UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

WHAT THIS UNIT ALL ABOUT?

Human history abounds with problems. Problems are everywhere in different variety in different
perspective which affect mankind. Problems are observed along political, social, environmental and many
aspects of life. This may between individuals, groups or in an organization. In that, mankind wants solution to
these problems. These solutions should not be only effective but also be acquired and used for improvement.
To be able to achieve that, solutions must be based in knowledge, not on mere beliefs, guesses, or theories. To
acquire this knowledge it requires a well-planned and systematic procedure and should be continuously
evaluated on its accuracy and usefulness. In that, RESEARCH has been devised to meet this need.

Research is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. It may in the form of qualitative or
quantitative. Qualitative researches are those studies in which the data concerned can be described without the
use of numerical data while quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of
numbers.

Quantitative research designs use numbers in stating generalizations about a given problem or inquiry
in contrast to qualitative research that hardly uses statistical treatment in stating generalizations. The numbers
in quantitative research are the results of objective scales of measurements of the units of analysis called
variables.

Research findings are subjected to statistical treatment to determine significant relationships or

differences between variables, the results of which are the bases for generalization about phenomena.

In this unit, you will be encountering also the characteristics of quantitative research, its strength and
weaknesses, its kinds and importance across disciplines. In here also, we will be tackling kinds of variables and
its uses.

DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable

phenomena through the use of computational techniques. It highlights numerical analysis of data
hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and
explain a particular observation. Simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its
relationship with events.
The quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of
numbers. An example that we can give for this study is a study comparing the performance of Grade
12 in SMCC and SC in Physical Science when ICT is integrated in teaching. This can be approached
by getting the average performance of both schools before and after integrating ICT. Then the averages
can be compared and analyzed to see the differences or effectiveness. In this case, numbers are used as
data for analysis. Another is surveying what do viewers in Burgos, La Union prefer to watch: is it
GMA dramarama or ABS-CBN Golden Kapamilya noontime show. In here, it may be approached by
making a survey questionnaire asking for the preference of viewers in Burgos, La Union.
 May you now give your own example of a quantitative research?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. OBJECTIVE. Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts.
It is not based on mere intuition and guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or
solution to a problem.
2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS. The researchers know in advance what they
are looking for. The research questions are well-defined for which objective answers are sought.
All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS. Standardized instruments guide data collection,
thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Data are normally gathered using
structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the
population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among others.
4. NUMERICAL DATA. Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to
show trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you
to see the evidence collected.
5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population
distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how the
characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in determining the
sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
6. REPLICATION. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus
strengthen and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.
7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of
computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results. Quantitative
research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

STRENGTHS and WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGHTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 The advantages of quantitative research includes the following:
1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new
hypothesis or to disproving it. Because of bigger number of the sample of a population, the
results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides numerical data, it
can’t be easily misinterpreted.
2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to
comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data.
3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors,
and so can be seen as real and unbiased.
4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically
valid random models, findings can be generalized to the population about which
information is necessary.
5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be
replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings.
6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to
follow.

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the
larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the
expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing
questionnaires.

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

 3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain
variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the
respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research.
4. Much information are difficult to gather using structured research instruments,
specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and
inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing
in answering the instrument.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research?

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will
effectively address the research problem. Furthermore, a research design constitutes the
blueprint for the selection, measurement and analysis of data. The research problem determines
the research you should.
Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys,
or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.
The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the
extent to which the findings will be used. Quantitative research designs are generally classified
Design
Control Group
Post-Test only/
Post-Test Design
Pre-Test Design

EXPERIMENTAL

into experimental and non-experimental as the following matrix below.

TRUE
Time Series Design
Group Design
Non-equivalent Control

EXPERIMENTAL

EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Post-Test Design
One Group Pre-Test
One Shot Case Study

EXPERIMENTAL
PRE-

NON-EXPERIMENTAL
Ex-Post Facto Studies
Methodological

DESCRIPTIVE
Correlational
Comparative
Evaluative

Survey

The following are the various kinds of quantitative research design that a researcher may employ:

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN. This allows the researcher to control the situation. In
doing so, it allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?” This
kind of research also allows the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between
variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects. Further, this research design
supports the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the
study; the approach provides the highest degree level of evidence for single studies.

A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. A type of research apply to experimental design that

with least internal validity. One type of pre-experiment, the simple group, pre-test-post-test
design, measures the group two times, before and after the intervention.
Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the
posttest of the treated groups is compared with that of an untreated group. Measuring the
effect as the difference between groups marks this as between-subjects design. Assuming
both groups experienced the same time-related influences, the comparison group feature
should protect this design from the rival explanations that threaten the within-subject
design.

