Notes

Introduction: Robinson Crusoe, the Child, and the People

1 See Ian Watt’s Rise of the Novel, especially pp. 30–4, for his definition of
‘formal realism.’ The status of formal realism as the central component of
a definition of the novel has been vigorously contested over the last few
decades, perhaps most notably by Nancy Armstrong in Desire and Domestic
Fiction.
2 On the subject of Crusoe’s individualism, see Watt, ch. 3, ‘“Robinson
Crusoe,” Individualism and the Novel.’ A number of critics have discussed
Robinson Crusoe in the context of colonial expansion, among them,
Firdous Azim in The Colonial Rise of the Novel, in which she coins the
term ‘sovereign subject,’ and Edward Said in Culture and Imperialism. For
more sustained postcolonial readings of Robinson Crusoe, see Peter Hulme’s
Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1497–1797, especially
ch. 5 ‘Robinson Crusoe and Friday’ and Brett C. McInelly’s ‘Expanding
Empires, Expanding Selves: Colonialism, the Novel, and Robinson Crusoe’
(Studies in the Novel 35.1 [2003]: 1–21). Robert Markley has challenged
the Crusoe-as-triumphant colonizer reading recently, arguing instead that
the sequels to Robinson Crusoe exhibit a strong anxiety and uncertainty
over Britain’s status as world power given Chinese trade and military
prominence in the period; see ‘“I have Now Done With My Island, and
All Manner of Discourse About It:” Crusoe’s Farther Adventures and the
Unwritten History of the Novel.’
3 See, for example, Stephen Hymer’s ‘Robinson Crusoe and the Secret of
Primitive Accumulation’ (Monthly Review 23 [1971]: 11–36).
4 Virginia Woolf remarked of Robinson Crusoe that it ‘resembles one of the
anonymous productions of the race itself rather than the effect of a single
mind’ (89); Ian Watt, in Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote,
Don Juan, Robinson Crusoe, describes Crusoe as a ‘reflection of the virtues
and vices of the English character’ and his story as ‘the epic of the stiff
upper lip’ (171).
5 See J. Donald Crowley’s ‘Introduction’ to the Oxford World’s Classics edi-
tion of Robinson Crusoe, vii.
6 For a comprehensive discussion of the early evolution of the robinsonade,
see Artur Blaim’s ‘The English Robinsonade of the Eighteenth Century.’
7 Chartier describes ‘appropriation’ as a kind of popular usage of elite cul-
tural materials, in which common readers, for example, take elements
from elite literature, adapting and altering these elements to fit their own
interests and needs. See Chartier’s ‘Culture as Appropriation: Popular cul-
tural Uses in Early Modern France.’

159
160 Notes

8 See my own The Making of the Modern Child: Children’s Literature and
Childhood in the Late Eighteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2003). Some
of the early, important studies setting the groundwork for my own and
other similar studies include Isaac Kramnick’s ‘Children’s Literature and
Bourgeois Ideology: Observations on Culture and Industrial Capitalism
in the Later Eighteenth Century’ (Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 12
[1983]: 11–44); Alan Richardson’s Literature, Education, and Romanticism:
Reading as Social Practice, 1780–1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1994); Samuel F. Pickering Jr.’s Moral Instruction and Fiction for
Children, 1749–1820 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993); Mary
V. Jackson’s Engines of Instruction, Mischief, and Magic: Children’s Literature
in England from its Beginnings to 1839 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press, 1989); and Patricia Demers’ Heaven upon Earth: The Form of Moral
Children’s Literature to 1850 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press,
1993). Philippe Ariès’ Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life
(Trans. Robert Baltick. New York: Vintage Books, 1962), with its asser-
tion that childhood as we know it did not exist before the Early Modern
period, remains the touchstone for constructivist histories of childhood
and children’s literature.
9 For Burke’s full account of this discovery, see ch. 1, ‘The Discovery of the
People’ in his Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe.
10 Warnings about children picking up vicious habits or irrational super-
stitions (about ghosts and witches, most commonly) from the lower
classes, especially servants, abound in the period’s children’s literature,
pedagogical theory, and medical advice books. See my The Making of the
Modern Child, 42–3, for an example of the psychological dangers writers
for children believed the ghost stories of servants posed to children of the
more privileged classes.
11 See Rosemary Sweet’s rich study of antiquarians, Antiquaries, for a full pic-
ture of the development of this field of enquiry in Britain. While Sweet
demonstrates that studies of popular customs like Brand’s made up only
a small and fairly late-arriving part of the field (local histories, accounts
of the ancient Britons, and studies of ancient architectural ruins made up
a much greater part of antiquarian scholarship), Brand’s work was enor-
mously influential in his time. According to David Vincent, ‘The study
of popular culture in Britain begins with the publication in 1777 of John
Brand’s Observations on Popular Antiquities [which] attracted widespread
attention and led to the founding of the Society of Antiquaries in 1784
with Brand as its resident secretary’ (‘Decline’ 22).
12 Charles does get the opportunity to demonstrate his acquired superior
wisdom on a few occasions. For instance, when his uncle describes how
the squabbling ‘petty sovereigns’ of ancient Britain were easily defeated
by the Romans, Charles can apply a lesson learned from ‘a fable, which
I read the other day. An old man observing his children to be always
quarrelling, desired them to bring him a bundle of sticks, which while
they were tied up closely together, could not be broken; but when the
bands were cut, they were taken out one by one, and easily destroyed’
 Notes 161

(17). Charles recognizes the childishness of the ancient Britons and is,
unlike those mired in the ignorant past, able to move past it, in part at
least because of the advantages of literacy.
13 See Susan Pederson, ‘Hannah More Meets Simple Simon: Tracts,
Chapbooks, and Popular Culture in Late Eighteenth-Century England’
( Journal of British Studies 25.1 [1986], 84–113) for an insightful study of
More’s efforts at popular reform through the distribution of religious
tracts.
14 Brand singles out such cruelties as bear-baiting and the shrove Tuesday
tradition of ‘throwing at cock’ for particular condemnation as examples
of popular practices dangerously out of step with modernity and that ‘we
wish consigned to eternal oblivion . . . fit only for the bloodiest savages,
and not for humanized men’ (I: 76).
15 David Vincent observes that John Brand – who sought to reform a
dangerous popular culture – and the more Romantic-inclined Walter
Scott – who sought to preserve a cherished tradition threatened by
the onslaught of modernity – were more similar than different in their
‘approach to the material’ they studied. Both were informed by the same
assumptions about their subject: ‘that the popular culture under investi-
gation was fundamentally apart from and antecedent to that which the
collectors belonged; and that its central element, the oral tradition, was
in decline’ (23).
16 De Certeau points out the peculiar paradox of antiquarian studies of the
people, which assert the childlike status of the people yet in which chil-
dren themselves are generally conspicuously absent (‘Heterologies’ 131).
17 Robert Muchembled paints an even starker picture of a Church and State
assault on the people in eighteenth-century France that infantilized and
disarmed a once robust popular culture: ‘And the popular masses, in
many ways, were terrorized and reduced to a childlike state, which made
them all the more submissive. This childlike state was induced by the
diffusion of a new mass culture, alienating and extremely different from
their traditional view of the world’ (234).
18 De Certeau observes that the search for ‘a lost origin’ that character-
izes the study of popular culture is predicated on ‘the elimination of
popular menace’ in the present (128), which accounts for the silence
in these studies on such dimensions of popular experience as sexuality
and violence (131). These are, not coincidentally, two of the ‘funda-
mental characteristics of popular culture’ that were ‘expunged’ during
its transformation into children’s literature and culture (133). The asso-
ciation between a safe, sanitized model of rustic life and childhood is
still deployed in political discourse today. As Henry Jenkins remarks of
Hillary Clinton’s use of the village metaphor in the title of her book,
It Takes a Village, ‘its evocation of the organic communities of small-
town American life, depends upon the historic linkage of childhood
innocence to pastoralism’ (12).
19 In his seminal study of European childhood, Centuries of Childhood:
A Social History of Family Life, Ariès claims that much of what we take for
162 Notes

granted as ‘natural’ to the experience of childhood did not exist until the
early modern period. His argument has been critiqued from a number
of quarters; for example Nicholas Orme has identified characteristics of
a distinct childhood in the medieval period, and Anthony Fletcher has
argued that the history of childhood in England is characterized more by
continuity than by change. See Orme’s Medieval Children (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2001) and Fletcher’s Growing up in England: The
Experience of Childhood 1600–1914 (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2008).
20 Alan Richardson traces the parallel ‘rise of the children’s and “popular”
literature industries’ in the late eighteenth century to ‘a discursive and
social matrix . . . which tended to equate child and laborer with “rustic”
and “savage”’ (1994: xiv). The pedagogical impetus of the period was
informed by this matrix of associations.
21 The celebration of ‘spontaneity’ as a lost, longed for quality innate
to both the people and children is rightly, if cynically, exposed by de
Certeau as disingenuous: ‘The child’s spontaneity is one thing adults are
supposed to lack, but this divergence is a ruse that only increases adults’
confidence in their knowledge’ (132).
22 As Robert Rosenblum remarks in his study of Runge’s quintessentially
Romantic paintings of children, they visually depict a similar sensibility
to what von Arnim and Bretano express: ‘a state of natural innocence and
religious purity so primal’ that it evokes ‘a sacred beginning to a radiantly
new and magical world’ (9). Runge is part of the emerging trend to imag-
ine a childhood both ‘natural’ and ‘primal’ in stark contrast to modernity
and adulthood, a ‘subculture of authentic childhood, whose rules appear
more and more differentiated from those of adults’ (14).
23 See, for example, Svetlana Boym’s The Future of Nostalgia, in which she
describes nostalgia as a ‘response to the Enlightenment’ and as ‘rebellion
against the modern idea of time, the time of history and progress’ (12; xv).
24 As Henry Jenkins points out, ‘The myth of childhood innocence’ that is
still very much operational today relies not only on ‘a clear separation
between childhood and adulthood’ with origins in the Romantic era,
but also ‘upon our sense of nostalgic loss when we cross irreversibly into
adulthood’ (14).
25 See Bettelheim’s enormously influential but now largely discredited study
of the meanings and therapeutic value of fairy tales in child psychol-
ogy, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales
(New York: Vintage Books, 1977).
26 See Starr’s Defoe & Spiritual Autobiography (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1965).
27 For his discussion of how working-class readers read Robinson Crusoe, see
Rose’s The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes, esp. 104–11. For
Preston’s discussion of Crusoe chapbooks, see his ‘Rethinking Folklore,
Rethinking Literature: Looking at Robinson Crusoe and Gulliver’s Travels as
Folktales. A Chapbook-Inspired Inquiry.’ Both these studies are discussed
at greater length in Chapter 3.
 Notes 163

