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TEXT TYPES AND GENRES

 Genres reflect differences in external format and situations of use, and are
defined on the basis of systematic non-linguistic criteria.
 Text types may be defined on the basis of cognitive categories or linguistic
criteria.

Genre distinctions do not adequately represent the underlying text functions of

English. Genres and texts types must be distinguished.

 Texts within particular genres can

differ greatly in their linguistic  Linguistically distinct texts
characteristics (texts in newspaper within a genre may represent
articles can range from narrative different text types,
and colloquial to informational and
elaborated).  while linguistically similar
texts from different genres
 On the other hand, different genres may represent a single text
can be similar linguistically type (Biber 1989:6).
(newspaper and magazine articles).
While genres form an open-ended set (Schauber and Spolsy 1986), text types
.constitute a closed set with only a limited number of categories

Text types are "a conceptual framework which enables us to classify texts in terms of
communicative intentions serving an overall rhetorical purpose" (Hatim and Mason
1990:140).

Based on cognitive properties, Werlich (1976) includes five idealized text types or
modes (adopted by Hatim and Mason 1990, Albrecht 1995, Biber 1989 -based on
linguistic criteria):

 description: differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in space

 narration: differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in time
 exposition: comprehension of general concepts through differentiation by
analysis or synthesis
 argumentation: evaluation of relations between concepts through the extraction
of similarities, contrasts, and transformations
 instruction: planning of future behavior
o with option (advertisements, manuals, recipes)
o without option (legislation, contracts)
o
 Excerpts from Anna Trosbor. 1997. Text Typology: Register, Genre and Text
Type. Text Typology and Translation: 3-23. John Benjamins
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TEXT TYPOLOGY (SUMMARY)

Types of texts Communicative Genres Structure

Purpose
Descriptive What somebody, Travel guides, some General presentation
something, some reports, parts in Detail in (thematic, spatial,
place is like. (postcards/diaries/n temporal...) order
ovels)
Narrative What happens News, comics, Beginning
history, story, Problem
novels, jokes. Resolution
Ending
Argumentative What is posed as Articles, speeches, Introduction /
defence, analysis essays, debates, Development
or refutation of assessment Conclusion
something (There are more models)

Instructive How to- Recipes, Schema (step by step; order is

or Procedural instructions, traffic of paramount importance)
signs, any how -to-
text...
Expository Why, how, Textbooks, articles, Presentation
Didactic or what... encyclopedias, Development
explanatory They’re easy to dictionaries Summary/Conclusion
understand if
they’re well
written.

Source:
http://www.talkingpeople.net/tp/skills/writing/talleres_michelle/textualanalysis/intro_
TA_03.html
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TEXT TYPOLOGY (DETAILED)

NARRATIVE TEXTS are about EVENTS taking place. They tell you a story. When
you write a narrative, a story, you have to give readers the setting first (people
involved, time/space, problem), so that they have a framework of reference. Then you
have to develop the problem and finally solve it. WATCH OUT!: They often include
DESCRIPTIONS, too, and DIALOGUES and MONOLOGUES!
Structure: Beginning – Problem - Resolution - Ending!

The purpose of narrative text is to entertain, to tell a story, or to provide an aesthetic literary
experience. Narrative text is based on life experiences and is person-oriented using dialogue and
familiar language. Its structure uses that of stories. The genres that fit the narrative text structure
are: folktales (e.g. wonder tales, fables, legends, myths, realistic tales), contemporary fiction,
mysteries, realistic fiction, historical fiction.

A Story Map
Setting The place
Characters The beings involved
Beginning
Bloody hell! There's always a problem! Or say, the knot,
Problem
the source of tension
The action that takes place
The middle of a narrative is organized around a plot:
Middle Events initiating events, subsequent events, rising excitement and
climax (the high point in the story where the problem is
solved).
End Resolution Solving the problem or just its outcome or ending
  End The point of the story?

DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS are about information on OBJECTS themselves (people,

things, landscapes…). A description can be external (picture the whole and then
move onto the different parts), functional (picture the instruments and/or parts and
describe their function), or psychological (the feeling the object described produces
in the writer). Structure: marked by your point of view, which means you have to
think about the structure of your descriptive text. How are you going to organize it?
Around the physical? (from top to bottom?, left to right?, general to particular?, the
other way round?), in a thematic kind of organization?, chronologically?...
INSTRUCTIONAL/PROCEDURAL TEXTS are HOW-TO texts, texts about how to
do things! Structure: The structure is very clearly ordered. First step 1, then step 2...!
It begins at the beginning of the process described, moves on along with such process
and ends also when the process finishes. This means no conclusions or opinion-like
endings are included.

ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS are about ideas. They show the process of supporting
or weakening another statement. "Defending a position" means EXPLAINING the
ideas & GIVING REASONS for them.
Structure:
• Classical • Other side questioned: no direct
a. Introduction (the purpose of my...) refutation, mainly posing
b. Explanation of the case under questions.
consideration (there are two
different approaches to this issue...
historically the debate...)
c. Outline of the argument (the
difficult points are the following...
+ as it was said above...)
d. Proofs supporting the argument
(as a matter of fact... it cannot be
forgotten... furthermore... what is
more…)
e. Refutation (even though... it is
obvious that... nobody would
believe that...)
f.Conclusion (on the whole... as a
result... as a conclusion... finally...
summing up...)
Other:
• Pros and cons discussion: pro-con-
pro-con or con-pro-con-pro.
• One-sided argument: no
counterarguments.
• Eclectic approach: some of the
views on the subject.
• Opposition's arguments first, author's
arguments
Traditionally it has been believed…;
it seems to be a fact...
EXPOSITORY TEXTS

The main purpose of expository text is to inform or describe.  Authors who write
expository texts research the topic to gain information.  The information is
organized in a logical and interesting manner using various expository text
structures. 
Structure: Presentation – Development -Summary/Conclusion

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TEXTS TYPES:
LANGUAGE FEATURES (LINGUISTIC MARKERS)

NARRATIVE TEXTS
Purpose: To amuse/entertain the readers and to tell a story
Dominant Language Features (linguistic markers):
1. Using past tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Chronologically arranged
4. Using transitions of time

DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS
Purpose: to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
Dominant Language Features (Linguistic markers):
1. Using simple present tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Using stative verbs
4. Using adverbs
5. Using special technical terms
6. Using adjectives

EXPOSITORY TEXTS
Purpose: To explain the processes involved in the formation or working of natural
or socio-cultural phenomena.
Dominant Language Features (Linguistic markers):
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Using passive voice
4. Using noun phrase
5. Using adverbial phrase
6. Using technical terms
7. Using general and abstract noun
8. Using conjunction of time and cause-effect.
INSTRUCTIVE TEXTS
Purpose: to help readers how to do or make something completely
Dominant Language Features (Linguistic markers):
1. Using simple present tense
2. Using Imperatives
3. Using adverbs
4. Using technical terms

ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS
Purpose: to present information and opinions about issues in more one side of an
issue (‘For/Pros’ and ‘Against/Cons’)
Dominant Language Features (Linguistic markers):
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using thinking verbs
3. Using general and abstract nouns
4. Using conjunctions/transition
5. Using modality
6. Using adverbs of manner
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DIFFERENT TEXT PATTERNS OF EXPOSITORY TEXTS

The main purpose of expository text is to inform or describe.  Authors who write
expository texts research the topic to gain information.  The information is
organized in a logical and interesting manner using various expository text
structures. 

Description or Enumeration Text Pattern

  Paragraphs in this pattern list pieces of information (facts, ideas, steps, etc.).  
The order of the fact listing may reflect the order of importance or simply another
logical order.  The author may signal this pattern through the following words:  
one, two, first, second, third, to begin, next, finally, most important, when, also,
too, then, to begin with, for instance, for example, and in fact. 

Time Order or Sequence Text Pattern

This involves putting facts, events, or concepts in order of occurrence.  The author
traces the development of the topic or gives the steps in the sequence.  The author
may signal this pattern through the following words:  on (date), not long after,
now, as, before, after, when, first, second, then, finally, during, finally, and until. 

Question and Answer Text Pattern

  The author asks a question and then answers it. 

Comparison-Contrast Text Pattern

The author points out likenesses (comparison) and/or differences (contrast) among
facts, concepts, events, people, etc.  The author may signal this pattern through the
following words:   however, but, as well as, on the other hand, not only...but also,
either...or, while, although, similarly, yet, unless, meanwhile, nevertheless,
otherwise, compared to, and despite. 
Cause-Effect Text Pattern

The author shows how facts, events, or concepts (effects) happen or come into
being because of other facts, events, or concepts (causes).   The author may signal
this pattern through the following words:  because, cause, since, therefore,
consequently, as a result, this led to, so, so that, nevertheless, accordingly,
if....then, and thus. 

Problem and Solution Text Pattern

The author shows the development of a problem and the solution(s) to the
problem.  The author may signal this pattern through the following words: 
because, cause, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so, so that,
nevertheless, accordingly, if....then, and thus. 

