1977: First commercial use of optical fiber cables.
1983: Cellular telephone networks introduced in the United States.
1999: HDTV standards implemented in the United States.

1999: Digital Television (DTV) transmission began in the United States.
Enrichment Activities
Its fundamental purpose is to transfer Electronic Communication System
information from one place to another.
The transmission, reception, and processing
of information between two or more Electronic Communication
locations using electronic circuits
Are time-varying voltages or currents that are analog signals
continuously changing such as sine and cosine
waves
Is sometimes referred to as a power loss. Attenuation

Is sometimes referred to as a ____________ , If Unity Power Gain

Pout = Pin, the absolute power gain is 1, and the
dB power gain is 0 dB.
Are voltages or currents that change in digital signals
discrete steps or levels.
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Telephone

Watson were the first to successfully transfer
human conversation over a crude metallic-
wire communications systems using this device.
The first commercial radio broadcasting station KDKA
in 1920 that broadcasted amplitude
modulated signals in Pittsburgh.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. The three major fields of electronics are computers, communications, and
control. The computer
segment is the largest; communications is the second largest.
2. Communication is the process of exchanging information.
3. Most human communication is oral, but a great deal of it is also in written or
printed form.
4. The two main barriers to communication are language and distance.
5. Major electrical discoveries in the mid- and late nineteenth century made
possible the development of
electronic communications over long distances.
6. The telegraph (1844) and telephone (1876) were the first two long-distance
communications systems.
7. Radio was discovered in 1887, and wireless telegraphy was demonstrated in
1895.
8. Electronic communications plays a vital role in all our lives and is essential to
the success of our
information society.
9. The major elements of a communications system are a transmitter to send a
message, a
communications medium, a receiver to pick up the message, and noise.
10. The three primary communications media are wires, free space, and fiber-
optic cable.

11. Radio waves are signals made up of electric and magnetic fields that
propagate over long distances.
12. Noise is any interference that disturbs the legible transmission of a signal.
Noise is produced by the
atmosphere, heavenly bodies, manufactured electrical equipment, and
thermal agitation in electronic
components.
13. The transmission medium greatly attenuates and degrades the transmitted
signal.
II
Fill in the blanks
The three major fields of electronics are _____. The largest is the _____field.
2. Communication is defined as the process of _____.
3. Most human communication is _____ even though there is a glut of _____
communication.
4. Two major barriers to human communication are _____.
5. Electronic communications came into being in the _____.
6. The three main elements of any communications system are _____.
_____.
7. The communications media greatly _____ and the information _____ signal.
Topic 2 Power Measurements(dB, dBm and Bel)

Discussion
DeciBel dB: Formulas Equations & Calculations
The deciBel, dB is a logarithmic scale used for comparing two physical quantities
especially in electronics. There are several easy to remember formulas that
enable the values to be calculated

The deciBel, dB utilises a logarithmic scale based to compare two quantities. It is

a convenient way of comparing two physical quantities like electrical power,
intensity, or even current, or voltage.
The deciBel uses the base ten logarithms, i.e. those commonly used within
mathematics. By using a logarithmic scale, the deciBel is able to compare
quantities that may have vast ratios between them.
The deciBel, dB or deci-Bel is actually a tenth of a Bel - a unit that is seldom used.
The abbreviation for a deciBel is dB - the capital "B" is used to denote the Bel as the fundamental
unit. dB
DeciBel applications
The deciBel, dB is widely used in many applications. It is used within a wide variety of
measurements in the engineering and scientific areas, particularly within
electronics, acoustics and also within control theory.
Typically the deciBel, dB is used for defining amplifier gains, component losses
(e.g. attenuators, feeders, mixers, etc), as well as a host of other measurements
such as noise figure, signal to noise ratio, and many others.
In view of its logarithmic scale the deciBel is able to conveniently represent very
large ratios in terms of manageable numbers as well as providing the ability to
carry out multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtraction.
The deciBel is widely used for measuring sound intensity or sound pressure level.
For this the sound is referred to a pressure of 0.0002 microbars which equates to
the standard for the threshold of hearing.
How the deciBel arrived
Since the beginning of telecommunications there has been the need to

measure the levels of relative signal strengths so that loss and gain can be seen.
Original telecommunications systems used the loss that occurred in a mile of

standard cable at a frequency of 800Hz.
However this was not a particularly satisfactory method of determining loss

levels, or relative signal strengths and as radio and other electronics based
applications started to need to use some form of standard unit for comparison,
the Bel was introduced in the 1920s. This gained its name from the Scot,
Alexander Graham Bell who was originally credited with the invention of the
telephone.
With this system, one Bel equalled a tenfold increase in signal level. Once it was
introduced the Bel was found to be too large for most suers and so the deciBel
was used instead. This is now the standard that has been adopted universally.
DeciBel formula for power comparisons
The most basic form for deciBel calculations is a comparison of power levels. As
might be expected it is ten times the logarithm of the output divided by the
input. The factor ten is used because deciBels rather than Bels are used.
The deciBel formula or equation for power is given below:
Example
a. 10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB
b. 10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB.
c. 10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 1,000,000 = 60 dB.