28 Marvel released a more action-oriented remediation of the novel in

Marvel Classics Comics no. 19, which follows the aesthetics of the
superhero comic more closely than did the Classics Illustrated version.
Examples of Crusoe-themed comic book narratives abound and feature
such cartoon protagonists as Captain Marvel (Captain Marvel Adventures
no. 30) and Superboy (Adventure Comics no. 276).
29 Gillis cites German scholars Helga and Hartmut Zeiher as coining the
term ‘islanding’ to describe the adult practice of developing and main-
taining distinct, child-specific spaces and experiences (316).

1 Performing Crusoe and Becoming Crusoes: the

Pedagogical uses of Robinson Crusoe in the Eighteenth
and Nineteenth Centuries
1 The exceptions are Crusoe’s own three children, mentioned in one sen-
tence at the very end of the novel, and possibly Xury, who is referred to
as a ‘boy,’ but is likely an adolescent or young man given his ability to
take the helm of a boat and later to skin a lion.
2 Ian Watt offers the following by way of explanation for the success of
Robinson Crusoe as children’s literature: ‘no sex; no complicated plot; no
sophisticated conversations – only a man in the position of a child, imag-
ining how he can secure his daily needs all on his own’ (175). I do not con-
test this assessment, but wish to propose a more elaborate consideration of
how the novel was adapted to the pedagogical enterprise of the period.
3 The attention paid to Crusoe’s domestic arrangements in both the origi-
nal and children’s abridgements is discussed at length in Chapter 2.
4 Most scholars now take the influence of Locke and Rousseau on eight-
eenth-century pedagogy and child-rearing as a given. See, for an early
study of Locke’s influence, Margaret Ezell’s ‘John Locke’s Images of
Childhood: Early Eighteenth Century Responses to Some Thoughts
Concerning Education’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 17.2 [1983–84]: 139–55).
See also, Christina Hardyment’s Dream Babies: Childcare Advice from Locke
to Gina Ford (London: Frances Lincoln, 2007. This is an updated ver-
sion of her 1983 study Dream Babies: Child care from Locke to Spock; and
David Archard’s ‘John Locke’s Children,’ The Philosopher’s Child: Critical
Perspectives in the Western Tradition. Ed. Susan M. Turner and Gareth
B. Matthews. (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998. 85–103.)
For Rousseau in England, see W. A. C. Stewart and W. P. McCann’s The
Educational Innovators, 1750–1880 (3 vols. London: Macmillan, 1967),
although their assertion that ‘Few books have had a greater immediate
effect on English educational thought than Rousseau’s Emile’ (I: 23) has
been disputed more recently.
5 Rousseau famously called Robinson Crusoe the ‘one book which, to my
thinking, supplies the best treatise on an education according to nature’
(III: 147). It was also the one exception to his general rejection of any
reading material for Emile: ‘This book will be the first that my Emile will
164 Notes

read. For a long time it will alone compose his whole library, and it will
always hold a distinguished place there’ (III: 184).
6 Maria Edgeworth’s two-volume Practical Education (1798), written with
her father, Richard Lovell Edgeworth was one of the most successful edu-
cational treatises of the age, reprinted regularly well into the nineteenth
century.
7 I became aware of Budden’s remarks on Robinson Crusoe from, and so owe
a debt of gratitude to, Matthew Grenby’s The Child Reader, 1700–1840.
8 This edition also makes the curious choice to replace the novel’s first-
person narration with a third-person account, perhaps to mediate the
child reader’s identification with the character and to provide an authori-
tative, omniscient narrative voice. The kinds of changes to the original
narrative publishers of children’s abridgements made are discussed in
greater detail in Chapters 2 and 3.
9 On the pedagogical futility of the precept alone, see, for example, Anna
Barbauld’s essay ‘On Education in The Works of Anna Laetitia Barbauld.
2 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, et al. [1825], 2: 305–20). Edmund Burke
also famously elevated imitation over precept in A Philosophical Enquiry
into the Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful: ‘It is by imitation far
more than by precept that we learn every thing; and what we learn thus
we acquire not only more effectually, but more pleasantly’ (49).
10 In Some Thoughts, Locke refers to the benefits of ‘teaching Children by
a repeated Practice, and the same Action done over and over again,
under the Eye and Direction of the Tutor’ as a way of producing desired
behaviour at an almost automatic level in children: ‘by repeating the
same Action, till it be grown habitual in them, the Performance will not
depend on Memory . . . but will be natural in them’ (122, 120). Locke’s
position was confirmed throughout the eighteenth century by the
period’s associationist theories of mind.
11 Obedience to parents, or the rejection of idleness, for instance, are played
out over and over in children’s books, usually with protagonists know-
ing abstractly what the correct behaviour should be, failing to perform it
then correcting it once the consequences of their miscarriages are expe-
rienced. Barney describes the process of supervisory pedagogy as a ‘cycle
of willfulness, discontent, contrition, and reconciliation’ (230). This cycle
is played out in any number of stories for children, such as, for example,
Edgeworth’s ‘The Purple Jar.’ For an exceptional recent reading of this
famous story, see Perry Nodelman, The Hidden Adult: Defining Children’s
Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
12 Examples of late eighteenth-century children’s books employing the dia-
logue format abound; Lady Eleanor Fenn was one of many practitioners
of the form (see, for example, Rational Sports. In Dialogues Passing Among
the Children of a Family (London: J. Marshall, 1783), and School Dialogues,
for Boys. Being an Attempt to Convey Instruction Insensibly to Their Tender
Minds, and Instill the Love of Virtue. 2 vols. (London: J. Marshall [1783?]).
13 Campe was a remarkable figure in many ways: a leading advocate
of Enlightenment thought in Germany, he was also the Minister of
 Notes 165

Education to the Duke of Brunswick. For an overview of Campe’s career

and thought, as well as of the influential place of The New Robinson
Crusoe, see chapter 4 ‘Robinson der Juengere’ of Green’s The Robinson
Crusoe Story.
14 Intriguingly, the history of the composition of Wyss’ Swiss Family Robinson
bears some resemblance to Campe’s fictional Billingsleys and their famil-
ial recitation of Crusoe’s story. As Karen Sánchez-Eppler remarks, Wyss’
book began as a story he told his four sons after he had read them
Robinson Crusoe aloud. His second son eventually arranged the narrative
from his father’s manuscript notes and had it published. Another son
drew illustrations for the story as it was being told, and Sánchez-Eppler
speculates that incidents, exotic animals, and various other elements of
the story were suggested by the boys as it was unfolding (436–7). As Seth
Lehrer observes of this whole process, The Swiss Family Robinson was a
‘collective performance bequeathed to the child’ (qtd. 438).
15 The technique of rendering Crusoe’s story as a familial dialogue is used
again, albeit not as serious mindedly, a century later by Pheobe Wescott
Humphries, whose eclectic collection of games and stories, What Boys and
Girls Like, features an older brother (Hal) relaying to his younger siblings
(Jeannie and Phil) the content of Robinson Crusoe, which he himself is
currently reading. The dialogue, for example, that emerges after Hal
describes Crusoe’s discovery of the footprint, works to correct potential
‘misreading’ of the novel’s events: ‘“Oh!” cried Jeannie. “Wasn’t he dread-
fully glad?” “Glad?” exclaimed Hal. “No, he was dreadfully sorry.” “But
he would have someone to talk to,” persisted Jeannie. “I’m sure he would
have been glad!” “No, you wouldn’t if you thought as Robinson Crusoe
did, that the footstep was made by a savage, and that all savages were
cannibals!” “What’s a cannibal?” asked Phil’ (n.p).
16 For a fuller discussion of the connection between ‘flap books’ or ‘turn-
ups’ and children’s relation to the theatre, see Jacqueline Reid-Walsh’s
‘Pantomime, Harlequinades and Children in Late Eighteenth-Century
Britain: Playing in the Text’ (British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies
29.3 [2006]: 413–25). Theatre books and ‘juvenile dramas’ as children’s
toys are discussed at greater length in Chapter 5.
17 As Dow indicates, the London Magazine reviewer of de Genlis’s Theatre of
Education ‘writes approvingly of the length of the plays, which are mainly
two acts long, “so that they may easily be performed in private families”’
(368–9). It is worth noting that disapproval of children’s attendance at
public theatre was far from universal in the period. As Peter Borsay has
very persuasively demonstrated, children of the privileged classes were
being brought in increasing numbers to theatres, spas, pleasure gardens,
and other public places of entertainment in the eighteenth century.
Borsay attributes this trend to the period’s (and Locke’s) preference for
experiential learning: ‘school and leisure activities were part of an inte-
grated educational process; what was learned in one could be observed
in the other’ (57). He also makes a clear connection between participa-
tion in public leisure and Locke’s idea of the tabula rasa: ‘It was this that
166 Notes

