Chapter 6

Well Deliverability

6.1 Introduction

Well deliverability is determined by the combination of well inflow per-

formance (see Chapter 3) and wellbore flow performance (see Chapter 4).
While the former describes the deliverability of the reservoir, the latter
presents the resistance to flow of production string. This chapter focuses
on prediction of achievable gas production rates from gas reservoirs with
specified production string characteristics. The technique of analysis is
called Nodal analysis (a Schlumburger patent). Calculation examples are
illustrated with computer spreadsheets that are provided with this book.

6.2 Nodal Analysis

Fluid properties, such as gas z-factor and gas viscosity, change with the
location-dependent pressure and temperature in the gas production
system. To simulate the fluid flow in the system, it is necessary to “break”
the system into discrete nodes that separate system elements (equipment
sections). Fluid properties at the elements are evaluated locally. The
system analysis for determination of fluid production rate and pressure at
a specified node is called Nodal analysis in petroleum engineering.
Nodal analysis is performed on the principle of pressure continuity, that
is, there is only one unique pressure value at a given node no matter
whether the pressure is evaluated from the performance of upstream
equipment or downstream equipment. The performance curve (pressure-
rate relation) of upstream equipment is called inflow performance curve;
the performance curve of downstream equipment is called outflow perfor-
mance curve. The intersection of the two performance curves defines the
operating point, that is, operating flow rate and pressure, at the specified

97
98 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

node. For the convenience of using pressure data measured normally at

either bottom hole or wellhead, Nodal analysis is usually conducted using
the bottom hole or wellhead as the solution node.

6.2.1 Analysis with the Bottom Hole Node

When the bottom hole is used as a solution node in Nodal analysis, the
inflow performance is the well Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
and the outflow performance is the Tubing Performance Relationship
(TPR), if the tubing shoe is set to the top of the pay zone. Well IPR can be
established with different methods presented in Chapter 3. TPR can be
modeled with various approaches as discussed in Chapter 4.
Traditionally, Nodal analysis at the bottom hole is carried out by plotting
the IPR and TPR curves and visually finding the solution at the intersec-
tion point of the two curves. With modern computer technologies, the
solution can be computed quickly without plotting the curves, although
the curves are still plotted for visual verification.
Consider the bottom hole node of a gas well. If the IPR of the well is
defined by

( )
n
qsc = C p 2 − pwf
2 (6.1)

and if the outflow performance relationship of the node (TPR) is defined by

2 2 6.67 × 10 −4 [ Exp(s) − 1] fqsc

2 2 2
z T
pwf = Exp(s) phf + (6.2)
di 5 cos θ

then the operating flow rate qsc and pressure pwf at the bottom hole node
can be determined graphically by plotting Equation (6.1) and
Equation (6.2) and finding the intersection point.
The operating point can also be solved numerically by combining
Equation (6.1) and Equation (6.2). In fact, Equation (6.1) can be
rearranged as:
 6.2 Nodal Analysis 99

1
2 2 ⎛q ⎞n (6.3)
pwf = p − ⎜ sc ⎟
⎝ C ⎠

Substituting Equation (6.3) into Equation (6.2) yields:

1
2 ⎛q ⎞n 2 6.67 × 10 −4 [ Exp(s) − 1] fqsc
2 2 2
z T (6.4)
p − ⎜ sc ⎟ − Exp(s) phf − =0
⎝ C ⎠ 5
Di cos θ

which can be solved with a numerical technique such as the Newton-

Raphson iteration for gas flow rate qsc. This computation can be per-
formed automatically with the spreadsheet program BottomHole-
Nodal.xls. Users need to input parameter values in the Input Data section
and run Macro Solution to get results.

Example Problem 6.1

Suppose that a vertical well produces 0.71 specific gravity gas
through a 2 7/8-in tubing set to the top of a gas reservoir at a
depth of 10,000 ft. At tubing head, the pressure is 800 psia and
the temperature is 150 °F, the bottom hole temperature is 200 °F.
The relative roughness of tubing is about 0.0006. Calculate the
expected gas production rate of the well using the following data
for IPR:
Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia
IPR model parameter C: 0.01 Mscf/d-psi2n
IPR model parameter n: 0.8

Solution
This example problem is solved with the spreadsheet program
BottomHoleNodal.xls. Table 6–1 shows the appearance of the
spreadsheet for the data input and result sections. It indicates
that the expected gas flow rate is 1,478 Mscf/d at a bottom hole
pressure of 1,050 psia. The inflow and outflow performance
curves plotted in Figure 6–1 confirm this operating point.
100 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