DeciBel formulas for voltage & current
Although the deciBel is used primarily as comparison of power levels, deciBel

current equations or deciBel voltage equations may also be used provided that
the impedance levels are the same. In this way the voltage or current ratio can
be related to the power level ratio.
When using voltage measurements it is easy to make the transformation of the

deciBel formula because power = voltage squared upon the resistance:

Decibel values for ratios not in this table can often be calculated by using
the property (a  b) in dB = (a) in dB + (b) in dB. Here are some examples:
• dB value of 25 = dB value of (5 x 5) = dB value of 5 + dB value of 5 = 7 + 7 = 14

dB
• dB value of 40 = dB value of (20 x 2) = dB value of 20 + dB value of 2 = 13 + 3 =
16 dB
• dB value of 0.2 = dB value of (0.1 x 2) = dB value of 0.1 + dB value of 2 = -10 +
3 = - 7 dB
• dB value of 0.005 = dB value of (0.01 x 0.5) = dB value of 0.01 + dB value of 0.5
= - 20 + (-3) = -23 dB





Is a logarithmic unit that can be used to
measure ratio
Is a unit of measurement used to
indicate the ratio of a power level with
respect to a fixed reference level
(1mW).
One-tenth of a decibel. Bel
Convert a power level of 200 mW to
dBm
Convert Convert a power level of
30dBm to absolute power
Topic 3. Electronic Communication system

Discussion
Parts of Communication System
Any system which provides communication, consists of the three important and
basic parts as shown in the following figure.
 The Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting

station from where the signal is transmitted.
 The Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to
reach the destination.
 The Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a
receiving station where the signal transmitted is received.

Basic Communication Systems
Transmitter
• The first step in sending a message is to convert it into electronic form

suitable for transmission. For voice messages, a microphone is used to
translate the sound into an electronic audio signal. For TV, a camera
converts the light information in the scene to a video signal. In computer
systems, the message is typed on a keyboard and converted to binary
codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially. Transducers
convert physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity, and
so on) into electrical signals.
• The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic components and circuits

designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication medium. Transmitters are made
up of oscillators, amplifi ers, tuned circuits and fi lters, modulators,
frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits. The original
intelligence signal usually modulates a higher-frequency carrier sine wave
generated by the transmitter, and the combination is raised in amplitude
by power amplifi ers, resulting in a signal that is compatible with the
selected transmission medium.
Communication Channel
The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal

is sent from one place to another. Many different types of media are used in
communication systems, including wire conductors, fi ber-optic cable, and free
space
Electrical Conductors. In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a

pair of wires that carry a voice signal from a microphone to a headset. It may
be a coaxial cable such as that used to carry cable TV signals. Or it may be a
twisted-pair cable used in a local-area network (LAN).
Optical Media. The communication medium may also be a fiber-optic

cable or “light pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These are widely
used today to carry long-distance calls and all Internet communications. The
information is converted to digital form that can be used to turn a laser diode
off and on at high speeds. Alternatively, audio or video analog signals can be
used to vary the amplitude of the light.
Free Space. When free space is the medium, the resulting system is
known as radio. Also known as wireless, radio is the broad general term applied
to any form of wireless communication from one point to another. Radio makes
use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Intelligence signals are converted to
electric and magnetic fields that propagate nearly instantaneously through
space over long distances. Communication by visible or infrared light also
occurs in free space.
Receivers
A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that

accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back to a
form understandable by humans. Receivers contain amplifi ers, oscillators,
mixers, tuned circuits and fi lters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers
the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier. The output is the
original signal, which is then read out or displayed. It may be a voice signal sent

to a speaker, a video signal that is fed to an LCD screen for display, or binary
data that is received by a computer and then printed out or displayed on a
video monitor
Transceivers
Most electronic communication is two-way, and so both parties must

have both a transmitter and a receiver. As a result, most communication
equipment incorporates circuits that both send and receive. These units are
commonly referred to as transceivers. All the transmitter and receiver circuits are
packaged within a single housing and usually share some common circuits such
as the power supply. Telephones, handheld radios, cellular telephones, and
computer modems are examples of transceivers.
Attenuation
Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable no matter what the

medium of transmission. Attenuation is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver. Media are also frequency-
selective, in that a given medium will act as a low-pass fi lter to a transmitted
signal, distorting digital pulses in addition to greatly reducing signal amplitude
over long distances. Thus considerable signal amplifi cation, in both the
transmitter and the receiver, is required for successful transmission. Any medium
also slows signal propagation to a speed slower than the speed of light.
Noise
Noise is mentioned here because it is the bane of all electronic

communications. Its effect is experienced in the receiver part of any
communications system. For that reason, we cover noise at that more
appropriate time in Chapter 9. While some noise can be fi ltered out, the
general way to minimize noise is to use components that contribute less noise
and to lower their temperatures. The measure of noise is usually expressed in
terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by
the noise power and can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels (dB).
Obviously, a very high SNR is preferred for best performance.