boosted the demand for pedagogic services associated with fashionable

recreation and which led parents to introduce their offspring to the world
of elite leisure from an early age’ (60).
18 Penny Brown draws attention both to the similarities between dialogue
and theatre for children and to the supervisory power of both forms,
in which ‘the child reader or participant was still very much subject to
the controlling voice of the adult author . . . In performances, the child
“actor” spoke lines written for him or her by an adult and was subject to
the control of the monitoring adult responsible for the direction of the
piece’ (I: 174).
19 Chapter 2 describes at greater length the nature and extent of these
alterations in ‘children’s chapbook’ editions of the novel.
20 Barbara Hofland’s The Young Crusoe, discussed at greater length below,
also stresses the need for the child to recognize its dependence on a
larger social network. Here, the protagonist, 10-year old Charles Crusoe
(no relation), who has been raised in luxury in India, is reminded by his
mother of broader social relations and obligations when he expresses the
desire to live like his hero, Robinson, alone on an island: ‘[she] took pains
in pointing out to him the obligations he was under to the friends and
servants by whom he was surrounded, and how impossible it would be,
for a person accustomed like himself to the comforts and elegancies of
life, to subsist in a state of utter destitution’ (4).
21 ‘Children require . . . tableaux, vivid and natural images that can strike
their imagination, touch their heart, and engrave themselves in their
memory’ (author’s translation).
22 The popularity of this story in England is suggested by the fact that it was
issued – without credit to Genlis – in abridged form by J. Harris of London
in 1804 (and later by Johnson and Warner of Philadelphia in 1809) as The
Little Islanders; or, The Blessings of Industry. This thirty-six page version is
transplanted from Poland to Westmoreland, and the benevolent Count
Sulinski is renamed Sir Robert Bonitas; otherwise the main details of the
story remain essentially the same.
23 Hofland’s novel ends with the joyful reunion of the Crusoe nuclear fam-
ily, a standard ending in the children’s robinsonade genre as discussed in
Chapter 3. We learn in this scene that Mrs Crusoe’s uncle, Mr Robinson,
has recently passed away, leaving to her an estate and a name that will
eventually – once he has legally attained adulthood – come into Charles’
possession. Only then will he have fully and rightly gained the name
‘Robinson Crusoe’, along with the status of fully-articulated, self-sufficient,
adult subject that comes with it, and for which his previous adventures
have so admirably prepared him.
24 Another later example of this sort of musical home theatre is A.
J. Foxwell’s and B. Mansell Ramsey’s Robinson Crusoe. A Cantata or
Operetta for Boys (1896). Here, though, the performance takes on the
more triumphantly imperialistic tones of late nineteenth-century rob-
insonades. Crusoe declares, for instance, his intentions to go to sea in
these noble terms: ‘Why, if foreign countries had never been found out,
 Notes 167

we couldn’t trade with them, could we? And what would become of our
navy and our sailors?’ (9). Crusoe-inspired theatricals also went in the
popular direction of pantomime, discussed at length in Chapter 4.

2 Crusoe Comes Home: Robinsonades and Children’s

Editions of Robinson Crusoe
1 For the purposes of analysis, I group children’s editions and children’s
robinsonades together as versions of the Robinson Crusoe story contrived
to address child readers and expressing adults’ concerns and ideas about
‘the child.’ The main difference, of course, is that robinsonades cast
different characters in adventures similar to those of Crusoe, while chil-
dren’s editions retain the original protagonist and plot elements, altering
Defoe’s narrative to suit the perceived needs and capacities of young
readers.
2 Perhaps the most famous of the animal robinsonades is R. M. Ballantyne’s
The Dog Crusoe and His Master: A Story of Adventure in the Western Prairies
(1860). Beatrix Potter also has an entry in this particular sub-genre: The
Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930).
3 See also McInelly’s ‘Expanding Empires, Expanding Selves.’
4 Armstrong’s observations seem to have been borne out by child read-
ers and the adults who gave them their books. In his study of child
readerships between 1700 and 1840, Matthew Grenby looks at book
inscriptions by and for boys and girls to determine who was typically
reading what books. In the case of Robinson Crusoe, ‘and its many variants
(including abbreviated editions plus J. H. Campe’s New Robinson Crusoe
and J. D. Wyss’s Swiss Family Robinson) . . . this prototypically boys’ book
was inscribed almost as often by boys as by girls’ (2011: 56).
5 See esp. chapter Eight, ‘Private Order and Political Virtue: Domesticity
and the Ruling Class.’
6 The ‘reality’ of separate spheres has been vigourously questioned, espe-
cially in the 1990s, by a number of scholars who rightly point out the
impossibility of clearly and absolutely differentiated spaces and practices
along gender lines. See, for example, Lawrence Klein’s ‘Gender and the
Public Private Distinction in the Eighteenth Century: Some Questions
About Evidence and Analytical Procedure’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 19.1
[1996]: 97–106), Michael McKeon’s ‘The Secret History of Domesticity:
Private, Public, and the Division of Knowledge,’ and for the American
context, Cathy N. Davidson’s ‘No More Separate Spheres!’ (American
Literature 70:3 [1998]: 443–63).
7 See, for example, the children’s chapbook Robinson Crusoe ([Otley]:
Yorkshire J. S. Publishing and Stationary Co. Ltd. [c.1840]).
8 We see a similar degree of regret as well as mention of Crusoe’s suffering
mother in J. Harris’ edition of 1823: ‘It was this day seven years . . . yes,
seven years ago this very day, when, by the vilest ingratitude, I abandoned
the best of fathers, and the fondest of mothers’ (2–3). This edition also
168 Notes

alters the family make up of Defoe’s original, in which Crusoe was the
youngest of three sons, to heighten the pathos of his disobedient act: ‘I was
his only child, and in me all his dearest affections were centred’ (4).
9 The Dundalk edition contains a very similar passage, although it stresses
even further Crusoe’s culpability in his parents’ demise: ‘at this moment
I believe myself the most miserable object living, and heartily repent giv-
ing way to the restless disposition, which made me leave my parents to
grieve and die’ (28–9).
10 Sun-worship served as a colonial trope in the period for primitive and false
religion. In The Female American, for example, the protagonist Unca Eliza
Winkfield comes across and manages to convert and civilize the sun-wor-
shipping natives of a neighbouring island by duping them into believing
the Sun-God had sent her with the instructions that ‘You must . . . do
everything that she commands you’ and ‘You must all believe and do as
she shall instruct you’ (111).
11 At the risk of belabouring the point, I will mention perhaps the most
extravagant of Tytler’s fantasies of castaway comfort. For her birthday, Leila’s
father presents her with an ornate, functioning, wicker coach, drawn by a
wild goat he has painstakingly tamed and trained for this purpose (194).
12 Fleming makes this point in a variety of ways in his article ‘Supplementing
Self.’ See, for example, 209, 216, 217.
13 The building of more ‘permanent’ houses can be understood, along
with tilling the soil, as the kind of investment of labour into the land
that constitutes rightful ownership according to Locke’s theories in Two
Treatises of Govenrment: ‘As much Land as a Man Tills, Plants, Improves,
Cultivates, and can use the Product of, so much is his Property. He by his
Labour does, as it were, inclose it from the Common’ (290–1).
14 While Canadian Crusoes is not set on an island, most robinsonades are,
and the island’s geographical separation from the rest of the world reso-
nates symbolically with the idea of the nuclear family as refuge from the
outside world and as world unto itself. Perhaps the most famous example
of a robinsonade ‘islanding’ its nuclear family in this way is Wyss’ Swiss
Family Robinson.
15 Such a claim, of course, takes on a terrible irony given the impact on
Native populations of, for instance, infections and diseases brought by
European settlers.
16 London: Marks and Sons [c.1876].

3 Poaching on Crusoe’s Island: Popular Reading

and Chapbook Editions of Robinson Crusoe
1 Preston critiques Martin Green’s study of Campe’s The New Robinson
Crusoe, The Swiss Family Robinson and other robinsonades for ignoring
‘chapbook (and other) variants – for other classes and other age groups’
with the result that ‘Green recounted just the Robinson Crusoe story within
bourgeois culture’ (37).
 Notes 169

