Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

EXERCISE 7: HISTORICAL GEOLOGY AND FOSSILS

One of the most fundamental techniques in geology is dating rocks and putting geologic events in their proper sequence.
There are two ways by which this can be accomplished. Absolute dating involves being able to date how many years old a
rock is. Although this may sound simple, determining the numerical age of a rock is difficult to accomplish because several
criteria must be met. Radiometric dating is the most commonly used way to absolute date a rock. The method is limited
because you can only date a rock which has formed directly from cooling magma or a recrystallized metamorphic rock.
However, even if you cannot tell the precise age of a rock, you can determine the order in which a series of geologic events
occurred and place a relative age on that rock. This is called relative dating which is the most fundamental concept in
geology. Absolute dating techniques have only been around since the late 1960’s, but geologists have been putting relative
ages on rocks since the 1700’s. Early geologists used the principle of faunal succession and other principles of relative
dating to determine the relative age of a rock. In fact, fossils and the principles of relative dating were used to create the
geologic time scale long before we knew the absolute age of the earth.

THE PRINCIPLES OF RADIOMETRIC DATING

The fundamental concepts behind radiometric dating are radioactive decay and half-lives. Certain elements spontaneously
decay into new elements over time. Elements which undergo spontaneous decay are know are radioactive elements. There
are several ways by which an element may decay, but they all involve changing the number of protons in the nucleus of the
atom. The time in which half of a radioactive element decays is known as its half-life. The half-life describes how long it
takes for one half of the original radioactive element, known as the parent material, to decay into the new element, known as
the daughter product (see Table 1 for examples). This rate of decay is unique and constant for each radioactive element.
Absolute dating relies on measuring the proportion of parent product relative to the daughter product to determine the number
of half-lives which have elapsed (Figure 1). When does the clock start? The radioactive decay process starts right after the
mineral crystals have formed from cooling magma or metamorphic recrystallization processes.

1 half-life 2 half-lives 3 half-lives 4 half-lives

Daughter Daughter
Daughter Daughter
product product
Original product product
parent
Original
Original parent Original
parent
Original parent
parent 6.25%
100% 50% 25% 12.5%
Figure 1: How a radioactive element decays. When the original parent element is solidified as part of a mineral crystal, it begins to
decay into the daughter product. After one half-life has elapsed, 50% of the original parent is left. After two half-lives, 25% of the
original parent is left (half of 50%). This process continues as the parent decays into the daughter product.

Dating an igneous or metamorphic rock using absolute dating is a somewhat complicated lab procedure, but once you’ve
determined how much parent and daughter product you have in the rock, determining the age of the rock involves simple
mathematical calculations.

Radioactive decay occurs logarithmically by the formula: Half-lives elapsed = Ln (ratio of parent) x -1.4426
Where Ln = natural logarithm

Example: You take an igneous rock and determine that it has 5 grams of radioactive parent element and 17 grams of
daughter product. The radioactive half-life of the parent element is 300 million years. How old is the rock?

Step 1: What is the total amount of parent and daughter product in the rock? Add the amount of parent and daughter together
5 grams parent + 17 grams daughter = 22 grams total
Step 2: What ratio of the rock is parent? Divide the amount of parent by the total amount
5 grams parent / 22 total grams = 0.23 parent ratio
Step 3: How many half-lives have elapsed? Use the formula for logarithmic decay to determine the number of half-lives
Ln (.23) x -1.4426 = 2.12 half-lives elapsed
Step 4: How old is the rock? Multiply the number of half-lives by the length of the element’s half-life
2.12 half-lives x 300 million years = 636 million years old

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1) Determine the total amount of parent and daughter product and the ratio of parent element in the following rock samples:
Total amount Parent ratio

Rock A: 1.25 g parent and 2.78 g daughter product: ___________ ___________

Rock B: 2.41 g parent and 8.65 g daughter product: ___________ ___________

2) Determine the number of half-lives which have elapsed in the following rock samples using the given parent ratios:

Rock D: 0.65 parent __________ Rock E: 0.27 parent __________ Rock F: 0.064 parent __________

3) Determine the age of the following rock samples if the radioactive element Potassium-40 is used (see Table 1):

a. 2 half lives: ______________ years old b. 0.2 half lives: ______________ years old

4) A rock sample has 1.36 g of Uranium-238 and 1.67 g of Lead-206. How old is the rock sample?