Elements of a Wireless Communication System

• The most basic possible wireless system consists of a transmitter, a receiver,
and a channel, usually a radio link, as shown in Figure 1.1.
• Since radio cannot be used directly with low frequencies such as those in
a human voice, it is necessary to superimpose the information content
onto a higher frequency carrier signal at the transmitter, using a process
called modulation. The use of modulation also allows more than one
information signal to use
What is a Signal?
• Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds,

actions, etc., can be termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be
a source of energy which transmits some information. This signal helps to
establish communication between a sender and a receiver.
• An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a

distance to convey a message, can be termed as a signal in

Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types:
Analog and Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown in
the following figure
Analog Signal
Analog Signal
• continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity

can be termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with
respect to time, according to the instantaneous values of the quantity,
which represents it.
• An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or

current. Some typical analog signals are shown in Fig. 1-5. A sine wave is a
single-frequency analog signal. Voice and video voltages are analog
signals that vary in accordance with the sound or light variations that are
analogous to the information being transmitted.

Example
Let us consider, a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 am to 7
am). The portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which means,
after 15 mins (6:15 am) the quarter portion of the tank gets filled, whereas at
6:45 am, 3/4th of the tank is filled.
If you try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank, according to the
varying time, it would look like the following figure.
As the resultant shown in this image varies (increases) according to time,

this time varying quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal
which represents this condition with an inclined line in the figure, is an Analog
Signal. The communication based on analog signals and analog values is called
as Analog
Digital Signals
Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary continuously, but

change in steps or in discrete increments. Most digital signals use binary or two-
state codes. Some examples are shown in Fig. 1-6. The earliest forms of both wire
and radio communication used a type of on/off digital code. The telegraph
used Morse code, with its system of short and long signals (dots and dashes) to
designate letters and numbers. See Fig. 1-6(a). In radio telegraphy, also known
as continuous-wave (CW) transmission, a sine wave signal is turned off and on
for short or long durations to represent the dots and dashes. Refer to Fig. 1-6(b).
Example
Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is

plotted, it would look like the following figure.

In this figure, the values are separately stated. For instance, the attendance of
the class on Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be
considered individually and separately or discretely, hence they are called
as discrete values.
The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values.
Hence, the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals.
The communication based on digital signals and digital values is called
as Digital Communication.
Types of Electronic Communication
Simplex
Duplex
Full duplex
Simplex
• The simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted is one-

way communications, normally referred to as simplex communication.
Examples are shown in Fig. 1-3. The most common forms of simplex
communication are radio and TV broadcasting. Another example of one-

way communication is transmission to a remotely controlled vehicle like a

toy car or an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV or drone).
Half Duplex
• The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at

a time is known as half duplex communication [see Fig. 1-4(b)]. The
communication is two-way, but the direction alternates: the
communicating parties take turns transmitting and receiving. Most radio
transmissions, such as those used in the military, fi re, police, aircraft,
marine, and other services, are half duplex communication. Citizens band
(CB), Family Radio, and amateur radio communication are also half
duplex

Full Duplex
The bulk of electronic communication is two-way, or duplex communication.

Typical duplex applications are shown in Fig. 1-4. For example, people
communicating with one another over the telephone can talk and listen
simultaneously, as Fig. 1-4(a) illustrates. This is called full duplex communication

A collection of one or more electronic devices or Transmitter
circuits that converts the original source information
to a form more suitable for transmission over a
particular transmission medium.
Provides a means of transporting signals between a Transmission Medium
transmitter and a receiver
A collection of electronic devices and circuits that Receiver
accepts the transmitted signals fro the transmission
medium and then converts those signals back to
their original form.
Is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with System Noise
the information signal.
Because it is often impractical to propagate Carrier

information signals over standard transmission
media,
it is often necessary to modulate the source
information onto a higher-frequency analog signal
called a ______.
The process of changing one or more properties of Modulation
the analog carrier in proportion with the

information signal
True or false
1. Electronic communications may be either one-way or two-way. One-way

transmission is called simplexor broadcasting.
2. Two-way communication is called duplex. In half-duplex communications,
only one of the two partiescan transmit at a time.
3. In full duplex, both parties may transmit and receive
simultaneouslyInformation signals may be either analog or digital.
4. Analog signals are smooth, continuous voltagevariations such as voice or
video.
5. Digital signals are binary pulses or codes.
6. The information signal, called the base band signal, is often transmitted
directly over thecommunications medium.
7. In most communications systems, the base band signal is used to
modulate a higher-frequency carriersignal than is transmitted by radio.
II fill in the blanks
1.The three main elements of any communications system are _____.