2 Some indicators I have found useful for making distinctions include: pub-
lisher names, when available, and the other texts with which examples
have been bound in such archives as the British Library. Some abridge-
ments indicate that they are part of a ‘juvenile library’ or provide lists of
other children’s titles for sale by the publisher on their back page, as well.
3 Grenby provides, in The Child Reader, 1700–1840, some strong anecdotal
evidence of children reading the unabridged Robinson Crusoe; for exam-
ple, Jane Du Cane recounted that her grandson, to whom she had given
the book, read it aloud in 1726 when he was only thirteen years old
(114).
4 For a discussion of the anti-chapbook backlash in the late eighteenth
century, see Pederson, ‘Hannah More Meets Simple Simon,’ and my
own Making of the Modern Child, especially chapter 1. As Dennis Denisoff
remarks, anxieties over children’s consumption of the chapbook’s nine-
teenth-century equivalent, the penny dreadful – a format in which
Robinson Crusoe also appeared – produced similar anxieties: ‘pulp fiction
held the potential not only for imaginative escapism but for generating
discontent among the young with their position in the economy’ (18).
5 Victor Neuburg adds to this list of authors whose works ‘enjoyed con-
siderable popularity in their own day’ and were adapted to the chap-
book format: Thomas Delaney, Robert Burns, Allan Ramsay, and Pierce
Egan (6).
6 Ian Watt, in The Rise of the Novel, quotes from Defoe’s essay on
Marlborough’s funeral in Appleby’s Journal (1722), in which he criticizes
popular literature for demeaning the histories of great men, who are ‘to
be hereafter turned into ballad and song, and be sung by old women to
quiet children; or, at the corner of the street, to gather crowds in aid of
the pickpocket and the whore’ (77–8).
7 Rose’s figure for chapbook editions of Robinson Crusoe needs some quali-
fication: certainly not each of these editions was unique or original, and
many are exact reprints of earlier editions merely produced in different
locations and at different times. Robert Barnard, in his introduction to
his facsimile edition of J. Ferraby’s The Life and Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe, of York, Mariner, in A Hull Chapbook, claims ‘There were about 150
London and provincial printings of the abridged Crusoe between 1719
and 1819 but apparently only four variations in the text’ (8). Certainly
more variations exist, especially when nineteenth-century chapbooks
directed specifically at child readers are factored in.
8 According to Chartier, in ‘Culture as Appropriation,’ the common people
‘appropriated’ elements of elite culture to generate alternative and unau-
thorized meanings more congruent with their own beliefs and experi-
ences. Michel de Certeau, in The Practice of Everyday Life, uses the term
tactics to describe a similar form of popular usage that acts in opposition
to the strategies employed by dominant culture to assert meanings and
ensure conformity.
9 The chapbooks on which I focus in this chapter conform mostly to
Simons’s definition. While undated, they were quite certainly all
170 Notes

published before 1800 (except where indicated otherwise), and so prior

to the period in which what can be called ‘children’s chapbooks’ flour-
ished (although, again, the editions considered here would, of course,
have often been available to and read by children as well, and so are by
some definitions, ‘children’s books’). The principal editions I cite in this
chapter are: The History of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner (Warrington:
Printed for the travelling stationers [n.d.]), hereafter cited as Warrington;
The Life of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner (Congleton: J. Dean [n.d.]),
hereafter cited as J. Dean; The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of
York, Mariner (Hull: J. Ferraby [n.d.]), hereafter cited as J. Ferraby; The
Sureprising [sic] Life, and most Strange Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of the
City of York, Mariner (Newcastle: M. Angus and Son [n.d.]), hereafter cited
as M. Angus.
10 See, for example, The Wonderful Life, and Most Surprizing Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe: Faithfully Epitomized from the Three Volumes and adorn’d
with cuts, etc. (London: Hitch and L. Hawes, etc., 1759), a 144-page
abridgement.
11 It was, of course, common, especially in the eighteenth century, for novels
and all manner of more or less elite literary productions to be published
anonymously. For a full discussion, see John Mullan, Anonymity: A Secret
History of English Literature (London: Faber and Faber, 2008). Chapbook
publishing, however, was not particularly concerned about modesty or
protecting authors from libel suits; rather, chapbook narratives simply
did not have and were not concerned with the kind of stable, identifiable,
individual authors who are so central to bourgeois literary and cultural
production.
12 The fact that an image of the footprint appears, for example, on the cover
of Paula Backsheider’s biography of Defoe suggests that it has come to
epitomize not just Robinson Crusoe but Defoe’s work more broadly.
13 For other useful discussions of the footprint scene, see David Marshall,
‘Autobiographical Acts in Robinson Crusoe,’ ELH 71 (2004): 910–11; David
Blewett, Defoe’s Art of Fiction: ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ ‘Moll Flanders,’ ‘Colonel Jack,’
and ‘Roxanna’ (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1979), 36–7; and Srinivas
Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans: Colonialism and Agency, 1688–1804 (Durham:
Duke University Press, 1999), 71–5.
14 Some editions include the coda in which Friday and Crusoe shoot wolves
in Pampeluna, and others end with Crusoe’s ‘vision of the angelick world’
excerpted from Defoe’s Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising
Adventures of Robinson Crusoe; With His Vision of the Angelick World
(London: W. Taylor, 1720).
15 The Warrington edition, for example, refers to the leader of the muti-
neers, Will Atkins, as ‘the pirate captain’ (20). Of course, Defoe’s origi-
nal title, perhaps as a lure to popular readers, also mentions ‘pyrates,’
although the text does not.
16 David Vincent, in Literacy and Popular Culture, describes this tendency
of common readers to connect new material to already existing narra-
tives, a feature of oral culture, in terms of economic necessity: ‘Just as a
 Notes 171

purchased item of clothing would extend rather than displace an existing

wardrobe, so a ballad or chapbook would feed into rather than expel the
established repertoire of songs and verses’ (Literacy 198). The appreciation
of novelty in reading is partly a function of economic privilege.
17 By way of some qualifications to my assertion that chapbooks address
first plebeian readers: Barry Reay concludes that chapbooks ‘certainly
implied elite targeting’ as they were ‘crammed with gentry values, gentry
heroes and heroines, woodcut representations of gentry demeanour and
dress,’ as well as regular ‘mockery of rural and lower-class characters’
(57). Many critics also point to the popularity of chapbooks amongst
the literati such as Boswell and later Wordsworth as an indication that
their appeal went beyond just the lower orders. The former observation
rightly points out that many chapbooks used chivalric romance sources,
although this does not necessarily mean elite readers were the target
audience in the eighteenth century. The latter phenomenon of elite
consumption of chapbooks speaks more to a nostalgic and antiquarian
interest than to the regular consumption of chapbooks by common read-
ers. While he surely read and enjoyed his Dicey books, according to Pat
Rogers, ‘There is no sign that Boswell’s liking for the popular form in any
way affected his judgment of what constituted literature, or how the high
forms should be assessed’ (qtd. in Mullan and Reid, 10). The issue of child
readers of chapbooks is discussed above.
18 A fine example of the use of woodcuts bearing no connection to their
text occurs in the M. Angus chapbook discussed in this chapter. The last
image of the text depicts a bare-breasted woman holding two snakes,
presumably Cleopatra. Unfortunately, I was unable to secure a reproduc-
tion of this woodcut for this chapter, although the chapbook in which it
appears is available online through Eighteenth-Century Collections Online.
19 Robert Folkenflik, in ‘The Heirs of Ian Watt’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 25
[1991–92]: 203–17), provides a useful overview of some of the key stud-
ies from the 1980s critiquing Watt, including Nancy Armstrong’s Desire
and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1987), and Terry Castle’s Masquerade and Civilization: The
Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century Culture and Fiction (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1986). More recently, Robert Markley has provocatively
called into question the ‘consensus view’ (25) that Robinson Crusoe
enshrines a triumphant, colonial, bourgeois individualism, by pointing
out the anxieties over and inconsistencies in these very discourses in
Defoe’s sequel, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1720).
20 This seems to have been a popular observation, appearing in several
other eighteenth-century chapbook editions, including the J. Ferraby and
J. Dean editions.
21 Chapbook editions often omit any reference to the crop tending that
features so prominently in the original. See, for example, Voyages and
Travels: Being the Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner
(London [n.d.]). More typically, as with the J. Dean edition, chapbooks
emphasize how the island provides abundantly for Crusoe, recounting
172 Notes

the miraculous growth of crops (but not their subsequent cultivation)

from discarded husks, the discovery of Cassava root and sugar cane, and,
of course, the abundance of fish and game. Sowing is mentioned here
only once, and only in passing (12).
22 See Gary Kelly’s ‘Revolution, Reaction, and the Expropriation of Popular
Culture: Hannah More’s “Cheap Repository,”’ Man and Nature/L’Homme et
la Nature 6 (1987): 147–59, for his discussion of the lottery and invest-
ment mentalities.
23 See Chapter 2 for a fuller account of Barney’s discussion of Defoe’s peda-
gogical method.
24 A famous English example of the social elevation of a chapbook hero is
the case of Jack, a farmer’s son, who, for assisting the king’s son, is raised
to the level of Knight of the Round Table by the end of the chapbook
The History of Jack and the Giants, The First Part. ‘Puss in Boots’ features as
its central (human) figure the third son of a miller, who is left only a cat
when his father dies. The cat, of course, is a magical entity who secures
the young man’s rise to the title of the Marquis of Carabas, along with the
hand of the king’s daughter in marriage. Once again, it is worth noting
that the popular figures with whom Crusoe becomes aligned here are also
ones who found their homes, alongside Crusoe, in the the children’s cul-
ture of fairy tales and of the pantomimes discussed in the next chapter.
25 See Simons, ‘Introduction,’ 4–7, for a discussion of how purchasing chap-
books would affect the typical budget of an agrarian labourer.
26 I have chosen to refer to ‘Robinson Crusoe’ as a ‘popular song’ rather than
a ‘ballad’ because of the Romantic and antiquarian associations with, for
instance, ‘minstrelsy’ that the latter term has tended to evoke in part
thanks to Francis J. Child’s work. Dianne Dugaw’s observation on bal-
lads – that they ‘represent collective responses and attitudes to events
both current and historical’ (98–9) – still, I believe, applies here. James
Moreira’s definition of ‘Folksong, Narrative’ in Folklore: An Encyclopedia of
Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art also provides a useful framework for
considering the Crusoe song: ‘A concept that assumes two things: first,
that the item or complex in question is linked to the repertoire of a par-
ticular group (that is, it must have entered tradition at some level), and
second, that its textual material is rooted in a sequence of past actions of
dynamically involved characters, normally progressing through stages of
stasis, disequilibrium, and resolution’ (I: 348).
27 For broadsides, see ‘Robinson Crusoe’ and ‘The Girl I Left Behind Me’
(Liverpool: W. Armstrong, n.d. [Harding B28 (66) in the Bodleian Library
Broadside Ballads collection]), and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ (Norwich: Lane and
Walker, n.d. [Harding B25 (1632)]). For garlands, see The Pretty Irish maid,
Together with Robinson Crusoe, Cruiskeen Lawn. Now isn’t it a pity. (Waterford:
W. Kelly [n.d. 1830?]), and A Collection of New Songs. 1. Robinson Crusoe 2.
Jack at the Windlass 3. The Sons of Brittannia [sic] (Newcastle: M. Angus &
Son, n.d.), which is the version I cite in this chapter.
28 The Greig-Duncan Folk Song Collection. 8 vols. (Ed. Patrick Shuldham-Shaw
and Emily B. Lyle. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1981–2002).
 Notes 173