5) A rock sample has 0.22 g of Uranium-235 and 1.12 g of Lead-207. How old is the rock sample?

Radioactive Parent Daughter Product Half-life Value

Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion years
Uranium-235 Lead-207 713 million years
Thorium-232 Lead-208 14.1 billion years
Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 47.0 billion years
Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion years
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 years
Table 1: Some common radioactive elements used for absolute dating, their
daughter products and half-life values.

THE PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE DATING

Relative dating involves putting geologic events in order and determining the age of a rock relative to other rocks. The entire
geologic time scale is based on the principles of relative dating because until recently, no absolute numerical ages were
known for the earth’s history (Appendix 1). Instead, rocks were dated using names like “Jurassic” or “Cretaceous”, names
which refer to specific periods in earth history when certain fossils are known to have existed. The principles of relative
dating are the rules that guide geologists when they decipher the geological history of an area. In the following pages, you
will read about these principles and apply them to some simple geologic cross-sections.

Law of Superposition: Sedimentary rocks form when (a) (b)

Deposited
A Youngest Youngest
A
sediments settle out of the water column and come to rest last
at the bottom of a basin, creating layers. In any B
sequence of undeformed sedimentary rocks, the rocks B
at the bottom are older than the ones on the top, Folding
C C
because the rocks at the bottom must have been
deposited first. So in the example in figure 2a, A is
D D
the youngest and E is the oldest.
Deposited E
Principle of Original Horizontality: Sediments (sand, first
E
Oldest Oldest
silt and clay) under the influence of gravity, are almost
always laid down in horizontal beds. Thus, if you see Figure 2: Principles of relative dating. (a) Law of superposition. (b)
sedimentary beds that are tilted, you can assume they Principle of original horizontality. The rocks in example (b) result
have been moved from their original position (Figure 2b). from the rocks in (a) being tilted during some tectonic folding
event.

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(a) D (b) Lava flow

E E
E
D D C
D

Dike
C C B
C
Sill
B A
B B
Batholith
A A A

Figure 3: Principles of relative dating. (a) Faulting of rocks. Rocks A-E must all be older than the fault. (b) Igneous intrusions and
lava flows. All of these igneous features are younger than rocks A-E.

Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships: There are two basic types of cross-cutting geologic phenomena: faults and
igneous intrusions. 1. When an earthquake breaks a group of rocks, a fault forms. Therefore, the rocks must be older than the
fault (Figure 3a). 2. When molten rock (magma) pushes through (intrudes) a body of rocks, the resulting igneous rocks must
be younger than those rocks which were intruded (Figure 3b). Likewise, lava flows must be younger than the rocks they flow
over.

Unconformities: An unconformity is a break in time.

Unconformities can occur for a variety of reasons, but (a) Disconformity
Erosional surface
they always result from an interruption in
sedimentation. There are 3 kinds (Figure 4):

A. Disconformity: A distinct break in time within a

sequence of sedimentary rocks. This results from an Sediments deposited Erosion Sediments deposited
interruption in the deposition of sediments and the
formation of an erosional surface within a column of Angular unconformity
sedimentary rocks. Any place on the earth’s land (b)
Erosional surface
surface where erosion is occurring is also considered
to be a disconformity.

b. Angular unconformity: A place where sedimentary

beds meet each other at an angle. This results from one Sediments deposited Tilting and Erosion Sediments deposited
set of sedimentary beds being tilted during a folding
event and eroded off. Later in time, a second set of Nonconformity
sedimentary beds are deposited on top. Faults are not (c)
angular unconformities!

c. Nonconformity: Any place where sedimentary rocks

come in contact with crystalline rocks (igneous or
metamorphic). Since almost all igneous and
Sediments deposited Igneous intrusion
metamorphic rock forming process occur deep in the
earth, they can't occur while sediments are being Figure 4: The three main types of unconformities. (a) A disconformity.
deposited. (b) An angular unconformity. (c) A nonconformity.

Refer to Figure 5 to answer the following questions:

6) Of the rocks A-D, which of the rocks were deposited first?

7) Of the rocks A-F, which of the rocks are the oldest?

8) Which occurred first: The tilting of A, B, C and D or the deposition of E and F?

9) Which occurred first: The erosion of the Earth’s surface or the deposition of A, B, C, and D?

10) What type of unconformity is found at the base of rock layer E?