2. The three major types of communications paths are_____.
3. The _____ converts the message into a form compatible with the selected
medium.
4. The _____ converts the message from the medium into a form understandable
by a human.
5. Undesirable interference in communications _____ is which is added to the
signal in the _____.
6. The communications media greatly _____ and the information _____ signal.
7. Three common sources of interference are _____.
8. One-way communications is called_____. An example is _____.
9. Simultaneous two-way communications is called _____. An example is _____.
10. Two-way communications where each parry takes turns transmitting is
referred to as_____.
11. Voice and video signals are continuous _____ voltages.

12. On/off or coded signals are referred to _____ as signals.
13 Voice and video signals may be transmitted digitally if they are first passed
through a(n) _____.
14. An original voice, video, or data voltage is called the _____ signal.
Topic 4.Modulation and Demodulation
Discussion
What is Signal Modulation?
A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to
establish a reliable communication, it needs to take the help of a high
frequency signal which should not affect the original characteristics of the
message signal.
The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained
in it also alters. Hence it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high
frequency signal can travel up to a longer distance, without getting affected
by external disturbances. We take the help of such high frequency signal which
is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal. Such a process is
simply called as Modulation.
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Need for Modulation
The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal,
to travel longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a
high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the
modulating signal.
Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not
introduced. The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot
travel to a distance without getting distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the
 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.
 Communication range increases.
 Multiplexing of signals occur.
 Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
 Reception quality improves.
Signals in the Modulation Process
Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.
Message or Modulating Signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message

signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation,
to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and
amplitude but contains no information, is called a carrier signal. It is an empty
signal. It is just used to carry the signal to the receiver after modulation.
Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as the modulated
signal. This signal is a combination of the modulating signal and the carrier
signal.
Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation

techniques used, they are classified as shown in the following figure.
The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave

modulation and pulse modulation.
Continuous-wave Modulation
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a

carrier wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal,
then such a technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Angle Modulation.
The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase
modulation.

o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with

the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Frequency Modulation.
o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Phase Modulation.
Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier

wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal,
then such a technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse
Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the
resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed
as Delta Modulation (DM), which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence,
PCM is a technique where the analog signals are converted into a digital form n any
communication system, during the transmission of the signal, or while receiving the
signal, some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it
unpleasant for the receiver, questioning the quality of the communication. Such a
disturbance is called as Noise.
Modulation and multiplexing
Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting

information effi - ciently from one place to another. Modulation makes the
information signal more compatible with the medium, and multiplexing allows
more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over a single medium.
Modulation and multiplexing techniques are basic to electronic
communication. Once you have mastered the fundamentals of these
techniques, you will easily understand how most modern communication
systems work.
Baseband Transmission
Before it can be transmitted, the information or intelligence must be converted

to an electronic signal compatible with the medium. For example, a
microphone changes voice signals (sound waves) into an analog voltage of
varying frequency and amplitude. This signal is then passed over wires to a
speaker or headphones. This is the way the telephone system works
. A video camera generates an analog signal that represents the light variations
along one scan line of the picture. This analog signal is usually transmitted over a
coaxial cable. Binary data is generated by a keyboard attached to a
computer. The computer stores the data and processes it in some way. The
data is then transmitted on cables to peripherals such as a printer or to other
computers over a LAN. Regardless of whether the original information or
intelligence signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as baseband
signals.
In a communication system, baseband information signals can be sent directly

and unmodifi ed over the medium or can be used to modulate a carrier for
transmission over the medium. Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals
directly into the medium is referred to as baseband transmission. For example, in
many telephone and intercom systems, it is the voice itself that is placed on the
wires and transmitted over some distance to the receiver. In most computer
networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial or twisted-pair cables
for transmission to another computer.
In many instances, baseband signals are incompatible with the medium.

Although it is theoretically possible to transmit voice signals directly by radio,
realistically it is impractical. As a result, the baseband information signal, be it
audio, video, or data, is normally used to modulate a high-frequency signal
called a carrier. The higher- frequency carriers radiate into space more
efficiently than the baseband signals themselves. Such wireless signals consist of
both electric and magnetic fields. These electromagnetic signals, which are
able to travel through space for long distances, are also referred to as radio-
frequency (RF) waves, or just radio waves
Broadband Transmission

Modulation is the process of having a baseband voice, video, or

digital signal modify another, higher-frequency signal, the carrier.
The process is illustrated in Fig. 1-7. The information or intelligence to
be sent is said to be impressed upon the carrier. The carrier is usually
a sine wave generated by an oscillator. The carrier is fed to a circuit
called a modulator along with the baseband intelligence signal. The
intelligence signal changes the carrier in a unique way. The
modulated carrier is amplifi ed and sent to the antenna for
transmission. This process is called broadband transmission. Consider
the common mathematical expression for a sine wave:

A system in which energy is transmitted and Analog Communication

received in analog form (a continuously varying System
signals such as a sine wave).
true digital system where digital pulses (discrete Digital Transmission
levels such as +5V and ground) are transferred
between two or more points in a communications
system.
A modulation technique where the information Amplitude Modulation
signal is analog and the amplitude (V) of the carrier ( AM )
is varied proportional to the information signal.
A modulation technique where the information Frequency Modulation
signal is analog and the frequency (f) of the carrier ( FM )
A modulation technique where the information Amplitude Shift Keying
signal is digital and that amplitude (V) of the carrier ( ASK )

A modulation technique where the information Frequency Shift Keying
signal is digital and the frequency (f) of the carrier is ( FSK )
varied proportional to the information signal.
A modulation technique where the information Phase Shift Keying
is ( PSK )
varied proportional to the information signal.
A modulation technique where both the amplitude Quadrature Amplitude
and the phase of the carrier are varied Modulation
proportional to the information signal. ( QAM )
Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit Modulator
called ________.
The reverse process of modulation and converts Demodulation
the modulated carrier back to the original
information
Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a Demodulator
circuit called _______.
1.The information signal, called the base band signal, is often transmitted
directly over the communications medium.
2. In most communications systems, the base band signal is used to modulate a
higher-frequency carriersignal than is transmitted by radio.
3. Modulation is the process of having an information signal modifies a carrier
signal in some way.
Common examples are AM and FM.1
4. The base band signal cannot usually be transmitted through space by radio
because the antennasrequired are too long and because multiple base band
signals transmitting simultaneously would
interfere with one another.
5. Multiplexing is the process of transmitting two or more signals simultaneously
over the same channel
or medium.
6 Besides TV, there are several other methods of transmitting visual or graphical
information; they are
facsimile, videotex, teletext.
7. Simplex transmission of special signals from land-based or satellite stations is

used by ship and airplanes for navigationRecovering the originally transmitted
signal is called_____.
8. The process of transmitting two or more baseband signals simultaneously over
a common medium is
called _____.
9. Two methods of transmitting visual data over the telephone network are_____.
10 A common household remote-control unit is the_____.
11 The signaling of individuals at remote locations is called _____.
12. Performing, recording, and analyzing measurements at a distance is done
with _____ equipment.
13. Radio astronomy is based on the fact that stars and other heavenly bodies
emit_____.
13 List four ways radio is used in the telephone system _____.
14. Radar is based on the use of _____ radio signals.
15 Underwater radar is called _____
16. The two types of sonar are _____.
17. The radio communications hobby is called _____.
18. Computers exchange digital data over the telephone network by using
devices called _____.
19. Limited interconnections of PCs and other computers in offices or buildings
are called _____.
20. Signals that travel through free space for long distances are called _____.
21. Radio waves are made up of _____ fields.
22. A signal with a frequency of 18 MHz has a wavelength of _____ m.
38. Common power line frequencies of _____ and _____ Hz are in the _____
range.
23. Audio signals are not transmitted by electromagnetic waves because
a. Antennas would be too long.
b. Audio signals do not radiate.
c. Simultaneous transmissions would interfere.
d. The frequency is too low.
(Choose all that apply.)

24. The base band signal cannot usually be transmitted through space by radio because the
antennasrequired are too long and because multiple base band signals
transmitting simultaneously wouldinterfere with one another.
25. Multiplexing is the process of transmitting two or more signals simultaneously
over the same channel
5. Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
• Extremely Low Frequencies ( ELF ) -Are signals in the 30Hz to 300Hz

range and include ac power distribution signals (60Hz) and low frequency
telemetry signals.
• Voice Frequencies ( VF ) -Are signals in the 300Hz to 3000Hz range

and include frequencies generally associated with human speech.
• Very Low Frequencies ( VLF ) -Are signals in the 3kHz to 30kHz range which
include the upper end of the human hearing range.
• Low Frequencies ( LF ) -Are signals in the 30kHz to 300kHz range and are
used primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation.
• Medium Frequencies ( MF )- Are signals in the 300kHz to 3MHz range and

are used primarily for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535kHz-
1605kHz).
• High Frequencies ( HF )-Are signals in the 3MHz to 30MHz range and are
often referred to as short waves. Used for most two-way radio
communications.
• Very High Frequencies ( VHF )-Are signals in the 30MHz to 300MHz range
and are used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications,
commercial FM broadcasting (88 to 108MHz) and commercial TV
broadcasting of Ch 2 to 13 (54MHz to 216MHz).
• Ultrahigh Frequencies ( UHF )-Are signals in the 300MHz to 3GHz range and
are used by commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83,
land mobile communications services, cellular telephones, certain radar
and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio systems.
• Super High Frequencies ( SHF) -Are signals in the 3GHz to 30GHz range and
include the majority of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite
radio communications systems.
• Extremely High Frequencies ( EHF )-Are signals in the 30GHz to 300GHz

range and are seldom used for radio communications except in very
sophisticated, expensive, and specialized applications.
• Infrared - Are signals in the 0.3THz to 300THz range and are not generally
referred to as radio waves. Used in heat seeking guidance systems,
electronic photography, and astronomy.