Table 6–1 Input Data and Results Given by BottomHoleNodal.xlsa

Instructions: 1) Input your data in the Input Data section; 2) Run Macro Solution
to get results; 3) View results in table and in the Plot graph sheet.
Input Data
Gas-specific gravity (γg): 0.71
Tubing inside diameter (D): 2.259 in
Tubing relative roughness (ε/D): 0.0006
Measured depth at tubing shoe (L): 10,000 ft
Inclination angle (θ): 0°
Wellhead pressure (phf): 800 psia
Wellhead temperature (Thf): 150 °F
Bottom hole temperature (Twf): 200 °F
Reservoir pressure (p): 2,000 psia
C-exponent in backpressure IPR model: 0.01Mscf/d-psi2n
n-constant in backpressure IPR model: 0.8
Solution
Tav = 635 °R
Zav = 0.8626
s= 0.486062358
es = 1.62590138
fm = 0.017396984

AOF = 1,912.70 Mscf/d

qsc (Mscf/d) IPR TPR
0 2,000 1,020
191 1,943 1,021
383 1,861 1,023
574 1,764 1,026
765 1,652 1,031
956 1,523 1,037
1,148 1,374 1,044
1,339 1,200 1,052
1,530 987 1,062
1,721 703 1,073
1,817 498 1,078
1,865 353 1,081
1,889 250 1,083
1,913 0 1,084
Operating flow rate = 1,478 Mscrf/d
Operating pressure = 1,050 psia
a. This spreadsheet calculates well deliverability with bottom hole node
 6.2 Nodal Analysis 101

2,500

IPR
2,000
TPR
Bottom Hole Pressure (psia)

1,500

1,000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
Gas Production Rate (Mscf/d)

Figure 6–1 Nodal analysis for Example Problem 6.1.

6.2.2 Analysis with Wellhead Node

When the wellhead is used as a solution node in Nodal analysis, the

inflow performance curve is the Wellhead Performance Relationship
(WPR) that is obtained by transforming the IPR to wellhead through TPR.
The outflow performance curve is the wellhead Choke Performance Rela-
tionship (CPR). Some TPR models are presented in Chapter 4. CPR
models are discussed in Chapter 5.
Nodal analysis with wellhead being a solution node is carried out by plot-
ting the WPR and CPR curves and finding the solution at the intersection
point of the two curves. Again, with modern computer technologies, the
solution can be computed quickly without plotting the curves, although
the curves are still plotted for verification.
If the IPR of the well is defined by Equation (6.1), and TPR is represented
by Equation (6.2), substituting Equation (6.2) into Equation (6.1) gives
102 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

1
2⎛q ⎞n 2 6.67 × 10 −4 [ Exp(s) − 1] fqsc
2 2 2
z T (6.5)
p − ⎜ sc ⎟ − Exp(s) phf − =0
⎝ C ⎠ 5
Di cos θ

which defines a relationship between wellhead pressure phf and gas produc-
tion rate qsc, that is WPR. If the CPR is defined by Equation (5.5), that is,

k +1
⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ k −1
qsc = 879CAphf (6.6)
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ gTup ⎠ ⎝ k + 1⎠

then the operating flow rate qsc and pressure phf at the wellhead node can
be determined graphically by plotting Equation (6.5) and Equation (6.6)
and finding the intersection point.
The operating point can also be solved numerically by combining
Equation (6.5) and Equation (6.6). In fact, Equation (6.6) can be
rearranged as:

qsc
phf =
k +1
⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ k −1 (6.7)
879CA ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ gTup ⎠ ⎝ k + 1⎠

Substituting Equation (6.7) into Equation (6.6) gives

n
⎡ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎞⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎥
⎢ 2 ⎜ q 6 . 67 × 10 −4
[ Exp ( s ) − 1] fq 2 2 2 ⎥
z T ⎟
qsc = C ⎢ p − ⎜ Exp(s) ⎜ sc ⎟ + sc
⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ k +1 ⎟ 5
θ
⎜ ⎜ ⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ k −1 ⎟
di cos ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ 879CA ⎜ γ T ⎟ ⎜⎝ k + 1⎟⎠ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ ⎝ g up ⎠ ⎠ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦

which can be solved numerically for gas flow rate qsc. This computation
can be performed automatically with the spreadsheet program Wellhead-
 6.3 Production Forecast 103

Nodal.xls. Users need to input parameter values in the Input Data section
and run Macro Solution to get results.