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Earth’s surface

A B
C

Figure 5
Refer to Figure 6 to answer the following questions

11) Is the fault in Figure 5 older or younger than rocks A-H?

12) Is the fault in Figure 5 older or younger than batholith Y?

13) Which occurred first: Erosion of the Earth’s surface or the fault?

14) Is the lava flow X older or younger than rock F?

15) Which is older, batholith Y or lava flow X?

Unconformity #2 Unconformity #3
X Earth’s surface

H G
Fa
ul
t

Unconformity #1
G F

E
F

Y
E Unconformity #4 D
Fa

C
ul

B
t

D
A
Figure 6

16) There are four different unconformities identified in Figure 6. Identify what types they are and list them below.
*Note: You may use the same unconformity more than once!
Unconformity #1: ________________________ Unconformity #2: ___________________________

Unconformity #3: ________________________ Unconformity #4: ___________________________

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Refer to Figure 7 for the following questions:

17) Which rock unit is older, E or F?

18) Which occurred first, lava flow K or lava flow L?

19) Which occurred first, lava flow K or fault M?

20) Which occurred first, the folding of rock units E, G, A, D and F or the deposition of lava flow L?

21) Which rock unit is older, J or lava flow K?

22) Which occurred first, the erosion of the Earth’s surface or fault M?

23) Put all 17 geologic events depicted in Figure 7 in the proper sequence from oldest to youngest in the spaces provided
using the list of choices below. You will use each choice only once.

Erosion Deposit I Deposit C Folding Deposit J Deposit B Deposit G

Deposit E Deposit A Erosion Lava flow K Deposit H Lava flow L Deposit F

Fault M Erosion Deposit D

Youngest event
1. ____________
I 2. ____________
Fault

C 3. ____________
4. ____________
M

K 5. ____________
6. ____________
C J
7. ____________
8. ____________
H 9. ____________
J 10. ___________
11. ___________
B
12. ___________
H
13.___________
F F 14.___________
L
B 15.___________
K A
D 16.___________
G
17.___________
F E Oldest event
Figure 7

24) Label all the unconformities in Figure 7 (there are 5).

25) Lava flow L is dated at 450 million years old and lava flow K is dated at 75 million years old. Based on those dates, what
is the approximately age range for the following?

Rock A? __________________ Rock C? __________________ Fault M? __________________

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 Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

THE PRINCIPLE OF FAUNAL SUCCESSION

Throughout earth history, organisms have evolved and succeeded each other in a definite and determinable order, a concept
known as the principle of faunal succession. By knowing what fossils are contained within a rock, you can determine the
age of the rock. The principle of faunal succession is the primary basis for the geologic time scale (Appendix 1). All of the
divisions within the geologic time scale are based in large part by the appearance of, the dominance of or disappearance of
key fossil groups. These fossils are known as index fossils, and index fossils have a very narrow age range.

An age range is the part of geologic time during which a certain fossil species is known to have existed (Figure 8). As is
shown in Figure 8, the five fossils shown each existed during a specific time in the geologic past. You always name the
beginning age and then the end age for a fossil’s age range. So for fossil V, the age range is Silurian-Triassic, for fossil W the
age range is Triassic-Cretaceous, for fossil X the age range is Ordovician-Jurassic, for fossil Y the age range is Jurassic-
Quaternary, and for fossil Z the age range is Cambrian-Devonian.

Ideally, if you can find a rock with an index fossil in it, it is very easy to date the age of the rock. However, many times you
don't have a key index fossil present, but usually you have several fossils, each with their own age range. By observing the
overlap in age ranges for the fossils you have, you can narrow down the age of the rock in question. This technique is known
as biostratigraphy, and it is an extremely important tool in determining the relative age of a rock. For example, in figure 9,
the age of rock A is Ordovician-Devonian because that is the only time in the geologic record when both fossils existed. For
rock D, the age of the rock can be narrowed down to Jurassic because all three of the fossils only existed concurrently at that
time.
Quaternary
Rock A Rock B
Fossil Y
Age range

Tertiary

Cretaceous Fossil W
Age range

Jurassic Rock C Rock D

Triassic

Permian Fossil V
Fossil X
Age range

Pennsylvanian

Mississippian Figure 9: An example of biostratigraphy. Based on the age

ranges in figure 8, the age of Rock A is Ordovician-Devonian,
Devonian the age of rock B Triassic, the age of rock C is Silurian-
Fossil Z
Devonian, and the age of rock D is Jurassic.
Age range

Silurian

Ordovician

Cambrian

Figure 8: An example of age ranges. The age range for fossil V is

Silurian-Triassic. The age range for fossil W is Triassic-Cretaceous.
The age range for fossil X is Ordovician-Jurassic. The age range for
fossil Y is Jurassic-Quaternary. The age range for fossil Z is
Cambrian-Devonian.

