Rivers

Types of rivers

 Perennial rivers - these are rivers which flow all year round and are
usually found in areas of humid climate. These rivers usually have more
water in the rain season than in the dry season when they are recharged
by groundwater.
 Intermittent rivers -these are rivers which flow seasonally. They usually
have water during the rainy season and dry up during dry seasons.
 Ephemeral rivers- these are rivers which flow for very short periods,
usually after the occurrence of heavy rainfall. These rivers are usually
found in areas where evaporation is greater than precipitation (semi-arid
areas).

Drainage patterns

 The main river, stream or tributary is called the consequent stream.

 The smaller rivers that flow into a consequent stream are called
subsequent streams (see diagram below).
 Obsequent streams are generally tributaries of subsequent streams that
flow in directions opposite that of the consequent streams.
 A river is joined by its network of tributaries in a basin or catchment area
to form certain drainage patterns.
 These drainage patterns are develop under the influence of factors such
as rock type and structure and are listed below.

Factors influencing drainage patterns

 Geological structure
 Rock type
 Climatic regions
 Erosional history

Dendritic drainage pattern

 This drainage pattern has tributaries which join the main river at acute
angles (less than 90 degrees).
 The tributaries show a pattern like that of tree branches.
 Dendritic drainage pattern occurs in areas of homogeneous (uniform)
rock which is gently dipping.

Figure 1 Dendritic drainage

Trellis drainage pattern

 Trellis drainage pattern is characterized by tributaries which join the
consequent river at right angles (90 degrees).
 This pattern occurs in areas where there is alternating hard and soft rock
and in areas characterized by rectangular joints and fault lines.
 The water flows following the path with less resistant rock.

Figure 2 Trellis drainage pattern

Parallel drainage pattern

 This pattern is characterized by tributaries flowing parallel to the main

river.
 Parallel drainage is common in areas with steep slopes.
Figure 3 Parallel drainage

Radial drainage pattern

 Radial drainage occurs in areas where central highlands act as water

source for the river.
 It usually occurs in areas with dome shaped landforms where the streams
radiate downhill in different directions. The streams can originate from a
volcanic crater.
Figure 4 Radial drainage

Centripetal drainage/inland drainage pattern

 This is formed by a series of streams converging on central lowland from

surrounding highlands. The central lowland may in some cases have an
inland lake or a swamp.
Figure 5 Centripetal drainage

Channel flow.

Type of flow

 Laminar flow
 Laminar flow occurs when water flows in layers parallel to the river
bed. In this type of flow there is no mixing between layers of water
(see diagram under turbulent flow shown below).
 This type of flow is not common and usually occurs in areas of flat
terrain.
 There is more deposition than runoff in a channel which has this type
of flow.
 Turbulent flow
 Turbulent flow occurs when water flows in a circular manner in the
river channel. This type of flow makes the river to lose its energy as
water moves downstream since there is more friction.
Figure 6 (a) Laminar flow (b) turbulent flow

River velocity

 River velocity refers to the speed at which water flows downstream and is
measured in meters per second.

Factors influencing velocity

 Roughness of channel

Figure 7 River cross sections showing differences in channel roughness.

 A smooth channel with small pebbles has a greater velocity than a rough
channel with boulders which restricts water flow thus reducing its speed.

 Gradient

 A channel which flows in an area with steep gradient has greater velocity
because of the gravity.
 Where there are gentle slopes the water has low velocity.

 Channel shape
 Channel shape can influence river velocity since it determines the amount
of water in contact with the river bed.

Figure 8 Narrow channel and wide channel

 Wide channels have low velocity since there is more friction between the
water and the river. This is because more water will be in contact with the
bed.
 Narrow channels on the other hand have less friction thus causing greater
velocity.

River discharge

 River discharge- this is the volume of water passing through a gauge

station or point in a river channel in a given time.
River regime

 The regime of a river can be defined as the differences in river discharge

throughout the year in response to precipitation.
 River regime can also be defined as the pattern of the seasonal flow of
water.

Seasonal pattern of water flow

Figure 9 Annual discharge patterns for Zambezi and Orange River

Figure 10 Annual discharge of the Nile River

 The Zambezi and Orange rivers have a similar annual pattern of

discharge.
 Discharge in these rivers is at its peak from March to April just after
the summer rains in the southern hemisphere and low from June to
September which is the dry season.
 In the Nile River, discharge is at its peak from September to October,
just after the summer in the northern hemisphere.
 Discharge is low from April to June which is the dry season.