Example Problem 6.2

Use the following given data to estimate gas production rate of
the well:
Gas-specific gravity: 0.71
Tubing inside diameter: 2.259 in
Tubing wall relative roughness: 0.0006
Measured depth at tubing shoe: 10,000 ft
Inclination angle: 0°
Wellhead choke size: 16 1/64 in
Flowline diameter: 2 in
Gas-specific heat ratio: 1.3
Gas viscosity at wellhead: 0.01 cp
Wellhead temperature: 120 °F
Bottom hole temperature: 180 °F
Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia
C-constant in backpressure IPR model: 0.01 Mscf/dpsi2n
n-exponent in backpressure IPR model: 0.8

Solution:
This example problem is solved with the spreadsheet program
WellheadNodal.xls. Table 6–2 and Table 6–3 show the appear-
ance of the spreadsheet for the data input and result sections. It
indicates that the expected gas flow rate is 1,470 Mscf/d at a
bottom hole pressure of 797 psia. The inflow and outflow perfor-
mance curves plotted in Figure 6–2 confirm this operating point.

6.3 Production Forecast

Due to the high compressibility of gas and low-permeability of gas reser-

voir rock, the transient flow period can last significantly long before
pseudo-steady state flow is fully established. During the transient flow,
104 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

Table 6–2 Input Data and Solution Given by WellheadNodal.xlsa

Instructions: 1) Input your data in the Input Data section; 2) Run Macro Solution
to get results; 3) View results in table and in the Plot graph sheet.
Input Data
Gas-specific gravity (γg): 0.71
Tubing inside diameter (D): 2.259 in
Tubing relative roughness (ε/D): 0.0006
Measured depth at tubing shoe (L): 10,000 ft
Inclination angle (θ): 0°
Wellhead choke size (Dck): 16 1/64 in
Flowline diameter (Dfl): 2 in
Gas-specific heat ratio (k): 1.3
Gas viscosity at wellhead (μ): 0.01 cp
Wellhead temperature (Thf): 120 °F
Bottom hole temperature (Twf): 180 °F
Reservoir pressure (p~): 2,000 psia
C-constant in backpressure IPR model: 0.01 Mscf/d-psi2n
n-exponent in backpressure IPR model: 0.8
Solution
Tav = 610 °R
Zav = 0.8786
s= 0.4968
es = 1.6434
fm = 0.0174

AOF = 1,913 Mscf/d

Dck/Dfl = 0.125

Re = 8,348,517

Cck = 1.3009

Ack = 0.0490625 in2

a. This spreadsheet calculates well deliverability with wellhead node.

 6.3 Production Forecast 105

Table 6–3 Results Section of WellheadNodal.xls

qsc (Mscf/d) WPR CPR

0 1,600 0
191 1,554 104
383 1,489 207
574 1,411 311
765 1,321 415
956 1,218 518
1,148 1,099 622
1,339 960 726
1,530 789 830
1,721 562 933
1,817 399 985
1,865 282 1,011
1,889 200 1,024
1,913 1 1,037
Operating flow rate = 1,470 Mscf/d
Operating pressure = 797 psia

1,800

1,600
WPR

1,400 CPR

1,200
Wellhead Pressure (psia)

1,000

800

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
Gas Production Rate (Mscf/d)

Figure 6–2 Nodal analysis for Example Problem 6.2.

106 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

gas production rate can be predicted by Nodal analysis using transient

IPR and steady flow TPR. The transient IPR model for gas wells is
described in Chapter 3, i.e.,

kh ⎡⎣ m( pi ) − m( pwf ) ⎤⎦
q= (6.8)
⎛ k ⎞
1638T ⎜ log t + log − 3. 23 + 0. 87 S ⎟⎟
⎜ ϕμ ct rw 2
⎝ ⎠

This equation can be used for generating IPR curves for future time t
before any reservoir boundary is “felt”. After all reservoir boundaries are
reached, a pseudo-steady state flow should prevail for a volumetric gas
reservoir. For a circular reservoir, the time required for the pressure wave
to reach the reservoir boundary can be estimated by with