Once you have determined the age of different rock units, you can correlate different rocks together based on age, and then
begin to piece together a detailed history of some area (Figure 10).

Outcrop A Outcrop B Outcrop C

Co
rre Co
la tio rre
n la tio
n

Figure 10: An example of correlation using fossils.

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 Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

Quaternary

Tertiary

Cretaceous

Jurassic

Triassic

Permian

Pennsylvanian

Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician

Cambrian
Figure 11: Age ranges for questions 26 and 27.

26) Using the age ranges in Figure 11, determine the age of the three rocks below:

Age: _______________________ Age: _______________________ Age: _______________________

27) Two exposures (called outcrops) of rock can be seen along the highway as shown in Figure 12. You want to know if the
rocks are of the same age or not, but the outcrops each have different types of rock in them. Using the fossils shown in these
rocks and age ranges in Figure 11, determine if any of the rocks in the two outcrops are of the same age or not. Are any of
the rock layers at outcrops A and B the same age? Use an arrow to indicate which ones are the same.
Outcrop A Outcrop B
Age:__________ Age:__________

Age:__________ Age:__________

Age:__________ Age:__________

Age:__________ Age:__________

Figure 12: Correlating two outcrops.

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 Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF MARYLAND

Figure 24 shows the types and location of the fossils typically seen in Maryland. Most of these fossils are common and easy
to locate (except for the dinosaur fossils, which are rare and harder to find). In this part of the lab, you will look at some of
these fossils and the key features used to identify them. Illustrations are courtesy of the Maryland Geological Survey.

Brachiopods
Clam Brachiopod
Brachiopods belong to the phyla Brachiopoda, a group of filter-feeding animals Not symmetical Symmetical
which look a lot like clams, but in fact differ in many distinct ways. Whereas

Top view
clams use tubes (siphons) to suck in water and food, brachiopods have feather-
like appendages (lophophores) which can filter food out of the water column.
Brachiopods also spend their entire lives permanently attached to the seafloor.
Most importantly, their shells are distinctly different than clams. If you look at a
clam shell, each half (called a valve) looks identical (Figure 13). Each half of a
brachiopod is different, but the individual shells have perfect symmetry down

Side view
the middle. This symmetry is the best way to tell the difference between the two.
Brachiopods are still found in parts of the world's oceans, but not in the
abundance they once existed at during the Paleozoic. In particular, brachiopods
were extremely important in the Devonian, when hundreds of different species Symmetical Not symmetical
existed. Figure 14 shows some examples of brachiopods. Figure 13: The differences between
clam and brachiopod shells.

Figure 14: Some examples of common brachiopods with axis of symmetry. (Note: not to scale)

Trilobites

Trilobites are an extinct group of marine fossils which belong to the phylum Arthropoda. The
phylum Arthropoda also includes insects, spiders and crustaceans (crabs & lobsters). Like all
arthropods, trilobites had an exoskeleton made of chitin, a segmented body, paired and jointed
appendages and highly developed sensory and nerve organs. Trilobites were extremely diverse
and numerous in the early Paleozoic but went extinct at the end of the Permian. The trilobite
body (Figure 15) is composed of three parts: a head (cephalon), a body (thorax) and a tail
(pygidium). Several examples of trilobites are shown in Figure 16. It is very common to find
parts of the trilobite body preserved, but more rare to find the entire body preserved.
Figure 15: Parts of a trilobite

Cephalon
Pygidium

Cephalon Thorax
Thorax
Thorax Cephalon

Cephalon Pygidium

Thorax

Figure 16: Some examples of a trilobite. (Note: Dime for scale)

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Mollusks

The phylum Mollusca is a very diverse group which includes Gastropods

(snails), Pelecypods (clams, oysters and scallops) and Cephalopods (squids
and nautiloids). Mollusks have been around since the beginning of the
Paleozoic. They have grown in importance throughout the Cenozoic to
become one of the most important phyla in modern times. In fact, the
Maryland state fossil is the snail Ecphora quadricostata, shown in figure 17.