The Roud Folk Song Index is maintained online by the Vaughan Williams
Memorial Library and the English Folk Dance and Song Society: http://
library.efdss.org/cgi-bin/home.cgi. Ira Ford, Traditional Music of America
(1940. Hatboro, PA: Folklore Associates, 1965).
29 As is to be expected from popular songs that occupy the borders between
print and oral cultures, there is a fair bit of variation in the song as
it appears from one garland or broadside to the next, and from these
early print sources to the versions that appear in such collections as the
Scottish Greig-Duncan or Ira Ford’s Traditional Music of America. Some
later versions of the song add several lyrics to the original eight; see, for
example, the version that appears in the Irish garland Looney Mactwolter.
Brian Bromhe; The Woodpecker; Robinson Crusoe; Huntsman’s Chorus; The
Kiss Repaid (Dublin: Printed for the Booksellers [n.d. 1840?]), which has
thirteen verses.
30 In some versions, the word ‘neighbour’ is replaced with ‘brother,’ sug-
gesting an even greater equality between Friday and Crusoe. See, for
example, the broadside ‘Robinson Crusoe’ and ‘The Girl I Left Behind Me’
mentioned above.
31 Both of these scenes, cannibal slaughter and Friday’s scalding, appear, for
example, in The Wonderful Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (14, 12).

4 ‘Animal Spirits are Everything!’: Robinson Crusoe

Pantomimes and the Child of Nostalgia
1 In his remarkable and exhaustive compilation of data about legitimate
theatrical productions, The London Stage 1660–1800; Part 5: 1776–1800
(3 vols), Charles Beecher Hogan lists Robinson Crusoe as second on the list
of most performed new afterpieces in the period between 1776 and 1800;
it was staged 123 times by the year 1800 (I: clxxiii). At Drury Lane in the
1780–81 season, it was staged forty times, more than three times as often
as its nearest competitors, All the World’s a Stage and Bon Ton (I: 363–4).
2 John O’Brien provides the following outline of the ‘characteristic story,’
borrowed from continental commedia dell’arte, that the harlequinades of
virtually all period pantomimes – including Robinson Crusoe – followed:
‘Harlequin pines after Columbine; her guardian or father Pantaloon
attempts to block their romance; Harlequin tricks Pantaloon and gains
Columbine’ (‘Pantomime’ 103).
3 See Watt in The Rise of the Novel on Defoe’s realistic techniques, which
help generate the impression of Crusoe as a unique and so ‘real’ indi-
vidual (62–92). The original title page, of course, also makes claims to the
authenticity of the narrative.
4 While A Short Account doesn’t see the need to describe the action of the
second act, a brief summary of it does appear in The Overture, Comic-
Tunes, & Song, in the New Pantomime of Robinson Crusoe.
5 O’Brien is here referring specifically to the dynamics of the earlier
pantomime Perseus and Andromeda, and the tension between its source
174 Notes

materials, ‘classical versus popular or folk’ (17). His remarks, however,

apply generally to the structure of eighteenth-century pantomime.
6 Mayer is here describing current pantomime titles, but some of these
figures and themes existed in eighteenth-century afterpieces.
7 David Mayer III remarks on how contemporary notions of pantomime as
children’s theatre don’t hold for this period: ‘Although today considered
a Christmas treat for children and condescending adults, pantomimes of
the early nineteenth century were attended by adults of all social classes
and by comparatively few children’ (10). The issue of the adult spectator’s
condescension to pantomime will be addressed below in my discussion of
Leigh Hunt’s essays on the form.
8 As many scholars of children’s literature have observed, it is difficult to
locate a children’s culture proper in the books and toys they use, which
are almost universally produced for them by adults, just as it is difficult
to locate a popular culture in products often not produced by ‘the people’
themselves. One place, however, where a subversive and oppositional
children’s popular culture does emerge is the schoolyard, where the
rhymes and songs children share employ parodic mocking and tend,
often quite violently, to imagine a kind of revenge and overthrow of the
adult authorities who regulate their lives. See Alison Newall’s fascinating
study ‘Schoolyard Songs in Montreal: Violence as Response’ (Children’s
Literature Association Quarterly 19:3 [1994]: 109–12). Iona Opie’s sound
archive (at the British Library) of interviews conducted with children in
the 1970s also contains a number of quite bawdy and violent examples
of children’s oral culture (http://sounds.bl.uk/), as does her and husband
Peter Opie’s The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1959).
9 A similar process occurred around Christmas celebrations, as discussed
below.
10 Michael Boothe connects the expansion of the ‘fairy business’ directly to
the contraction of the harlequinade: ‘It is no coincidence that the open-
ing lengthened, the fairy elements strengthened, and the harlequinade
shortened as the interest in fairy culture grew and intensified in the 1830s
and 1840s’ (75). The association of children with fairies, both imagined
as magical creatures somehow remote or disconnected from the ‘real’
world, occurs simultaneously. See also Boothe’s Theatre in the Victorian
Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), esp. 198–202.
11 Songs from popular pantomimes such as Robinson Crusoe were printed
sometimes individually and sometimes together. For an example of
individually-printed songs, see, ‘“Come Come, My Jolly Lads.” The
Celebrated Sailors Song in Robinson Crusoe a New Pantomime, Sung by
Mr Bannister’ (Dublin: John Rice [n.d. 1785?]); for the complete score,
see The Overture, Comic-Tunes, & Songs, in the New Pantomime of Robinson
Crusoe, as Performed at the Theatre-Royal in Drury-Lane (London: S. A. &
P. Thompson [n.d. 1781?]).
12 See Williams Marxism and Literature, esp. chapter 8, ‘Dominant, Residual,
and Emergent.’ In his discussion of ‘epochal analysis,’ Williams
 Notes 175

distinguishes between the ‘residual,’ which is ‘effectively formed in the

past, but . . . is still active in the the cultural process’ and the ‘archaic . . .
which is wholly recognized as an element of the past, to be observed, to
be examined, or even on occasion to be consciously revived, in a deliber-
ately specializing way’ (122).
13 Jim Davis echoes Auerbach’s remarks on the loss of pantomime’s edge in
the Victorian period, when it ‘was perceived increasingly as family enter-
tainment’: ‘It also assumed a more moral tone as the century progressed
and arguably lost some of the satirical sharpness that permeated Regency
pantomime’ (Davis 2010: 5).
14 Connelly adds yet another layer to the story of the sanitization of
Christmas by way of its codification as a children’s event: its reconfigura-
tion as a celebration with pedagogical opportunities. As he remarks, ‘The
Victorian watch word of ‘duty’ forcefully reveals the extent to which
Christmas had a didactic function; it was a catechism in familial, and by
extension, social relationships’ (12). The emphasis placed on seasonally-
inspired acts of charity served to underscore for middle- and upper-class
children their social responsibilities. As well, the Christmas gift book
industry that rose to prominence in the Victorian period produced chil-
dren’s texts combining images and narratives confirming and idealizing
the domesticated Christmas model and the duties of the season. For a full
discussion of Christmas gift books, see Tara Moore, Victorian Christmas
in Print (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) and
S. A. Muresianu, The History of the Victorian Christmas Book (New York:
Garland, 1987).
15 By this time in the popular imagination, Friday and his fellow Carib Natives
had been typically transformed into Africans on the pantomime stage.
These figures serve as a composite or conflation of colonial stereotypes,
with Quashibungo describing himself as ‘Ethiopian,’ but his spouse referred
to as a ‘Squaw,’ and both ‘drawn in state dragon chariot, by alligators’ (13).
Elsewhere, the same character is called variously Hokee Pokee Winkee
Fum, or Skinamalink, the latter of whom uses the Arabic greeting ‘Salaam’:
see ‘Robinson Crusoe, A Burlesque in One Act.’ Home Plays. An Evening’s
Entertainment. Consisting of Original Comedy, Burlesque, and Farce (London:
Thomas Hailes Lacy, n.d) and Mr Emery’s Seventh Pantomime. Though not
a pantomime, Isaac Pocock’s Robinson Crusoe; or, The Bold Buccaneers.
A Romantic Drama in Two Acts, assigns Friday’s father the name ‘Iglou.’
16 I recognize this assertion of Crusoe’s masculinity contradicts Nancy
Armstrong’s observations on Crusoe’s domesticity operating in what for
Victorians would have been a feminine register. His status as conqueror
of savage lands and peoples, as well as his fortitude and rugged individu-
alism, however, would likely overshadow this reading of Crusoe in the
Victorian imagination.
17 It’s worth noting here the unintentional irony of the principled Crusoe
refusing to take Friday as a slave but showing no compunction about tak-
ing him as a servant, whom he does not pay and from whom he expects
perfect loyalty.
176 Notes