ϕμct re2
t pss ≈ 1200
k

The same TPR is usually used in the transient flow period assuming fluid
properties remain the same in the well over the period. The average tem-
perature – average z-factor method can be used for constructing TPR.
Gas production during the pseudo-steady state flow period is due to gas
expansion. IPR changes over time due to the change in reservoir pressure.
An IPR model is described in Chapter 3, i.e.,

kh ⎡⎣ m( p ) − m( pwf ) ⎤⎦
q= (6.9)
⎛ r 3 ⎞
1424T ⎜ ln e − + S + Dq ⎟
⎝ rw 4 ⎠

Again a constant TPR is usually assumed if liquid loading is not a

problem and the wellhead pressure is kept constant over time.
Gas production schedule can be established through material balance
equation, i.e.,
 6.3 Production Forecast 107

⎛ p ⎞
⎜ ⎟
G p = Gi ⎜ 1 − z ⎟ (6.10)
⎜ pi ⎟
⎜ zi ⎟
⎝ ⎠

where Gp and Gi are the cumulative gas production and initial gas-in-
place, respectively.
If gas production rate is predicted by Nodal analysis at a given reservoir
pressure level and the cumulative gas production is estimated with
Eq (6.10) at the same reservoir pressure level, the corresponding produc-
tion time can be calculated and thus production forecast can be carried
out.

Example Problem 6.3:

Use the following data and develop a forecast of a well produc-
tion after transient flow until the average reservoir pressure
declines to 2,000 psia:
Reservoir depth: 10,000 ft
Initial reservoir pressure: 4,613 psia
Reservoir temperature: 180oF
Pay zone thickness: 78 ft
Formation permeability: 0.17md
Formation porosity: 0.14
Water saturation: 0.27
Gas specific gravity: 0.7air = 1
Total compressibility: 1.5x10-4psi-1
Darcy skin factor: 0
Non-Darcy flow coefficient: 0
Drainage area: 40 acres
Wellbore radius: 0.328 ft
Tubing inner diameter:2.441 in.
Desired flowing bottom hole pressure: 1,500 psia
 Solution:
Spreadsheet program Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows-GasViscosity.xls
gives a gas viscosity value of 0.0251 cp at the initial reservoir pres-
sure of 4,613 psia and temperature of 180 oF for the 0.7 specific
gravity gas. Spreadsheet program Hall-Yarborogh-z.xls gives a z-
factor value of 1.079 at the same conditions. Formation volume
factor at the initial reservoir pressure is calculated with Eq (2.45):

(1.079)(180 + 460) = 0.004236 ft3/scf

Bgi = 0.0283
4, 613

The initial gas-in-place within the 40 acres is:

(43, 560)(40)(78)(0.14)(1 − 0.27) = 3.28 x 109 scf

Gi =
0.004236

Assuming a circular drainage area, the equivalent radius of the

40 acres is 745 ft. The time required for the pressure wave to
reach the reservoir boundary is estimated as:

(0.14)(0.0251)(1.5 × 10 −4 )(745)2
t pss ≈ 1200 = 2,065 hours = 86 days
0.17

Spreadsheet program PseudoPressure.xls gives

2
m( pi ) = m(4613) = 1.27 × 109 psi /cp

2
m( pwf ) = m(1500) = 1.85 × 108 psi /cp

Substituting these and other given parameter values to Eq (6.8)

yields:

(0.17)(78) ⎡1.27 × 109 − 1.85 × 108 ⎤

⎣ ⎦
q=
⎛ ⎞
= 2,092 Mscf/day
0.17
1638 (180 + 460 ) ⎜ log(2065) + log − 3.23 ⎟
⎜ ( 0. 14 )( 0. 0251)(1. 5 × 10 −4
)( 0. 328) 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 6.3 Production Forecast 109

Substituting q = 2,092 Mscf/day into Eq (6.9) gives:

(0.17)(78) ⎡ m( p ) − 1.85 × 108 ⎤

2, 092 = ⎣ ⎦
⎛ 745 3 ⎞
1424(180 + 460) ⎜ ln − + 0⎟
⎝ 0.328 4 ⎠

which results in m( p ) = 1.19 × 109 psi2/cp. Spreadsheet program

PseudoPressure.xls gives p = 4, 409 psia at the beginning of
the pseudo-steady state flow period.
If the flowing bottom hole pressure is maintained at a level of
1,500 psia during the pseudo-steady state flow period (after 86
days of transient production), Eq. (6.8) is simplified as