Pelecypods Figure 17: Ecphora quadricostata

The Pelecypods are a fairly “simple” member of the mollusks. They employ a pair of hard shells composed of aragonite to
encase the visceral mass, gills and other organs. The organs are surrounded by a mantle that cases the organs and excretes the
shell. Pelecypods are filter feeders and may or may not be mobile. Pelecypods include clams, oysters, scallops and mussels.
Examples of common pelecypods are shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Examples of common pelecypods. (Note: Not to scale)

Gastropods

The Gastropods, more commonly known as snails, are also a rather simple member of the phylum Mollusca. Most
gastropods secrete a one-piece coiled shell that is entirely filled by the organism. A typical gastropod has a distinct head with
a mouth, eyes, tentacles, and a flattened, ventral foot. Gastropods can be planktonic or mobile and can live in salt water, fresh
water and on land. They are grazers, meaning they typically move over hard objects and scrape up food, like algae. Some
examples of gastropods are shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Examples of common gastropods. (Note: Not to scale)

Cephalopods

The Cephalopods are the most advanced and complex mollusks. Indeed, they are also one of the most advanced invertebrate
classes, and include oceanic animals such as octopuses, squids, cuttlefish and the nautilus. Giant squids are also the largest
invertebrate animal, with some specimens reportedly 50 feet long! Unlike other members of the phyla, cephalopods are active
hunters and excellent swimmers. The cephalopods also have eyes and tentacles, both of which aid in its predational activities.
Most modern cephalopods do not have an external shell or internal hard parts except for their beak (teeth). However, the
geologic record has a multitude of species which had external shells in a dizzying array of shapes and patterns. Some
examples of cephalopods are shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20: Some examples of cephalopods. (Note: Dime for scale)

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Plant Fossils

Plant fossils in Maryland fall under two main categories: Seed ferns and Lycopods. Seed ferns are similar to ferns seen today
in the Eastern United States. Lycopods are one of the oldest groups of vascular plants still in existence today. Modern
lycopods are small (only a foot or so tall), but ancient lycopods grew into trees over 100 feet tall! Two important lycopods of
the ancient Maryland forests were Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Examples of common plant fossils are shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21: Some examples of common plant fossils. (Note: Dime for scale)

Shark Teeth And Ray Plates

The Calvert Cliffs of Maryland are home to one of the most extensive Miocene fossil deposits in the United States. In
addition to the wide variety of different invertebrate fossils found there, mammal bones, shark teeth and manta ray plates are
also very common. Some of the shark teeth can be very large upwards of 4-5” long! Some examples are shown below in
Figure 22.

Ray plates
Shark teeth
Figure 22: Shark teeth and ray plates. (Note: Dime for scale)

Dinosaurs

Dinosaur fossils are found in rocks in central Maryland. Dinosaurs inhabited Maryland through much of their 160 million-
year history. While dinosaurs were not as abundant or diverse in this area as other regions in the U.S., the Maryland
population included an interesting range of species. At least twelve species of "terrible lizards" roamed the ancient Maryland
landscape from the Late Triassic (228 million years ago) to the Late Cretaceous (70 mya). Maryland's climate and topography
during this 158 million year period varied widely, from a tropical, volcanic lowland to a shallow, warm, sea teaming with life.
Examples of the types of dinosaurs which lived in Maryland are shown in figure 23.

Astrodon johnstoni Ornithomimus antiquus

the Maryland State Dinosaur. (Ostrich dinosaur)
Adult height more than 30 feet;
length at least 50 to 60 feet.

Hadrosaur
(Duckbill dinosaur)

Figure 23: Examples of Maryland dinosaurs.

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28) Using the Guide to Maryland Fossils on pages 7-13, 7-14 and 7-15, identify the type, name and age(s) of fossils A-O
provided in your fossil specimen tray and enter the information in Table 2, below.

Fossil Fossil type Fossil Name Fossil age(s)

O
Table 2: Table for identifying Maryland fossils.

For the following questions, refer to the geologic time scale (Appendix 1) and the map of Maryland fossils (Figure 24,
next page).

29) You find a rock with fossils A, B, F, K, and N in it. What era did this rock come from: Cenozoic, Mesozoic or Paleozoic?