18 Perry Nodelman’s and Mavis Reimer’s discussion on the ‘othering’ of

childhood through binary comparison with the characteristics adults
perceive themselves to have speaks to this process: ‘people understand
who they are by perceiving how the group of humans they themselves
belong to is different from something that came before them and that
they have evolved away from’ (96). Childhood and popular culture, both
equated with a primitive past, represent states away from which elite and
adult cultures have ‘evolved.’
19 See Chapter 1, ‘The Discovery of the People’ in Peter Burke’s landmark
study, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe for a discussion of the ‘purist’
view of popular culture held by late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-
century antiquarians and folklorists. The Grimms, for example, believed
that the poems of the Nibelungenlied ‘were not made; like trees, they
just grew’ (4). The prevailing ‘cultural primitivism’ was informed, Burke
argues, by a backlash against Enlightenment ideas of reason and progress
(11), and by the sense that such features of encroaching modernity as ‘the
industrial revolution, the growth of towns, the improvement of roads
and the spread of literacy were undermining traditional popular culture’
(16).
20 O’Brien observes that the popularity of pantomime has had to do with
a nostalgic turning away from modernity since its earliest days on the
legitimate stage: ‘Even early eighteenth-century Britons thought of them-
selves as living in a modern age, one that was fundamentally unlike the
predominantly rural, traditional world of old England. Such a belief had
its pleasures, but it also brought with it a sense of nostalgia for what had
been lost’ (‘Pantomime’ 112). This longing for a lost time of simplicity
would only be mapped onto ideas of childhood later, in the nineteenth
century.
21 Discussing how fairy tales in the Victorian period ‘began to serve a com-
pensatory cultural function,’ Jack Zipes (citing Michael Kotzin) provides
a portrait of the use of folk culture as an escape for adults in the period:
‘Beset by a changing world, the Victorian could . . . be taken from his
time and place to a soothing other world by the faintly blowing horns
of Elfland. He could be taken from the corruptions of adulthood back to
the innocence of childhood; from the ugly, competitive city to beautiful,
sympathetic nature; from complex morality to the simple issue of good
versus evil; from a different reality to a comforting world of imagination’
(Breaking 14). While pantos were likely not quite so ‘soothing’ and had
much louder ‘horns of Elfland’ than fairy tales did, the prospect of escape
from reality afforded by a domesticated popular culture is similar.
22 Marah Gubar has suggested that child actors in Victorian pantos, whose
work would have included ‘singing provocative songs that had been
popularized by adults’ in the music halls (66), effectively undermined
the fetishized ‘erotic innocence’ of children such critics as James Kincaid
attribute to the period: ‘Far from functioning as voiceless embodiments
of purity, child performers appealed to diverse audiences by exhibiting
extreme precocity. Their prematurely developed skills and much vaunted
 Notes 177

versatility enabled them to blur the line between child and adult, inno-
cence and experience’ (64). The point is well taken, although child per-
formers were usually from the working classes, and their class position
already discounted them to some extent from full participation in the
bourgeois cult of childhood innocence.

5 An Island of Toys: Childhood and Robinson Crusoe

Consumer Goods
1 Indeed, the bourgeois ideal of the self-made individual who starts from
next to nothing and manages to advance and succeed despite challeng-
ing circumstances is even more pronounced in Joachim Campe’s The New
Robinson Crusoe, in which the protagonist does not have the benefit of
a wrecked ship filled with useful tools and provisions on which to draw.
See Chapter 1 for a lengthier discussion of Campe’s text.
2 Crusoe’s status as homo economicus has been widely discussed; as Watt
points out in The Rise of the Novel, he ‘has been very appropriately used
by many economic theorists as their illustration’ of this very notion (63).
While a seemingly pointless activity at one level – he has after all nobody
with whom to trade – Crusoe’s stock-taking of goods and the money he
salvages from the ship is a behaviour that serves to define him as modern
and commercial.
3 Stewart also reminds us that miniatures are, like narratives, necessarily
artifices of culture, as they do not appear in nature (55).
4 Recent examples of this include Lynne Reid Banks’s The Indian in the
Cupboard (1980; film 1995) and the Toy Story films (1995, 1999, and
2010), but the narrative device of secretly animated (or at least sentient)
inanimate objects in children’s books goes back at least as far as the late
eighteenth century. See, for example, Mary Ann Kilner’s Adventures of a
Pincushion (1783) and Adventures of a Whipping Top (1782).
5 See Plotz’s Romanticism and the Vocation of Childhood, 3, quoted in
chapter 1.
6 Stewart continues this line of thought: ‘The miniature, linked to nostalgic
versions of childhood and history, presents a diminutive, and thereby
manipulatable, version of experience, a version which is domesticated
and protected from contamination’ (69). Robinson Crusoe, with its
removed, isolated, and so protective island setting served as a particularly
fertile point of convergence for nostalgic ideas about childhood and the
past.
7 While Noah’s Ark toys were among the first toys designated exclusively
for children, Brown speculates that the earliest of primary toys were likely
dolls (11).
8 The Elyria Canning Company of Ohio sold Crusoe Brand Pork and Beans
in the first decades of the twentieth century; for the Crusoe Jell-O adver-
tising campaign, see below; Gallaher tobacco company included a series
of 100 collectible Crusoe cards in its cigarette packages in the 1920s and
178 Notes

Ogden’s ‘tabs’ cigarettes produced a similar line of cards in the 1930s;

McLaughlin Bros. made a Crusoe colouring book as part of the ‘Aunt
Louisa’s Big Picture Series’ in the 1880s. This is a very small sample of
the kinds of goods and products with which Crusoe was associated in the
period.
9 This was, of course, part of a much wider advertising trend in the period,
in which idealized images of children, rustics, ‘rusticly’ clad children,
and sometimes kindly-looking elderly people were deployed to connect
products – in an attempt to dampen or mystify their economic status
(and of course their production) – with nostalgic notions of wholesome-
ness and innocence in the minds of adult consumers. Cross identifies the
1890s as the period in which ‘advertising specialists’ began in earnest to
use ‘nostalgic themes and colorful personalities in order to establish a
friendly image for impersonal corporations: the faces of wizened grand-
mothers sold coffee and Kewpies pedaled Jell-O’ (1997: 28). It is worth
noting that in one of its advertising campaigns in the 1920s, Jell-O used
an image of an astonished Robinson Crusoe opening a crate of its product
that has washed ashore on his island. The artist was Angus MacDonall,
illustrator for ad campaigns and magazines such as Lady’s Home Journal
and Saturday Evening Post, and noted for his sentimental, ‘home-spun’
depictions of American family life in a style similar to that later identified
with Norman Rockwell.
10 In very small print, along the bottom of the scallop shell, text describing
the image reads ‘Le petit Robinson et Vendredi s’extasient devant un rot
cuisant à point et à la broche’ (‘Little Robinson and Friday marvel at a
roast cooking on a spit’ [author’s translation]).
11 Cross argues that the Romantic celebration of the divinely imaginative
child of nature actually lent itself quite easily to the consumerist ethos
of the twentieth century, despite their seemingly contradictory orienta-
tions: ‘If nineteenth-century romantics needed to see flowers or cascad-
ing waterfalls through the fresh eyes of the child, it was because their
eyes had grown dull. Likewise, twentieth-century consumers needed to
consume through the wondrous innocence of the child because their
desire for things, even new and improved things, had grown flat’ (2004:
31). The desire for novelty that underwrites both attitudes demanded the
purity or newness of the child and its perspective.