(0.17)(78) ⎡ m( p ) − 1.85 × 108 ⎤

q= ⎣ ⎦
⎛ 745 3 ⎞
1424(180 + 460) ⎜ ln − + 0⎟
⎝ 0.328 4 ⎠
or

q = 2.09 × 10 −6 ⎡ m( p ) − 1.85 × 108 ⎤

⎣ ⎦

which, combined with Eq (6.10), gives the production forecast

shown in Table 6.4 where z-factors and real gas pseudo-pres-
sures were obtained using spreadsheet programs Hall-Yar-
borogh-z.xls and PseudoPressure.xls, respectively. The
production forecast result is also plotted in Figure 6-3.
110 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

Table 6-4: Result of Production Forecast for Example Problem 6.3

Pseudo- q
Reservoir Gp ΔGp Δt t
pressure
Pressure z
(Mscf/
(psia) (MMscf) (MMscf) (day) (day)
(108 psi2/cp) d)
4,409 1.074 11.90 130
4,200 1.067 11.14 260 130 1,942 67 67
4,000 1.060 10.28 385 125 1,762 71 138
3,800 1.054 9.50 514 129 1,598 81 218
3,600 1.048 8.73 645 131 1,437 91 309
3,400 1.042 7.96 777 132 1,277 103 413
3,200 1.037 7.20 913 136 1,118 122 534
3,000 1.032 6.47 1,050 137 966 142 676
2,800 1.027 5.75 1,188 139 815 170 846
2,600 1.022 5.06 1,328 140 671 209 1,055
2,400 1.018 4.39 1,471 143 531 269 1,324
2,200 1.014 3.76 1,615 144 399 361 1,686
2,000 1.011 3.16 1,762 147 274 536 2,222

2,500 2,000
1,800
Production Rate (Mscf/day)

Cumulative Production (MMscf)

2,000 1,600
1,400
q (M scf/d )
1,500 G p (M M scf) 1,200
1,000
1,000 800
600
500 400
200
0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Pseudosteady Production Time (days)

Figure 6–3 Result of production forecast for Example Problem 6.3

 6.4 References 111

6.4 References

Greene, W. R. “Analyzing the Performance of Gas Wells.” Journal of

Petroleum Technology (July 1983): 31–9.
Nind, T. E. W. Principles of Oil Well Production. 2nd Ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Russell, D. G., J. H. Goodrich, G. E. Perry, and J. F. Bruskotter.
“Methods for Predicting Gas Well Performance.” Journal of Petro-
leum Technology (January 1966): 50–7.

6.5 Problems

6-1 A vertical well produces 0.75 specific-gravity gas through a

2 7/8-in (ID 2.441 in) tubing set to the top of a gas reservoir at a
depth of 8,000 ft. Tubing head temperature is 90 °F, and bottom
hole temperature is 160 °F. The relative roughness of tubing is
about 0.0006. Calculate the expected gas production rates of the
well at wellhead pressures of 200 psia, 300 psia, 400 psia, 500
psia, and 600 psia using the following data for IPR:
Reservoir pressure: 1,800 psia

IPR model parameter C: 0.15 Mscf/d-psi2n

IPR model parameter n: 0.85
6-2 Calculate the expected gas production rates of the well
described in Problem 6-1 for a 2.259-in ID tubing.
6-3 Use the following data to calculate expected gas production
rate of the well:
Gas-specific gravity: 0.75
Tubing inside diameter: 2.259 in
Tubing wall relative roughness: 0.0006
Measured depth at tubing shoe: 8,000 ft
Inclination angle: 0°
Wellhead choke size: 24 1/64 in
112 Chapter 6 Well Deliverability

Flowline diameter: 2 in
Gas-specific heat ratio: 1.3
Gas viscosity at wellhead: 0.01 cp
Wellhead temperature: 120 °F
Bottom hole temperature: 180 °F
Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia

C-constant in backpressure IPR model: 0.01 Mscf/dpsi2n

n-exponent in backpressure IPR model: 0.8
6-4 Modify spreadsheet program BottomHoleNodal.xls to
incorporate the Forchheimer equation for IPR. Solve
Problem 6-1 using estimated A and B values from C and n
values.
6-5 Modify spreadsheet program WellheadNodal.xls to
incorporate the subsonic choke flow equation. Solve
Problem 6-3 for flow line pressures of 200 psia, 300 psia,
400 psia, 500 psia, and 600 psia.