MASTERY REVIEWER

FOR 4TH QUARTER

CHAPTER 20: THE EARTH’S HYDROSPHERE

• Do you know that the Earth is composed of ¾ of water and every human can have 400
000 million liters of it?
• Earth’s water is mostly salty.

 Oceans = is a continuous body of salt water that covers 71% of the Earth’s surface.
= it is a vast storehouse of minerals that include salts, dissolved gases and traces
of other elements.
= it is also a habitat for sea creatures and plants.
= Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean (biggest & deepest)
and Antarctic Ocean.
= 96% pure water. The remaining 4 are dissolved elements.
 Sea = a part of an ocean that is nearly surrounded by land.
 Hydrosphere = comprised of the Earth’s water portion and includes groundwater, water
in lakes and rivers, and ice frozen in glaciers.
 Oceanographers = persons that study the oceans believe that ocean water contains the
entire natural element. There are 90 elements known to exist in nature. But only 85 of
these elements are found in the ocean. They use echo sounding, radar, sonar detection
(ocean topography) and seismographic surveys (vib) to detect some irregularities.
 Salinity = describe the amount of dissolved salts in ocean water. (Sodium chloride = table
salt) the salinity of the sea is 3 1/2 %. it is not constant. When the rainfall is heavy,
salinity is low.
MOST COMMON TABLE SALTS IN SEAWATER
Salt Formula Percentage

Sodium chloride NaCl 2.72

Magnesium chloride MgCl 2 0.38

Magnesium sulfate MgSO 4 0.17

Calcium chloride CaSO 4 0.13

Potassium chloride KCl 0.09

 Calcium carbonate CaCO 3 0.01

Magnesium bromide MgBr 2 0.01

 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide = most important dissolved gases. (O2) it is needed for
maintaining life in the sea. (CO2) for photosynthesis for plants (phytoplankton) and
return the minerals to the sea.
 Buoyancy = the upward lift of water makes movement in the ocean water very easy.
 Continental shelf = a shallow area of the ocean near a land mass. Most of the ocean
plants and animals are found here.
 Continental slope = area after the continental shelf where the ocean becomes deeper.
 Ocean mapping = is made possible through indirect directions.
 The formula for calculating the distance to the bottom: [d= depth of the ocean, t= time of
vib. that goes back and forth, v= velocity of the sound water]

d=1/2t x v

  When salt water freezes, most of the salts remain in the water. The salt content of cold
water therefore becomes high. The cold water becomes denser than ordinary ocean water.

 Polar creep = the phenomenon of cold, deep currents moving toward the equator.

  Cold currents keep tropical waters cooler.

 Upwelling = an upward movement, it is caused by winds blowing the upper layer away
from the shore. And also it bring chemical to the place.
 Current = the motion of the water from one part of the ocean to another.
 Surface current = are caused by the friction of the wind over the sea surface. They begin
in the tropics because warm water is less dense than elsewhere and because daily rainfall
in the tropics add enough water to raise the sea level a few cm higher than in the Polar
Regions. And it is also produced by differences in the weight or density of ocean water.

  Salt water is denser than the fresh water. Warmed substances expand and become less
dense.

 Density currents = are formed when salt and fresh water meet.
 Thermocline = a transition zone between 2 layers.

~ Notable rivers: Cagayan, Agusan, Cotabato and Pasig.

~ Aquaculture: Bulacan, Iloilo, Pampanga and Capiz.

 Eutrophication = pollutants kill and decay large amounts of plant life and growth of
algae.
 POLLUTANTS: phosphate in detergents and fertilizers.
  Mercury and lead = contamination of water. (LEAD) = headache,
dizziness and insomnia.
 Oil pollution = harmful effects to all living things.