30) What part of Maryland is this rock most likely from: Western Maryland, West-central Maryland, East-central Maryland,
Western Shore Maryland or Eastern Shore Maryland?

31) You find a rock with fossils H and I in it. What part of Maryland is this rock most likely from: Western Maryland, West-
central Maryland, East-central Maryland, Western Shore Maryland or Eastern Shore Maryland?

32) You find a rock with fossils E, G and L in it. What is the probable age of this rock?

33) You find a rock with fossils C, J, M and O in it. What era did this rock come from: Cenozoic, Mesozoic or Paleozoic?

34) What part of Maryland is this rock most likely from: Western Maryland, West-central Maryland, East-central Maryland,
Western Shore Maryland or Eastern Shore Maryland?

35) In what part of Maryland will you not find any fossils? Why?

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 CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF MARYLAND AND THEIR LOCALES

Western Maryland West-central Maryland East-central Maryland

Basic fossil types

Trilobites Pelecypods
Brachiopods Cephalopods
Gastropods Shark’s teeth
Western Shore Maryland
Plants

Basic rock types

Cenozoic sedimentary
Eastern Shore Maryland
Mesozoic sedimentary

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Late Paleozoic sedimentary
Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

Early Paleozoic sedimentary

Paleozoic igneous
Precambrian metamorphic
Figure 24: A simplified geologic map of Maryland showing where common Maryland fossils are located. Note that the fossil icons
represent what fossils are found in that rock type, showing the location of the most common fossils in Maryland.

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 Earth and Beyond - An Introduction to Earth-Space Science Lab Manual

GUIDE TO MARYLAND FOSSILS

TRILOBITES

Olenellus thompsoni Trinucleus concentricus Isotelus maximus Phacops rana

(Cambrian) (Ordovician) (Ordovician) (Devonian)
BRACHIOPODS

Eatonia sinuata
(Devonian)
Dinorthis pectinella
Obolella minor Rafinesquina alternata (Ordovician)
(Cambrian) (Ordovician)

Spirifer mesastrialis
(Devonian)

Spirifer keokuk
(Carboniferous-Permian)
Marginifera muricata
Productus semireticulatus Terebratula harlani
(Carboniferous-Permian)
(Carboniferous-Permian) (Cretaceous)
GASTROPODS

Turbinella Turritella
alabamensis vertebroides Turritella Mangilia
Polynices duplicatus
(Cretaceous) (Cretaceous) plebeia parva
(Pleistocene)
(Miocene) (Miocene)

Pleurotoma Ilyanassa
Oliva litterata tysoni obsoleta Spirorbis gyrus Fulgur fusiforme
(Miocene) (Eocene) (Pleistocene) (Devonian) (Miocene)

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PELECYPODS

Allorisma terminale Asaphis centenaria

(Carboniferous-Permian) Arca staminea
(Miocene) (Miocene)

Exogyra costata
Ostrea compressirostra (Cretaceous)
(Eocene)
Pecten madisonius
(Miocene)
Isocardia markoëi
(Miocene)

Pterinea nodocosta Chione alveata Ostrea falcata Grammysia arcuata

(Devonian) (Miocene) (Cretaceous) (Devonian)

CEPHALOPODS

Orthoceras constrictum Belemnitella americana Ammonites vanuxemi

(Devonian) (Cretaceous) (Cretaceous)
SHARK’S TEETH AND RAY PLATES
(NOTE: All of these samples shown are Miocene in age)

Oxyrhina Oxyrhina Odontaspis Odontaspis Otodus Carcharias

Oxyrhina desorii hastalis sillimani elegans cuspidata obliquus incidens

Carcharias Carcharias Notidanus Aëtobatis

laevissimus egertoni primigenius arcuatus Myliobatis pachyodon
Ray plates

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TREE BARK

Lepidodendron Sigillaria Calamites

(Carb.-Perm) (Carb.-Perm) (Carb.-Perm)

PLANT LEAVES

Widdringtonites Cheirolepis
(Cretaceous) (Traissic)
Mariopteris
(Carb.-Perm)
Equisetum
(Traissic) Taeniopteris
(Carb.-Perm)

Moriconi Sphenopteris Asterophyllites Alethopteris Sphenophyllum

(Cretaceous) (Carb.-Perm) (Carb.-Perm) (Carb.-Perm) (Carb.-Perm)

© 2008 Kendall Hunt Publishing Company and Brent Zaprowski 7-15