Factors affecting river discharge

 Rainfall - the rainfall amount and type received in an area can influence
stream discharge. Rainfall of high intensity and short duration is more
likely to increase stream discharge through surface runoff than rain with
low intensity and a long duration.
 Land use- urbanization has seen the building of tarmac surfaces which
restrict infiltration and encourage more runoff. Storm drains reduces the
amount of time it takes for water to reach the channel.
 Vegetation cover- the vegetation covers in the drainage basin also affects
river discharge. More rainwater is intercepted in areas of dense
vegetation cover.
 Dense vegetation also discourages surface runoff as it encourages
infiltration.
 Rock and soil type - rock and soil permeability negatively and positively
affects the amount of surface runoff in a river basin.
  Impermeable rocks restrict infiltration of water thus more water
reaches the channel in form of surface runoff.
 Permeable soil on the other hand allows infiltration thus reducing
the amount of surface runoff.
 Relief - steep slopes encourage runoff hence rainwater quickly reaches
the channel unlike areas with gentle slopes which encourage infiltration
than runoff.

RIVER PROCESSES

River erosion

 River erosion refers to the removal of stones, pebbles and soil particles
from the river bed and banks and also the breaking down of the load
itself.

Types of river erosion

 Vertical erosion- this is whereby the channel increases its depth because
of the wearing of materials from the river bed.
 Headward erosion- this occurs when a river increases in length by eroding
its source region or simply eroding backwards.
 Lateral erosion- this is occurs when a river increases its width by wearing
away its sides/banks.
 There are basically four erosional processes which are corrasion, attrition,
solution and hydraulic action.
Figure 11 Processes of river erosion.

Corrasion/Abrasion

 This process of river erosion occurs when the load carried by the river
wears away or scrapes away materials on the river bed and banks.

Attrition

 This is a process whereby the load in the river collides against each
other and breaks down into smaller pieces.

Hydraulic action

 Hydraulic action occurs when the sheer force of moving water in the
channel removes loose materials from the river bed and banks.
 The force of water also pushes into cracks on river banks causing
compression of air inside. With time the river bank may collapse.

Solution/Corrosion

 This is when water in the channel dissolves minerals in the river

channel and carries them downstream in form of solution.
 Limestone is an example of a rock type eroded by corrosion.
A scenic landscape formed by river erosion

River transportation

 Transportation occurs when a river erodes material in the channel which

is then carried downstream by the water. This material is referred to as
the load
 There are four main processes which are responsible for the
transportation of material which include:
 solution
 suspension
 saltation
 traction

Figure 12 River transportation processes.

Solution

 This process occurs when the water in the channel dissolves material and
carries it downstream.
 Solution is usually dominant in areas where the rock type easily dissolves
in water for instance in limestone and chalk regions.

Suspension

 This is when light material in the river channel is carried downstream as

suspended load. Such materials include sand particles, clay and silt, tree
leaves and so on.

Saltation

 Saltation occurs when small stones and pebbles are carried downstream
through a bouncing effect.
 The bouncing effect occurs since the water would have enough energy to
lift the material but the material would be too heavy to be carried by
suspension.

Traction

 This process is responsible for the transportation of heavy materials like

boulders in the channel. In this case the river does not have enough
energy to lift up the material thus it is dragged or rolled downstream.

River Deposition

 Deposition occurs when the river loses its energy and can no longer
transport its load.
 The river first deposits large materials like boulders which need more
energy to be carried downstream.

Factors affecting erosional and depositional processes of a stream

 Discharge - rivers have more energy to erode and transport its material
in the lower and middle course since they would have increased volume
of water from other tributaries.
 Velocity - channels with high velocity are characterised with high levels
of erosion and those with low velocity encourage deposition since the
stream would not have enough energy to carry materials downstream.
 Shape and size of stream - streams with a large wetted perimeter
(cross section perimeter that is wet) have more deposition than erosion
since the energy to erode is lost because of increased friction between the
water and load against the river bed.
 Stream gradient - steep gradient especially in the upper course of a
river helps increase velocity thus giving the stream enough energy to
erode and transport material.

River long profile

 The long profile generally shows slope or gradient of a river as it moves

from the source to its mouth.
 The long profile has three stages referred to a as the rivers course. These
stages include the upper course, middle course and lower course.

Figure 13 Long profile of a river

River landforms
Landforms in the upper course of the river

Waterfall

Figure 14 Victoria Falls.