CHAPTER 21: THE EARTH’S LITHOSPHERE

 Layers of the Earth

o crust = upper layer = 2 layers =granite(lightweight and top) and basalt(dark and
bottom)
o mantle = float = 2000 km deep = made up of dense rocks and is extremely hot =
upper and lower mantle = thicker and denser
o outer core = made up of iron and nickel = temp: 2 200 C – 2 400 C
o inner core = solid = magnetic field = temp: 2 500 C

 Weathering = process of breaking down the rocks.

 Weathering agents = forces that causes weathering. Water, wind, plants, animals, temp
and chemicals.
 physical change = mechanical weathering
 chemical change = chemical weathering
>>> Dept. of public works and highways (DWPH)
>>> Oxygen  oxides
>>> Carbon dioxide  carbonic acid

 Residual soil = soil remains on the top of the parent rock.

 Transported soil = soil that is carried away by water and wind and moved from its place
of origin.
 Bedrock = layer of the rock beneath the soil. the poorest material in the soil.
 Topsoil = top of the ground.
 Humus = organic matter from decayed animals and plants.
 Clay = finest particles in the topsoil.
 Subsoil = next layer.
 Horizons = develops separate soil layers.
 Soil profile = cross section of the soil horizons.
 Mature soil = developed 3 layers.
 Landslide = soil that is suddenly pulled down.
 Soil creep = pulled down very slowly.
 Erosion = entire process of moving rocks and soil particles from 1 place to another.
 Agents of erosion = stones, movers of soil, water and wind.
 Surface runoff = water that runs across the land surface.
 Dunes = sand particles.
 prevention:
o contour farming (erosion in mountains)
 o strip cropping (washing the soil)
o minerals
o crop rotation (maintain soil fertility)
 Renewable resources = can be replaced by nature. (ex: water, wood, soil)
 Non renewable = cannot be replaced. (ex: fuels, minerals, coals)
 5 requirements of a mineral:
 inorganic
 formed naturally
 solids
 doesn’t change with location
 same internal/crystalline pattern
 magma = hot molten rock
 PROPERTIES:
o luster = way light bounces off a mineral.
o streak = the color of the powder left.
o hardness = resist scratching.
o cleavage = to break along a flat surface.
o fracture = do not break smoothly.
 Moh’s hardness scale = list of minerals.

MINERALS
 Quartz = common mineral. Made up of silicon and oxygen.
 Halite = rock salt.
 Muscovite = a.k.a mica. Breaks into thin sheets.

METALS
 Copper = reddish metal obtained form copper ore.
 Gold = pure.
 Silver = must combine with a cheaper metal to make it strong.
 Mercury = silvery liquid metal. Heavy. with sulfur in cinnabars (red rocks)
 Lead = batteries of vehicles.
 Non metallic minerals = include sulfur found in volcanic rocks. ex: talc, clay, gypsum and
graphite.

ROCKS
1. Igneous rocks = Latin word meaning fire. These rocks are cooled from molten lava.
 Ex: pumice, obsidian, basalt and granite.
 Granite = feldspar for the color. Hornblende/mica for the appearance due to its
dark crystals.
 Basalt = gray/black volcanic rock. It cools rapidly.
 Obsidian = forms from a lava flow. When it cools rapidly, it forms pumice
(soaps).
2. Sedimentary rocks = sediments. Presence of fossils.
 Ex: sandstone, limestone, shale and conglomerate.
  Conglomerate = pebbles and rock particles cemented together.
 Sandstone = with decreasing fragments, conglomerate can be sandstone.
 Shale = mud. Composed of thin layers.
 Limestone = chalk.
3. Metamorphic rocks = Greek word meaning to change.
 Slate = comes from shale. Consists of mica.
 Marble = limestone undergoes heat.
 Gneiss = produced from mica, quartz and feldspar.

FOSSIL FUELS

 Coal = heated w/o air. Pure carbon.

 Petroleum/natural oil/petrochemical = bodies of tiny animals. It was buried in
the seafloor. The mud was covered of sand, shells and dead fishes. W/ heat and
pressure, it changed. It becomes a limestone.