Two classes of experimental design that can provide better internal validity than pre-experimental
designs are: quasi-experimental and true experimental design (Dooly, 1999).

B. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this design, the researcher can collect more
data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more existing measures. Quasi-
experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without
any random pre-selection processes. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a
class might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The
division is often convenient and, especially in an educational situation, causes as little
disruption as possible. After this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very similar way
to any other experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or over
a period of time.
There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these are:
a. Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance failure of random
assignment to equalize the conditions by converting a true experiment into this
kind of design, for purpose of analysis.
b. Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures before and
after the experimental intervention. It differs from the single-group pre-
experiment that has only one pretest and one posttest. Users of this design
assume that the time threats such as history or maturation appear as regular
changes in the measures prior to the intervention.
C. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and group-related
threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more differently treated groups; and
random assignment to these groups. These features require that the researchers have
control over the experimental treatment and the power to place subjects in groups.
True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to deal with
time-related rival explanations.
A control group reflects changes other than those due to the treatment that
occur during the time of the study. Such changes include effects of outside events,
maturation by the subjects, changes in measures and impact of any pre-tests.
True experimental design offers the highest internal validity of all the designs.
Quasi-experimental design differs from true experimental design by the absence of random
assignment of subjects to different conditions. What quasi-experiments have in common
with true experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and provide data likely
to reflect its impact.

2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this kind of design, the researcher observes the

phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables are introduced. In this research
design, the variables are not deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled. Researchers
collect data without making changes or introducing treatments. This may also called as
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN because it is only one under non-experimental design.
UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN’s main purpose is to observe, describe and
document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for
hypothesis generation or theory development.
The types of descriptive design are as follows:

A. SURVEY. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and

studying samples chosen from a population. This is useful when the objective of
the study is to see general picture of the population under investigation in terms of
their social and economic characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge about the
behavior towards a certain phenomenon.
B. CORRELATIONAL. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find
out the direction, associations and/or relationship between different variables or
groups of respondents under study. Correlational Research has three types, these
are:
a. Bivariate Correlational Studies – It obtains score from two variables for
each subject, and then uses them to calculate a correlation coefficient. The
term bivariate implies that the two variables are correlated (variables are
selected because they are believed to be related).
Example: Children of wealthier (variable one), better educated (variable 2)
parents earn higher salaries as adults.

b. Prediction Studies – It uses correlation coefficient to show how one

variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the criterion variable).
Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to college?

c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies – All variables in the study can

contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that adds together the
predictive power of each identified variable.
Example: Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole predictor of
college GPA, what might be other good predictors?

C. EX-POST FACTO or CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE. This kind of research

derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in
the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and
how a phenomenon occurs.
Example 1: A researcher is interested in how weight influences stress-coping level
of adults. Here the subjects would be separated into different groups (underweight,
normal, overweight) and their stress-coping levels measured. This is an ex post
facto design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the
groups.
Example 2: What is the Effect of Home Schooling on the Social Skills of
Adolescents?

D. COMPARATIVE. It involves comparing and contrasting two or more samples of

study subjects on one or more variables, often at a single point of time.
Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of
selected attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions, and attitudes, physical or
psychological symptoms.
Example: A comparative Study on the Health Problems among Rural and Urban
People in Ilocos Region, Philippines.

E. NORMATIVE. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given behavior.

For example: If you are conducting a research on the study habits of the high
school students you are to use the range of score to describe the level of their study
habits. The same true is when you would want to describe their academic
performance.

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

 F. EVALUATIVE. It is a process used to determine what has happened during a
given activity or in an institution. The purpose of evaluation is to see if a given
program is working, an institution is successful according to the goals set for it, or
the original intent was successfully attained. In other words, in evaluation
judgments can be in the forms of social utility, desirability, or effectiveness of a
process. For example, we can cite here a situation. In evaluation study, it will not
just be considering the performance of the students who were taught under
modular instruction; instead, it is the rate of progress that happened among the
students who were exposed to modular instruction.
Example: A test of children in school is used to assess the effectiveness of
teaching or the deployment of a curriculum.

G. METHODOLOGICAL. In this approach, the implementation of a variety of

methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scale-
matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be integrated.