 Waterfalls occur where resistant rock overlies less resistant in a river

channel either horizontally, vertically, dips gently up-stream.
 The less resistant rock which is below the hard rock is eroded by the
action of water.
 Figure 15 Waterfall formation

 Erosion keeps undercutting the soft rock eventually causing the waterfall
to retreat through the collapse of the resistant rock.
 The rocks which fall in the plunge pool erodes more material making it
bigger though a process called abrasion caused by the swirling action of
the water from the falls.
 Although waterfalls can be seen on any part of the river course they are
more common in the upper course of a river.

V-Shaped valley

Figure 16 Formation of a V-shaped valley

 These are also found in the upper course of a river where vertical erosion
is dominant.
 V-shaped valleys are narrow steep sided valleys with a cross section that
resembles the letter V.
 Vertical erosion (abrasion) deepens the valley whist the valley sides are
subjected to weathering. Material that is weathered from the valley sides,
falls into the river channel and acts as abrasive material which continually
deepens the channel.

Pot holes

Figure 17 Potholes on a river bed.

 These are also found on the upper course of the river where there is more
roughness, high velocity and turbulence.
 As the river flows some of the load it carries is trapped in slight hollows
found on the rocky riverbed
 The trapped load is forced to act as abrasive material on the hollows by
eddies (swirling of water) creating cylindrical holes called pot holes on the
river bed.
Figure 18 Pothole formations.

Gorges

Figure 19 Gorge

 A gorge is a deep narrow valley with steep sides.

 Gorges are often formed as a result of vertical erosion and geological
uplift.
Interlocking spurs

Figure 20 Interlocking spurs.

 These are areas of hard rock which force a river to flow in a winding
course mainly in the upper course of a river avoiding resistant highland
surfaces.
 As the river flows in a winding course more erosion occurs on the outside
banks of the river causing undercutting which makes the bends more
pronounced.
 This cause the ridges of hard rock to interlock, hence being called
interlocking spurs.

Flood plains
Figure 21 Formation of a flood plain.

 These are gently sloping flat lands which are formed as a result of
deposition of sediment (silt and alluvium) when a river overflows its
banks (floods).
 As flooding occurs heavy sediment is deposited closer to the river edge
whilst lighter sediments like silt are deposited further away.
 Continuous flooding will then cause the sediment to cover the whole
valley floor.

Levees
Figure 22 Natural levees.

 These are natural embankments formed by deposition on sediment on the

edges of a river as a result of continuous flooding.
 When a river overflows its banks, it carries with it sediment which is then
deposited on its banks. Heavier sediment is deposited closest to the
channel forming natural slopes called levees.

Braiding

Figure 23. A braided river

 A braided river is a channel which splits into several streams which are
separated by islands called eyots.
 Braiding occurs when there is deposition of sediment in the channel.
 Deposition in the channel may occur when:
o The load exceeds the river's capacity to transport.
o There is a drop in river discharge.

Meandering

Figure 24 A meandering river

 Meandering occurs when a river takes a winding route as it flows.

 It is formed as a result of lateral erosion and deposition in the channel.
 Deposition occurs in the inside banks of a channel since the water has
less power leading to the formation of slip off slope or point bars.
 Lateral erosion on the outside banks of the channel causes undercutting
which leads to the deepening of the channel.
Figure 25 Cross section of a meander.

Ox-bow Lake

Figure 26 Formation of an ox-bow lake.

 Ox-bow lakes occur as a result of lateral abrasion and hydraulic action
which takes place on the outside banks of a meander.
 The neck of the meander gets narrower with time and eventually makes
the outside bends join especially when a flood occurs.
 The water ends up taking the shorter route and cuts off the meander
bend from the main channel leaving an ox-bow lake.
 The diagram above is an illustration of the formation of a meander.

Deltas

Figure 27, Okavango Delta.

 Deltas are formed as a result of deposition of sediment on the river

mouth.
 The river deposits materials when velocity is reduced as a river enters
into a sea thus losing its energy.
 As deposition occur the sediment forms a gently sloping layer at the
bottom and with time the sediment is exposed to the surface thus
restricting free movement of water.
 This causes the river to split into several streams as in the case of
braided channels. These streams are called distributaries.
 Deltas occur in areas where the amount of sediment deposited is more
than the rate at which it is removed by tides.

Types of deltas

 Arcuate delta
 Estuarine delta
 Cuspate delta
 Bird's foot delta

Figure 28 Types of deltas.

River capture/piracy

Terms used in river capture

 Consequent river/stream- is the main river where the direction of flow is
directly related to the original dip of the land.
 Subsequent stream-a tributary stream flowing along beds of less
erosional resistance, parallel to beds of greater resistance.

Definition:

 This is the process whereby a river captures the headwaters of a nearby

stream using its subsequent stream(s).