Epilogue
1 This idea of a childhood pulled between competing and incommensu-
rate poles has been formulated differently by a number of scholars, most
famously by Jacqueline Rose as an ‘impossibility’ (see Rose’s The Case of Peter
Pan; or, The Impossibility of Children’s Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1984), and
more recently, in the context of children’s consumer culture, by Daniel Cook
as ‘the endemic problem of “agency” which, along with children’s inno-
cence, composes the definitive problematic of modern childhood’ (13).
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Varty, Anne. Children and Theatre in Victorian Britain; ‘All Work, No Play’.
Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Vincent, David. ‘The Decline of the Oral Tradition in Popular Culture.’
Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England. Ed. Robert Storch.
New York: St. Martin’s Press – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1982. 20–47.
——. Literacy and Popular Culture: England, 1750–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1989.
Watt, Ian. Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan,
Robinson Crusoe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
——. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. 1957.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca. Castaways, Cannibals, and Fantasies of Conquest.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.
Weiss, Harry B. A Book about Chapbooks: The People’s Literature of Bygone Times.
Hatboro: Folklore Associates, 1969.
Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1977.
Wilson, A. E. Christmas Pantomime: The Story of an English Tradition. London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1934.
Zipes, Jack. Breaking the Magic Spell: Radical Theories of Folk and Fairy Tales.
1979. New York: Routledge, 1992.
——. Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion. London: Routledge, 1983.
Index
aboriginals, representation of 66–9,
72–3, 175
abridgements (of Robinson
Crusoe) 19, 37, 47–9, 53,
57–60, 63, 69, 75–7, 80, 84–5,
163–4, 170
Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. A New
and Improved Edition, Interspersed
with Reflections, Religious and
Moral, The 27
‘Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of
Clipper Island, The’ 2
advertising 21–2, 26–7, 109, 116,
142–7, 151, 177–8
Ainsworth Magazine: A Miscellany of
Romance, General Literature, and
Art 96
Aladdin 113
Alexander, A. 114
Everyman’s Christmas 114
Alger, Horatio 16
Ambrose and Eleanor 62–5
animals, domestic 69–71
animal spirits 102, 123–5
antiquarianism 5–8, 11–13, 16, 69,
112, 122–7, 160–1, 171, 176
appropriation 37, 77–8, 95–6, 100,
104–5, 110–12, 151–2, 159, 169
Ariès, Phillipe 10, 161–2
Centuries of Childhood: A Social
History of Family Life 161–2
Armstrong, Nancy 52–4, 159, 171,
175
Desire and Domestic Fiction 159,
171
Art of Noise, The 2
Aspin, Jehoshaphat 7–8
A Picture of the Manners, Customs,
Sports, and Pastimes, of the
Inhabitants of England, from the
189
Arrival of the Saxons Down to the
Eighteenth Century 7–8
Auerbach, Nina 114, 129, 175
Austin, Linda 12–13, 139–40
authenticity 11, 86, 123–54, 155–7,
162, 173
Azim, Firdous 51–2, 159
The Colonial Rise of the Novel 51,
159
Baldwin, James 45–6
Robinson Crusoe Written Anew for
Children, with Apologies to Daniel
Defoe 45–6
ballads 96–101, 172
Ballantyne, R. M. 50, 167
Coral Island, The 50
Dog Crusoe and His Master:
A Story of Adventure in the
Western Prairies 167
Banks, Lynne Reid 177
The Indian in the Cupboard 177
Barbauld, Anna Letitia 164
‘On Education in the Works of
Anna Letitia Barbauld. 2 vols.’
164
Barney, Richard 15, 24, 30, 92
Plots of Enlightenment 15
Barthes, Roland 146
Mythologies 146
Bell, D. W. 133
Bender, Lauretta 14
Berquin, Arnaud 31, 38
Bettelheim, Bruno 14, 162
The Uses of Enchantment: The
Meaning and Importance of Fairy
Tales 162
Bible, the 27, 41, 86–7, 142
Big Fish Games 135
Blackwell, Jeannine 49
190 Index
Blaim, Artur 50–1, 159
‘The English Robinsonade of the
Eighteenth Century’ 159
Bluebeard 84
Boothe, Michael 116, 174
Theatre in the Victorian Age 174
Boswell, James 4, 171
Bourne, Henry 5–6
Antiquitates Vulgares 6
Boy’s Town 16
Boym, Svetlana 145, 162
The Future of Nostalgia 162
Brand, John 6–11, 160–1
Observations on Popular
Antiquities 6, 160
Bratton, Jacky 112
bricolage 153
Bristow, Joseph 55
Empire Boys 55
British Empire 1, 106
British Library 84, 169, 174
broadsides 79, 96–7, 172–3
Brown, Kenneth 138, 152
Brown Laura 69
Fables of Modernity 69
Brown, Penny 31, 166
Budden, Mary 26
Bugs Bunny 148
Bunyon, Paul 77
Burke, Edmund 164
A Philosophical Enquiry into the
Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime
and Beautiful 164
Burke, Peter 5, 14, 160, 176
Popular Culture in Early Modern
Europe 160, 176
Byron, Henry J. 117
Robinson Crusoe; or, Friday and the
Fairies! A Pantomime 117
Campe, Joachim 19, 27, 31, 36–7,
39–40, 46, 150, 164–5, 167–8,
177
The New Robinson Crusoe 19, 27,
31, 36–7, 39–40, 46, 150, 165,
167–8, 177
capitalism 53–6, 90, 136, 146
Captain Marvel 163
Carey, Daniel 52
Carroll, Lewis 144
de Certeau, Michel 8–11, 77, 84,
124, 151, 155, 160, 162, 169
Heterologies 9–10, 160
Pratice of Everyday Life, The 169
chapbooks 8–10, 15–16, 20, 25, 57,
76–96, 99–101, 104, 108, 162,
166, 168–71
Chartier, Roger 4, 87–8, 110, 151,
159, 169
‘Culture as Appropriation: Popular
cultural Uses in Early Modern
France’ 159, 169
child actors 16, 39, 129–30, 166,
176
childhood, construction of 5–6, 160
children’s culture 10–21, 77–8,
84, 96–114, 133, 142–6, 153–8,
172–4
Christianity 51, 63, 65, 68, 142
Christmas 21, 103, 113–17, 126–8,
174–5
Cinderella 113
Classics Illustrated 163
Clinton, Hillary 161
It Takes a Village 161
Coleridge, Samuel 4
colonialism 1, 50–2, 55–6, 62,
64–7, 73–5, 79, 82–3, 89
comic books 16, 21, 162
commedia dell’arte 21, 105, 173
‘common people’ 4–16, 20, 76–8,
82–8, 91–3, 99, 108–10, 120–3,
130, 151, 159, 169–171. See also
‘folk’
Companion, The 122
Connelly, Mark 114–15, 175
consumerism 21–2, 131–50
Coogan, Jackie 16
Cook, Daniel 145, 150, 178
Covent Garden Theatre 117, 131
Cox, Palmer 148–9
Cross, Gary 10, 147–8, 178
culture, popular vs. elite 4–6, 9–10,
20, 77, 82–5, 88, 104–11, 120–2

Cussans, Jack 96–9
‘Poor Old Robinson Crusoe’ 96–9
customs, popular 5–9, 18–19,
114–15, 160, 172
Darton, F. J. Harvey 128–9
The Good Fairy 128
Davis, James 36, 175
Davis, Jim 106, 118, 129, 175
Dean & Son 34
Defoe, Daniel 1–2, 4, 15, 23–7,
30–1, 36–8, 50–1, 74–9, 82–3,
89–93, 130, 169–73
Family Instructor, The 15, 30
Farther Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe 159, 171
Serious Reflections During the Life
and Surprising Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe; With His Vision
of the Angelick World 93, 159,
170
Strange Surprising Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner,
The 1–2, 4, 15, 23–7, 30–1,
36–8, 50–1, 62, 67, 74, 77–9,
82–3, 89–93, 130, 171
Denisoff, Dennis 145, 169
dialogue, familiar 30–3, 164
Dick Whittington 113
Dickens, Charles 114, 127
domesticity 20, 34, 47–67, 69–75,
79, 114–15, 129, 134, 145, 157,
167, 175
‘Don Quixote’ 4
Dow, Gillian 34
Dr. Faustus 113
Edgeworth, Maria 26, 36, 48, 52,
164
Practical Education 52, 164
Edgeworth, Richard 29, 52, 164
Early Lessons 29
Practical Education 52, 164
Eliot, George 126
Ellis, Henry 6
Enlightenment 10, 12, 24, 138,
157, 162
Index 191
Erle, Talbot and William Able 45
The Musical Robinson Crusoe, Being
Extracts from the Work by Daniel
Defoe 45
Erlin, Matt 37
‘Erotic Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe, The’ 2
Evangelicalism 9
Examiner 121
Fair Rosamond 84
fantasy literature 10
Farr, Liz 132, 153
Female American 57
film adaptation 2, 16, 21
Fleming, Robert 66, 168
‘Supplementing Self’ 168
folk 8–16, 20, 76–7, 84, 91–100,
110–12, 122–4, 138–41, 154–8,
173–4, 176. See also common
people
Folkenflik, Robert 171
‘The Heirs of Ian Watt’ 171
Foot, Samuel 96–7
The Mayor of Garratt 96–7
Ford, Ira 97, 173
Traditional Music of America 97,
173
formal realism 1, 51, 89–91, 102,
159
French Revolution 8
Frow, Gerald 111–12, 115
garlands 2, 15, 96–7, 101, 172
Gaull, Marilyn 103, 107
gaze, the 82
Genlis, La Comtesse de 19, 27,
33–5, 38–40, 46, 150, 165
‘The Children’s Island’ 19, 27,
38–40, 46, 150
Theatre of Education 33–4, 38,
165
Gerson, Carole 66
‘Gilligan’s Island’ 3
Gillis, John 14, 141
Golden Age 10, 13, 18–19, 114,
122–3, 127
192 Index
Gough, Richard 7
Green, Martin 24, 51–2, 168
Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of
Empire 51
‘The Robinson Crusoe Story’ 52
Greig-Duncan Folk Song Collection,
The 97, 172–3
Grenby, Matthew 76, 79, 83, 164,
167, 169
The Child Reader, 1700–1840 164,
169
Grewal, Inderpal 56
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhhelm 5,
110, 176
Grose, Francis 7
Gubar, Marah 176
Hallowe’en 111, 139
Hannah Hewitt; or, the Female
Crusoe 49
harlequinade 102–5, 108, 112,
115–16, 120, 124, 129
Harrow, Sharon 56
Hart, James G. 156
Harvey, F. J. 113
The Good Fairy; or, the Adventures
of Sir Richard Whittington,
R. Crusoe, Master Jack Horner,
and Others. A Play 113
Herder, Johann Gottfried von 5
Hero and Leander 84
Hodgson and Company 131
Hofer, Johannes 12
Hofland, Barbara 27, 40–6, 166
The Young Crusoe; or, the
Shipwrecked Boy 27, 40–6,
166
Hogan, Charles Beecher 173
The London Stage, 1660–1800; Part
5: 1776–1800 173
Hulme, Peter 51, 74, 83, 159
Colonial Encounters 51, 159
Humphries, Phoebe Wescott 165
What Boys and Girls Like 165
Hunt, Leigh 120–6, 174
Hunt, Margaret 54
The Middling Sort 54
Hymer, Stephen 51, 159
‘Robinson Crusoe and the Secret of
Primitive Accumulation’ 51,
159
ideology 47–55, 63–9, 73, 115,
145, 152, 160
colonial 48, 51
domestic 53–5, 63–9, 73, 115,
145
middle class 47, 127, 160
Illustrated London News 114–15
individualism 1, 20–1, 27, 36–40,
46, 51, 79, 82, 89, 91, 101,
135–7
Industrial Revolution 138
innocence 10, 11, 68, 101, 110,
115, 116, 121, 126–7, 129, 139,
140, 141, 144–5, 147–8, 150,
156, 161, 162, 174, 176, 178
islanding 16–17, 141, 150, 156, 163
J. Harris and Son 27, 165, 167
Jack and the Beanstalk 113
Jackson, Mary V. 34
James, Suzanne 66
Jenkins, Henry 151, 162
Johnson, Samuel 4, 122–3
Jolson, Al 2
‘Where Did Robinson Crusoe
With Friday on a Saturday
Night?’
Jones, Steven E. 120–2
Kant, Immanuel 12
Anthropologie 12
Kapur, Jyotsna 145
Kelly, Gary 91
Kete, Kathleen 69
Kilner, Mary Anne 177
Adventures of a Pincushion 177
Adventures of a Whipping Top 177
Kincaid, James 176
Lady’s Home Journal 178
Levy, Jonathan 31, 33
Lewis, Brian 54