• Visible Light -Includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the

visible range of humans (0.3PHz to 3PHz).
• Light-wave Communications - Used for optical fiber systems
• Wavelength -The length that one cycle of an electromagnetic

wave occupies in space (i.e., the distance between similar points in a
repetitive wave).
• The electromagnetic spectrum.

• The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication.

• Thus, 1000 Hz 5 1 kHz (kilohertz). A frequency of 9,000,000 Hz is more

commonly expressed as 9 MHz (megahertz). A signal with a frequency of
15,700,000,000 Hz is written as 15.7 GHz (gigahertz). Wavelength.
Wavelength is the
• Wavelength.
• Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave, and it

is usually expressed in meters. One meter (m) is equal to 39.37 in (just over
3 ft, or 1 yd). Wavelength is measured between identical points on
succeeding cycles of a wave, as Fig. 1-15(b) shows. If the signal is an
electromagnetic wave, one wavelength is the distance that one cycle
occupies in free space. It is the distance between adjacent peaks or
valleys of the electric and magnetic fields making up the wave.
Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave
during the time of one cycle. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed
of light, or 299,792,800 m/s. The speed of light and radio waves in a
vacuum or in air is usually rounded off to 300,000,000 m/s (3 3 108 m/s), or
186,000 mi/s. The speed of transmission in media such as a cable is less
• The wavelength of a signal, which is represented by the Greek letter λ

(lambda), is computed by dividing the speed of light by the frequency f
of the wave in hertz: λ =300,000,000/f. For example, the wavelength of a
4,000,000-Hz signal is
• λ =300,000,000/4,000,000 = 75 m
• 6. Bandwidth and Information Capacity
Example

2 Reasons why modulation is necessary in electronic communications :
1. It is extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signals from an antenna in the
form of electromagnetic energy.
2. Information signals often occupy the same frequency band and, if signals
from two or more sources are transmitted at the same time, they would interfere
with each other.
A specific band of frequencies Channel

allocated a particular service.
Process of converting a frequency or Stations
band of frequencies to another
location in the total frequency
spectrum
The number of times a periodic motion, Frequency
such as a sine wave of voltage or
current, occurs in a given period of
time.
Each complete alternation of the Cycle
waveform
Is an international agency in control of International Telecommunications
allocating frequencies and services Union ( ITU )
within the overall frequency spectrum.
In the United States, assigns Federal Communications Commission (

frequencies and communications FCC )
services for free-space radio
propagation.
1.Telemetry is measurement at a distance. Sensors convert physical

characteristics to electric signals
which modulate a carrier transmitted to a remote location.

2. Radio astronomy supplements optical astronomy by permitting the location

and mapping of stars bythe radio waves they emit.
3. Radar uses the 'reflection of radio waves from remote objects for the
detection of their presence,direction, and speed,
4. Underwater radar is called active sonar. Passive sonar is simply listening
underwater for the detectionof objects of interest.
5. Two forms of personal communications services are CB radio and Amateur
"ham" radio, which are atechnical hobby as well as a communications service.6
6. Data communications is the transmission of computer and other digital data
via the telephone system,microwave links or satellite.
7. Devices called modems permit digital data to be transmitted over the analog
telephone networks.
8. Interconnections of PCs for the exchange of information are called local area
networks.
9. The electromagnetic spectrum is that range of frequencies from
approximately 30 Hz to visible lightover which electronic communications takes
place.
10. The greatest portion of the spectrum covers radio waves, which are
oscillating electric and magneticfields that radiate for long distances.
11.Wavelength ( ) is the distance (in meters) between corresponding points on
successive cycles of aperiodic wave: A= 3OO/f (f is in megahertz). It is also the
distance that an electromagnetic wave
travels in the time it takes for one cycle of oscillation.
12. The range of human hearing is approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. The voice
frequency range is 300 to 3000 Hz.
13. Amplitude-modulated broadcasting occurs in the MF range from 300 kHz to
3 MHz.
14. The high-frequency range (3 to 30 MHz), or shortwave, is used for world Wide
two way communicationsand broadcasting.
15. Television broadcasting occurs in the VHF and UHF ranges.
16. Frequencies above 1 GHz are called microwaves.
17. The SHF and EHF bands are used primarily for satellite communications and
radar.
18. Those frequencies directly above 300 GHz are called millimeter waves.
19.Electromagnetic signals produced primarily by heat sources are called
infrared. They cover the 0.7- to100 m range.
20. A micron is one millionth of a meter.
21.Visible light occupies the region above infrared. Its wavelength is 4000 to 8000
Ǻ.
45. An angstrom is one ten-thousandth of a micron.
II
1.The human hearing range is approximately _____ to _____ Hz.

2. The frequency range of the human voice is _____ to _____ Hz.
3. True or false. Radio transmissions do not occur in the VLF and LF ranges.
4. AM broadcast stations are in the _____ range.
5. HF signals are also called _____.
6. TV (channels 2 to 13) and FM broadcasting is in the _____ part of the
spectrum.
7.. List five major uses of the UHF band.
8. A frequency of 1 GHz is the same as _____ MHz.
9. Frequencies above 1 GHz are called _____.
10. The SHF and EHF ranges are primarily used by _____ communications.
11. The frequencies just beyond the EHF range are called _____ waves.
12. One micron is the same as _____ m.
13. Infrared signals are usually derived from _____ sources.
14.The spectrum range of infrared signals is _____ to _____ m.
15.One angstrom is equal to _____ m.
16.The visible light range is from _____ to _____Ǻ.
17. Light signals use two mediums in electronic communications _____.
18. The spectrum space occupied by a signal is called the _____.

Topic 6. Bandwidth and Information Capacity

Discussion
Bandwidth

Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a

signal. It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic
circuit operates. More specifi cally, bandwidth is the difference between the
upper and lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation
range. Fig. 1-16 shows the bandwidth of the voice frequency range from 300 to
3000 Hz. The upper frequency is f2 and the lower frequency is f1. The bandwidth,
then, is
BW =f2 - f1
Channel Bandwidth
When information is modulated onto a carrier somewhere in the

electromagnetic spectrum, the resulting signal occupies a small portion of the
spectrum surrounding the carrier frequency. The modulation process causes
other signals, called sidebands, to be generated at requencies above and
below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the modulating frequency.
For example, in AM broadcasting, audio signals up to 5 kHz can be transmitted.
If the carrier frequency is 1000 kHz, or 1 MHz, and the modulating frequency is 5

kHz, sidebands will be produced at 1000 - 5 = 995 kHz and at 1000 + 5= 1005 kHz.
In other words, the modulation process generates other signals that take up
spectrum space. It is not just the carrier at 1000 kHz that is transmitted. Thus the
term bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that contain the information.
The term channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to
transmit the desired information.
The bandwidth of the AM signal described above is the difference between the
highest and lowest transmitting frequencies: BW 5 1005 kHz 2 995 kHz 5 10 kHz. In
this case, the channel bandwidth is 10 kHz. An AM broadcast signal, therefore,
takes up a 10-kHz piece of the spectrum.
Signals transmitting on the same frequency or on overlapping frequencies do,

of course, interfere with one another. Thus a limited number of signals can be
transmitted in the frequency spectrum. As communication activities have grown
over the years, there has been a continuous demand for more frequency
channels over which communication can be transmitted. This has caused a
push for the development of equipment that operates at the higher
frequencies. Prior to World War II, frequencies above 1 GHz were virtually
unused, since there were no electronic components suitable for generating
signals at those frequencies. But technological developments over the years
have given us many microwave components such as klystrons, magnetrons, and
traveling-wave tubes, and today transistors, integrated circuits, and other
semiconductor devices that routinely work in the microwave range.
Bandwidth is the frequency range over which equipment operates or that

portion of the spectrum occupied by the signal. This is the voice frequency
bandwidth.

The two most significant limitations on Noise and Bandwidth
the performance of a communications
system are ________and ________.
difference between the highest and Bandwidth
lowest frequencies contained in the
information.
The bandwidth of a communications Passband
channel is the difference between the
highest and lowest frequencies that the
channel will allow to pass
through it.
A highly theoretical study of the efficient Information Theory
use of bandwidth to propagate
information through electronic
communications systems.
The measure of how much information Information Capacity
can be propagated through a
communications system and is a
function of bandwidth and transmission
time.
The most basic digital symbol used to Binary Digit / Bit
represent information.
The number of bits transmitted during Bit Rate
one second and is expressed in bits per
second (bps).
In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Hartley’s Law
Laboratories developed a useful

relationship among bandwidth,
transmission time, and information
capacity.
1,Bandwidth is the spectrum space occupied by a signal, the
frequency range of a transmitted signal, orthe range of frequencies
accepted by a receiver. It is the difference between the upper and
lower frequencies of the range in question.
2. There is more spectrum space available at the higher frequencies.
For a given bandwidth signal, more channels can be accommodated
at the higher frequencies.
3. Spectrum space is a precious natural resource.
4 In the United States, the FCC regulates the use of the spectrum and
most forms of electronic communications according to the
Communications Act of 1934.
5. Most countries belong to the ITU, an organization devoted to
worldwide cooperation and negotiation on
spectrum usage.
6. The NTIA coordinates government and military communications in