Figure 29 River piracy

Conditions necessary for river capture to occur

 River capture usually occurs in areas where two consequent rivers such
as (C1) and (C2) above flow adjacent to each other, with one stream
being less powerful than the other.
 The powerful river (C1) captures the weaker river (C2) through a
subsequent stream as shown in the illustrations above.
 The more powerful river must flow at a lower level thus increasing its
ability to erode (headward erosion).
 The powerful stream must erode its channel with both headward and
vertical erosion at a faster rate than its neighbor.
 Subsequent stream migrates upstream through headward erosion until it
reaches the less powerful consequent stream.
 The subsequent stream then enlarges its own drainage basin and in time
diverts the headwaters of the less powerful consequent stream. This
happens because the more powerful stream and its subsequent river
would have lower base levels.
 As the less powerful stream diverts its course it leaves a misfit stream
because of low discharge.

The Uses of Rivers

 Water supply-rivers act as a source of water supply that can be used in

industries or for domestic purposes. The Pungwe River in the eastern
highlands is used as a source of water for the city of Mutare.
 Transport and navigation-rivers can be used as transport routes.
 Rivers such as Zambezi, Nile, Amazon, Mississippi and Rhine are
important for transportation in their regions.

Figure 30 A boat navigating the Kariba Dam

 Agriculture - flood plains in major rivers offer fertile lands which are good
for agricultural production. The Nile valley in Egypt is an example where
agriculture is practiced along the rivers' fertile flood plains.
 Mining - rivers are useful since they provide minerals which can be
obtained through alluvial mining, e.g. Angwa and Runde rivers in
Zimbabwe.

Figure 31 Alluvial gold mining

 Hydroelectric power - rivers can be used as a source of electric power

which is generated using water. In Zimbabwe, the largest hydroelectric
power scheme is at Kariba Dam whose main source of water is the
Zambezi River.
 Tourism - rivers act as tourist attractions since they have various
landform features created from river processes. The Victoria Falls in
Zimbabwe, which is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is an
example of river a feature which attracts tourists.

Figure 32 Victoria Falls

 Fishing - rivers can act as fisheries where fish is harvested for commercial
and consumption purposes. In Africa, Tanzania and Uganda have the
largest inland fisheries.

Figure 33 Fishing in Tanzania

 Building materials - rivers are also used as a source of construction
materials like river sand.
 Boundaries - rivers can also be used as boundaries between provinces
and countries. Limpopo River acts as a boundary between South Africa
and Zimbabwe.
 Irrigation - dams are also used for irrigation purposes. Crop farming in
the lowveld areas of Zimbabwe like Triangle is enabled because of
irrigation. Sugarcane estates in Triangle use water from Lake Mutirikwi.

Multipurpose river development

Kariba case study

 In Zimbabwe the largest multipurpose river development project is the
Zambezi River basin.
 Initially Kariba Dam was built as a hydro-electric power project but it
ended up serving other functions like fishing, tourism, water sports and
water supply.
  The Kariba Dam was built on the Kariba gorge along the Zambezi River
which borders Zimbabwe and Zambia.
 The lake 280km in length and 32km in width and is shared amongst
the two countries Zimbabwe and Zambia.

Hydro-electricity power generation

 Electricity generation was the major reason which led to the construction
of the dam from 1957.
 Upon completion the power station was set to produce 1320 MW of power
with the South bank power cavern producing 705MW whilst the north
bank power carven had 615MW max capacity.
 Electricity generated at Kariba has benefited both Zimbabwe and Zambia.

Fishing

 The construction of the Kariba dam has led to a rise in fishing activities in
the country.
 Kariba has a large kapenta industry since the introduction of the fish from
Lake Tanganyika in the 1960's.
Figure 34 Fishing industry workers drying kapenta in Kariba

Tourism

 Kariba has been a thriving tourist destination based on water sports and
wildlife resources since the dam was built.
 Many hotels have been built on both Zambian and Zimbabwean sides to
provide accommodation for the tourists.

Negative effects of multipurpose river development

 Resettlement of people- many people were displaced from their homes

and relocated in areas which were animal habitats. Some of the people
were moved to Binga and Bumi areas.
 Reduced discharge downstream- the building of the wall has resulted in
little water being received downstream.
 Displacement of animals- the building of Kariba dam saw many animals
being removed from their natural habitats to other areas.
 Operation Noah was a program that was responsible for the relocation of
animals.
 Kariba dam construction caused a rise in tremors experienced in the area
as the dam was built in a tectonically active area on the southern end of
the African Rift valley.
 It takes a long time to effect any decisions since too many stakeholders
have to be consulted in an integrated project.