Life and Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe, Originally Written by
Daniel Defoe, The 26
Little Robinson Crusoe 16
Locke, John 15, 19, 24, 29–30, 36,
38, 46, 163, 165, 168
Some Thoughts Concerning
Education 15, 19, 24, 46
Two Treatises of Government
168
Longueville, Peter 49
The Hermit 49
‘Lost’ (Television series) 3
‘Lt. Robinson Crusoe, U.S.N.’ 2
MacDonall, Angus 178
Maher, Susan Naramore 50, 65
Markley, Robert 159
‘“I have Now Done With My
Island, and All Manner of
Discourse About It:” Crusoe’s
Farther Adventures and the
Unwritten History of the
Novel’ 159
Marks, Sylvia Kasey 31
Marryat, Captain Frederick 50
The Little Savage 50
Marvel Comics 162
Mayer, David 106, 111–12, 174
Maynes, Mary Jo 55–6
McInelly, Brett C. 159, 167
‘Expanding Empire, Expanding
Selves: Colonialism, the Novel,
and Robinson Crusoe’ 159,
167
McKay, Barry 79
McVeagh, John 102–3
Meynell, Alice 12–13
Mickey Mouse 149
miniatures 137–44, 151–3, 177
modernity 1, 9, 13–14, 122, 138,
147, 155–8, 160
Moglen, Helene 82
Moll Flanders 81
Moody, Jane 120
More, Hannah 9, 34
Sacred Dramas 34
Index 193
Moreira, James 172
Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs,
Customs, Tales, Music, and
Art 172
Mother Goose 105
Mouritsen, Flemming 78, 154,
155
Mullan, John 170
Anonymity: A Secret History of
English Literature 170
Newell, Alison 174
‘Schoolyard Songs in Montreal:
Violence as Response’ 174
Nisard, Charles 8–10
‘Commission for the Examination
of Chapbooks’ 8
nostalgia 11–14, 18, 22, 124–8,
137–41, 145–51, 155–8, 162,
176–8
Novak, Maximillian 51
Economics and the Fiction of Daniel
Defoe 51
Nussbaum, Felicity 56
O’Brien, John 106–7, 113, 173,
176
O’Malley, Andrew 160, 169
The Making of the Modern Child:
Children’s Literature and
Childhood in the Late Eighteenth
Century 160, 169
Opie, Iona 154, 174
The People in the Playground
154
Opie, Iona and Peter 96, 97, 100,
102
Lore and Language of School
Children 174
Oxford Dictionary of Nursery
Rhyme 99
Our Gang 16
Oxford University Press 4
pantomime 2, 20–1, 34, 46, 96–7,
102–29, 167, 174–6
Paradise Lost 86
194 Index
pedagogy 15, 19, 23–47, 52–53,
109–10, 157–8, 163–4, 172
supervisory model 15, 19, 29–39,
46, 164, 166. See also Locke, John
Penguin Group 4
Pennell, Elizabeth Robins 126
Pickering, Samuel 24, 37
Pilgrim’s Progress 86
play culture 155
Playthings 147
Plotz, Judith 16, 141, 177
Romanticism and the Vocation of
Childhood 177
Poovey, Mary 54
Pope, Alexander 129
popular song 2, 20, 96–100, 172–3
postcolonialism 51–2, 159
Potter, Beatrix 167
The Tale of Little Pig Robinson 167
Preston, Michael J. 15, 19, 76, 85,
162
‘Rethinking Folklore, Rethinking
Literature: Looking at Robinson
Crusoe and Gulliver’s Travels as
Folktalkes. A Chapbook-Inspired
Inquiry’ 162
Protestantism 6, 79
psychoanalysis 14
puppetry 13–14, 107–10, 139
‘Punch and Judy’ 107–11
Reay, Barry 101, 171
Religious Tract Society 8–9
Robinson Crusoe (film, dir. Luis
Bunuel) 2
Robinson Crusoe on Mars (film) 2
robinsonade 2, 16, 19, 28, 47–56,
62–8, 74, 89, 167
Rockwell, Norman 178
Rogers, Pat 53–4, 62, 81–3, 93
‘Crusoe’s Home’ 53
Romantic Era 11, 12, 16–18, 69,
121, 140–1, 144–6, 148, 178
Rose, Jacqueline 178
The Case of Peter Pan; or, The
Impossibility of Children’s
Fiction 178
Rose, Jonathan 15, 77, 86–7, 162,
169
The Intellectual Life of the British
Working Classes 162
Roud Folk Song Index 97
Rousseau, Jean Jacques 15, 19, 24,
29, 36–7, 46, 163
Emile 15, 19, 163–4
Said, Edward 51–2, 159
Culture and Imperialism 51, 159
Sánchez-Eppler, Karen 78
Saturday Evening Post 178
Schmidgen, Wolfram 82
Schnabel, Jonathan Gottfried 2,
5, 48
Felsenburg Island 2, 48
Scott, Walter 5, 160
Seven Wise Masters of Rome, The 84
shadow canon 76
Shakespeare, William 105
King Lear 105
A Midsummer Night’s Dream 117
Sheridan, Robert 2
Shershow, Scott 13–14, 110–11, 139
Short Account of the Situations and
Incidents Exhibited in
the Pantomime of Robinson
Crusoe, A 103
Simons, John 79–80, 169, 172
Skelt family (toy theatre
producers) 131–3, 153
Sonny Cole & the Rhythm
Roamers 2
‘sovereign subject’ 1, 90, 103
spiritual autobiography 93, 162
Stallabrass, Julian 135
Stallybrass, Peter 110
Starobinski, Jean 12
‘The Idea of Nostalgia’ 12
Starr, G. A. 15, 93, 162
Defoe and Spiritual
Autobiography 162
Steedman, Caroline 57, 154
Steedman, Mary 13
Stevenson, Robert Louis 50, 153
Treasure Island 50

Stewart, Susan 13, 139–41, 152, 177
Strutt, Joseph 7
Manners and Customs 7
Sutton-Smith, Brian 137–8, 146
‘Survivor’ (Television series) 3
Sweet, Rosemary 6, 160
Antiquaries 160
Swift, Jonathan 77
Tabert & Co. 26
taste 6, 10, 20, 23, 45, 89, 103,
108–11, 115, 120–2, 156
Taylor, Jeffrys 50
The Young Islanders 50
theatre, children’s 33–6, 45
théâtre d’éducation 31
Theatre Royal, Drury Lane 2, 102,
103, 173
Theatrical Licensing Act 113–14
Thoreau, Henry David 17
Walden 17
Toy Story 177
toys 21–2, 131–54, 165, 174, 177
board games 21, 135
dishes 21, 134
fèves 142–3
history of 138–42, 177
puzzles 21, 133–4
and socialization 133–4, 137, 152
and solitude 136–7
video games 21, 135–6
toy theatres 131–2, 153, 165
Traill, Catherine Parr 65–74
Canadian Crusoes 62, 65–74, 168
The Young Emigrants; or, Pictures of
Canada 66
translations (of Robinson Crusoe) 2,
49
Esperanto 2
German 49
Swedish 49
Trimmer, Sarah 25–8, 34, 37, 48
The Guardian of Education 25
Turner, Brian 11, 124, 156
Index 195
Tytler, Anne Fraser 64, 168
Leila; or, The Island 62, 64–5, 69
Uttley, Allison 87
Van Dyke, Dick 2
Varty, Anne 108, 126–7
versimilitude 39, 105
Victorian Period 12–13, 19, 21,
50, 103, 107, 110, 113–16, 126,
129, 147, 150, 175–6
video games 135–6
Vincent, David 170–1
Literacy and Popular Culture 170–1
Voyages, Dangerous Adventures, and
Imminent Escapes of Captain
Richard Falconer, The 49
Wagner, Leopold 126
Walpole, Horace 112
Watt, Ian 1, 51, 89–91, 102, 157,
159, 163, 169, 173, 177
Myths of Modern Individualism:
Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan
and Robinson Crusoe 159
The Rise of the Novel 51, 89, 159,
169, 173, 177
Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca 50,
118
Weber, Max 1
Weiss, Harry B. 79
White, Allon 110
William West of London 131
Williams, Raymond 114, 174–5
Marxism and Literature 174–5
Wilson, A. E. 103, 111–12
Woltmann, Adolf G. 14
Woolf, Virginia 157, 159
Wordsworth, William 121, 171
Wyss, J. D. 55, 69, 165, 167
The Swiss Family Robinson 55, 69,
165, 167–8, 168
Zipes, Jack 91, 175