the United States.
II
1.signal occupies the frequency range from 1.050 to 1.175 MHz. Its
bandwidth is _____ kHz.
2.Wide-bandwidth signals must be transmitted at _____ frequencies.
3. Percentage wise, there is less spectrum space at the _____
frequencies.
4. Many communications electronics techniques are designed in order
to conserve _____.
5. Electronic communications in the United States is regulated by a set
of laws called the _____.
6. The regulatory body for electronic communications in the United
States is the _____.
7. Government and military communications are coordinated by the
_____.
8. The electromagnetic spectrum is managed worldwide by the_____

organization.
Topic 7. Noise Analysis

Discussion






Any undesirable electrical energy that falls Electrical Noise
within the passband of the signal.
Noise present regardless of whether there Uncorrelated Noise
is a signal present or not.
Noise that is generated outside the External Noise
device or circuit.
Noise that is naturally occurring electrical Atmospheric Noise
disturbances that originate within Earth’s
atmosphere.
Atmospheric noise is commonly called Static Electricity
____________ .
Noise consists of electrical signals that Extraterrestrial Noise
originate from outside Earth’s atmosphere
and is sometimes called deep-space
noise.
Extraterrestrial noise is sometimes called Deep-Space Noice
____________ .
Noise generated directly from the sun’s Solar Noise
heat.
Noise sources that are continuously Cosmic Noise
distributed throughout the galaxies.
Noise that is produced by mankind. Man-made Noise
Electrical interference generated within Internal Noise
a device or circuit.
Noise caused by the random arrival of Shot Noise
carriers (holes and electrons) at the output
element of an electronic device.
Any modification to a stream of carriers Transit-time Noise
as they pass from the input to the output
of a device produces an irregular,
random variations.
Associated with the rapid and random Thermal Noise

movement of electrons within a conductor
due to thermal agitation.
THERMAL AGITATION HAS SEVERAL NAMES, INCLUDING :
movement of electron movement;
Johnson proved that thermal noise power Noise Power

is proportional to the product of N = KTB
bandwidth and temperature.
A form of internal noise that is correlated Correlated Noise
(mutually related) to the signal and
cannot be present in a circuit unless there
is a signal.
“ no signal, no noise! “
Occurs when unwanted harmonics of a Harmonic Distortion
signal are produced through nonlinear
amplification (nonlinear mixing).
The generation of unwanted sum and Inter-modulation
difference frequencies produced when Distortion
two or more signals mix in a nonlinear
device.
The original signal and also called the First Harmonic
fundamental frequency.
A frequency two times the original signal Second Harmonic
frequency.
A frequency three times the original signal Third Harmonic
frequency.
Another name for harmonic distortion. Amplitude Distortion
Characterized by high-amplitude Impulse Noise
peaks of short duration in the total
noise spectrum.
References
General assessment
Problem set on your text book
Quiz

References
• Text Book-Wayne Tomasi (2004), Electronic Communication Systems,

5th Ed., Prentice Hall
• Reference Book- Roy Blake (2002), Electronic Communication
Systems, 2nd Ed., Delmar.
• Reference Book- Louis Frenzel (2014), Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems, 4th Ed,. McGraw Hill

Mabbalo!
Pinky c. Tumaliuan


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Republic of the Philippines

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

• Textbook & Referencel

• Describe the essential elements of communication systems,

Topics for Chapter 1

• 3. Electronic Communication system

Topic 1, Introduction and Over view

Need for Communication

Parts of Communication System

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 The Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting

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Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is

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Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented

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What is Signal Modulation?

Need for Modulation

 Antenna size gets reduced.

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 Multiplexing of signals occur.

Signals in the Modulation Process

Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message

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In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier

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o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance

In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier

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Noise limits the operating range of the systems

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Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers

Most common examples of this type of noise are −

Most common examples of this type of noise are −

 Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise).

Signal to Noise Ratio

Need for Communication

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Two of the main barriers to human communication are language and

• Language barriers arise between persons of different cultures or

• Human communication took a dramatic leap forward in the late

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United States by Reginald Fessenden.

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1946: The American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) inaugurated

1999: HDTV standards implemented in the United States.

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Is sometimes referred to as a ____________ , If Unity Power Gain

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Telephone

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Topic 2 Power Measurements(dB, dBm and Bel)

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The deciBel, dB utilises a logarithmic scale based to compare two quantities. It is

How the deciBel arrived

Since the beginning of telecommunications there has been the need to

Original telecommunications systems used the loss that occurred in a mile of

However this was not a particularly satisfactory method of determining loss

DeciBel formula for power comparisons