Source:

http://www.homepages.dsu.edu/venekaml/Lewis%20and
%20Clark/EXPOSITORY%20TEXT%20STRUCTURES.htm
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SAMPLES OF TEXTS

An example of descriptive texts

I have a close Friend. She is beautiful, attractive and trendy. She always wants to
be a trend setter of the day. She always pays much attention on her appearance.
Recently, she bought a new stylist foot legs from blowfish shoes products. Thes
shoes really match on her.
Her new blowfish women's shoes are wonderful. When she is walking on that
shoes, all her friends, including me watch and admire that she has the most suitable
shoes on her physical appearance. The style, bright color, and brand represent her
as a smart woman of the day. She really has a perfect appearance.
She is really mad on that shoes. She said that the products covered all genders. The
blowfish men's shoes are as elegant as she is. The products provide varieties of
choice. Ballet, casual, boot athletic shoes are designed in attractive way. The
products are international trader mark and become the hottest trend.

An example of instructive texts

Tandoori chicken recipe
by Irene (Y5C, 2006-07, as part of her OP on Indian Food)

Ingredients:
10 pieces of chicken (drumsticks and/or breast with skin removed)
1 cup plain yoghurt

Spices:
1 tablespoon melted butter
1 tablespoon lemon juice
1 tablespoon red chilli powder (adjust according to preference)
1 tablespoon coriander powder
1 tablespoon garlic paste
1 tablespoon ginger paste
1 tablespoon cumin powder
½ tablespoon mustard
½ tablespoon Garam Masala powder

Optional spices:
few pods of cardamos
pinch of saffron
 
Salt to taste

Preparation:
1. Mix all spices with yoghurt and butter to make marinating sauce.
2. Prick the chicken and apply the sauce. Cover chicken and marinate overnight
inside a refrigerador (for at least 4 hrs)
3. Grill the chicken in regular way (for better result, apply melted butter to the
chicken just before you grill).
4. Cook chicken until brownish (or way you prefer).
5. Serve sliced onion (ring) and lemon wedges with the tandoori chicken. Also,
serve. Lemon juice can be sprinkled on the cooked chicken to add zesty flavor.

An example of narrative texts

 Once upon time, a man had a wonderful parrot. There was no other parrot
like it. The parrot could say every word, except one word. The parrot would not
say the name of the place where it was born. The name of the place was Catano.
The man felt excited having the smartest parrot but he could not understand
why the parrot would not say Catano. The man tried to teach the bird to say Catano
however the bird kept not saying the word.
At the first, the man was very nice to the bird but then he got very angry.
“You stupid bird!” pointed the man to the parrot. “Why can’t you say the word?
Say Catano! Or I will kill you” the man said angrily. Although he tried hard to
teach, the parrot would not say it. Then the man got so angry and shouted to the
bird over and over; “Say Catano or I’ll kill you”. The bird kept not to say the word
of Catano.
One day, after he had been trying so many times to make the bird say
Catano, the man really got very angry. He could not bear it. He picked the parrot
and threw it into the chicken house. There were four old chickens for next dinner
“You are as stupid as the chickens. Just stay with them” Said the man angrily.
Then he continued to humble; “You know, I will cut the chicken for my meal. Next
it will be your turn, I will eat you too, stupid parrot”. After that he left the chicken
house.
The next day, the man came back to the chicken house. He opened the door
and was very surprised. He could not believe what he saw at the chicken house.
There were three dead chickens on the floor. At the moment, the parrot was
standing proudly and screaming at the last old chicken; “Say Catano or I’ll kill
you”.

An example of argumentative texts

 Foxhunting is a subject that provokes very strong feelings. Many people
believe that it is cruel to hunt a fox with dogs and totally agree with its ban.
Many farmer and even conservationists, however, have always argue that the fox is
a pest which attacks livestock and be controlled.

An example of expository texts

Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all
of our daily activities—talking, understanding, reading, socializing—depend on
our having learned and stored information about our environments. Memory allows
us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments ago. It enables us to
learn new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to access past experiences
or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends
and family members, find our way home, or even tie a shoe. Life would be a series
of disconnected experiences, each one new and unfamiliar. Without any sort of
memory, humans would quickly perish.

In psychology, memory processes by which people and other organisms

encode, store, and retrieve information. Encoding refers to the initial perception
and registration of information. Storage is the retention of encoded information
over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in using stored information.
Whenever people successfully recall a prior experience, they must have encoded,
stored, and retrieved information about the experience. Conversely, memory
failure—for example, forgetting an important fact—reflects a breakdown in one of
these stages of memory.