KEEP THIS IN MIND.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
– use numbers in stating generalization about
a given problem or inquiry
STRENGHT WEAKNESSES
Objectivity CHARACTERISTICS Requires large number of
Respondents
Real & Unbiased OBJECTIVE
Facilitates Sophisticated Costly
CLEARLY DEFINED Contextual Factors are
Analysis
Analyzed in quick & easy RESEARCH QUESTIONS ignored
way STRUCTURED RESEARCH Difficult to gather data
Replicable INSTRUMENTS Little glitch in the
Useful in Testing NUMERICAL DATA procedure leads to
Qualitative Research LARGE SAMPLE SIZES incomplete and
REPLICATION inaccurate data
FUTURE OUTCOMES

EXPERIMENTAL NON-EXPERIMENTAL/
DESCRIPTIVE

SURVEY
TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

CORRELATIONAL
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL

EX POST FACTO

COMPARATIVE

NORMATIVE

EVALUATIVE

METHODOLOGICAL

LESSON 2: IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS VARIOUS FIELDS

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

 People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to improve or enhance
ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or
solutions to problems in daily life. Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws,
rules and regulations, as well as policies, among others. Widely, quantitative research is often used because of
its emphasis on proof rather than discovery.
In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention. Then, only the
faculty in higher education has so much interest and conduct researchers, but now even the teachers in the basic
education are engrossed in researches and devote time and effort in conducting researches to improve
educational practices that may lead to more quality learning of the students. Many teachers do action
researches because there is a serious need to identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education. By
doing so, they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding the problems met.
Innovative teaching strategies are product of research.
In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical investigation of
observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection
between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use quantitative research
designs like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, true-experiment, case study, among others.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT (ABM)

Researches can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure the
development of product is highly targeted towards demand. Businessmen can also utilize research results to
guarantee sufficient distribution of their products and decide where they need to increase their product
distribution. Conducting researches can also help a business determine whether now is the proper time to open
another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small business decide if a
procedure or strategy should be change to meet the requirements of the customer base. Research is important
for any organization to remain in the market. The primary function of research in ABM is to correctly
determine its customers and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most feasible location, deliver
quality goods and services, analyze what the competitors are doing and find ways on how to continuously
satisfy the growing and varied needs of the clients.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative research data. It is
concerned with exploring connections simultaneously, amidst cultural differences, alternatives and identity. In
the contemporary academic, socio-cultural and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic
overtones.
Quantitative research is use in Anthropology in many aspects. Like, true experiments may use in
studying people provided that you follow certain steps (Bernard, 2004). This is to look into the Effects of an
intervention in ethnic behavior of a group. In here, you need at least two groups, called the treatment group and
the control group. On group gets the intervention and the other group don’t. Next, individuals may be randomly
assigned, either to the intervention group or to the control group to ensure that the groups are equivalent. Then,
the groups are measured on one or more dependent variables; this is called the pre-test. After which, the
intervention is introduced. Lastly, the dependent variables are measured again. This is the post test.
True in experiments with people in laboratory are also common. Laboratory experiments often produce
results that beg to be tested in the natural world by Anthropologists. Aaron and Mills (1959, as cited by
Bernard, 2004) demonstrated in a lab experiment that people who go through severe initiation to a group tend
to be more positive toward the group than are people who go through a mild initiation. They reasoned that
people who go through tough initiation rites put a lot of personal investments into getting into the group. Later,
if people see evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are reluctant to admit the fact
because of the investments.
In Field, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3 year ethnographic study in middle school. During
the first year, they noticed that African-American and while children seemed to react differently to “mildly
aggressive acts’ – things like bumping in the hallway, poking one another in the classroom, asking for food, or
using another student’s pencil without permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the
school, but during interviews while students were more likely to report being intimidated by their African-
American peers than vice versa (Sagar & Schofield, 1980, as cited by Bernard, 2004)

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION

Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular communication phenomenon

might generalize to a larger population. For example, researchers can advance questions like “What Effect do
punitive behavioral control statements have on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated
with different stages in romantic relationships? What communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-
workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009)
UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE
Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an alternative way of medicating an
illness. An example is the research done by University of Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship
between mushrooming of fast food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention needed to prevent children’s
obesity from reaching serious proportions. The research focused on the children’s physical activity and
physical inactivity and the concomitant impact on the children’s amount of adipose tissue (fat mass) and the
endurance fitness. The study is used to analyze certain the effect of physical activity in weight control.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION

Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly observational research based on

surveys or correlational studies. The designs test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or
assessment with an experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group learners may allow
researchers to overcome validity concerns and infer potential cause-effect generalizations. Researchers are
using to cope with the emerging trends in recent times.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Relationship Questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one behavior exhibited by
people is related to other types of behavior. Examples are verbally aggressive behaviors related to physical
aggression – that is, when a person has a level of verbally aggressive behavior, does he or she tend to be
physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor communication skills related to the emotional experiences of
employees?
Questions of difference explore how patterns of behavior or perceptions might differ from one group or
type of a person to another: Do people with disabilities experience emotional labor differently from those
without disabilities? Do women perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently form men? Do communication
styles differ from one culture to the next? (Alle, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009).
When quantitative researchers explore questions of differences or questions of relationships, they do so
in an attempt to uncover certain patterns of behavior. If the researcher discovers that a certain relationship
exists in sample that she or he has drawn form the population, she/he is then in a position to draw
generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems. Suppose a researcher has
invented a technique for improving reading comprehension among third graders. She/he selects two third grade
classes in a school district. One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t. Students are measured
before and after the intervention to see whether their reading scores improve. This design contains many of the
elements of true experiment, but the participants are not assigned randomly to the treatment and control groups.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and PSYCHOLOGY

Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early psychological research were
positivism and its successor, post positivism. Positivism is based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that
originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant. the underlying
assumptions of positivism include the belief that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations of a causal
nature can be provided.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, and

MATHEMATICS
Medical practitioners, for example, conduct researches to obtain significant information about diseases
trends and risk factors, results of various health interventions, patterns of care and health care cost and use. The
different approaches to research provide complementary insights. Researchers help in determining the
effectiveness and even side effect of drugs and therapies in different populations and various institutions. It is
also necessary in evaluating experiences in clinical practice in order to develop mechanisms for best practices
and to ensure high quality patient care. Researchers in these fields ultimately aim for man’s longevity.
As for engineers, architects, and other builders, research helps in providing designs which are
creatively beautiful and at the same time give more convenience and efficiency as they utilize modern
technology to adapt to the ever changing society. New materials and procedures may be developed so as to
further strengthen the structural materials than can withstand various calamities and disasters.

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

 LESSON 3: KINDS OF VARIABLES and THEIR USES

THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In
research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties”
(Sevilla and Other, 1988). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages
of different persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight and income. The phenomenon of
variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking.
The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the
fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and
theory. Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be
words or numbers.
A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an organization that can
be measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).

TYPES OF VARIABLES (ALLEN, TITSWORTH, HUNT, 2009)

1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur
within the population. Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this type of variable
include age, height, and temperature. Continuous variables can be further categorized as:
a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers.
It is a measurement where the difference between two values does have meaning. Examples of
interval data include temperature, a person’s net worth (how much money you have when you
subtract your debt from your assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the difference
between a temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees
and 20 degrees. The interval between values makes sense and can be interpreted.
b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when
there is absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of
zero, indication that there is none of that variable. Examples of which are height, weight, and
distance. Most scores stemming from response to survey items are ratio-level values because they
typically cannot go below zero. Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit
is not a ratio variable because 0 under these temperatures scales does not mean no temperature at
all.
2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable. This is any
variable that has limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like sex,
blood group, and number of children in family. Discrete variable may also categorized into:
a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It
is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does not imply ordering
of cases. Common examples of this variable include eye color, business type, religion, biological
sex, political affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal scale with only two
categories just like sex is known as dichotomous.
b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest.
This variable has two or more categories which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable
include education level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if you asked people if they
liked listening to music while studying and they could answer either “NOT VERY MUCH”,
“MUCH”, “VERY MUCH” then you have an ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we
cannot place a value to them. In this type, distances between attributes do not have any meaning.
For example, you used educational attainment as a variable on survey, you might code elementary
school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2, college undergraduate = 3, and college graduate = 4. In
this measure, higher number means greater education. Even though we can rank these from lowest
to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables.
The distance between 3 and 4 is not the same with the distance between 1 and 2.

KINDS OF VARIABLES

Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of variables:
UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH
 1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are
invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable
or the one responsible for the conditions that act on something else to bring about changes.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS
senior high school students. STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the
outcome or the performance of the students.

2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes
or results of the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS
senior high school students. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is
depending on the study habits of the students; if the students change their study habit the academic
performance also change.

3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent

and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable.
EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards
payment is negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is
positive or favorable, loan repayment would be high.

FARM ATTITUDE
LOAN
PRODUCTION TOWARDS REPAYMENT
REPAYMENT

DV IV DV

4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study
because they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g.
analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that
need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable
can be determined.

5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study.
They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the
influence of confounding variables after the study has been completed, because these variables may
have operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variable,
but they were not or could not be easily assessed.

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH