2-Probe Design, Sound Field and Instrumentation: Ut Level I+Ii Training

UT LEVEL I+II
TRAINING
Level III
Ms. Neslihan
MAHMUTYAZICIOGLU 2-Probe design, sound field
Level II + Trainer
and instrumentation
Mr. Bulent Serkan
KILICASLAN
2- Probe design, sound field and instrumentation
2.1 - Creation of Ultrasound with Piezo Elements
The electrical voltage generated in the ultrasonic device makes the transducer (crystal) in the probe vibrate. For this
purpose, the piezoelectric effect for the creation of ultrasounds is the one that is most frequently used. A stationary
longitudinal wave is created in the piezoelectric transducer, which is directed towards its thickness, the length of which
can be calculated using the transducer thickness:
The frequency of the transducer is thus:

The material and the thickness of the transducer determine thus the frequency of the ultrasound, which is emitted by
the probe, giving the sound in this way unique features. It is also referred to as nominal frequency of the probe. The
thinner the transducer is, the higher is the created frequency. In the course of a direct piezo-electric effect, the
mechanical energy is converted by means of a crystal into electric energy. If, for instance, a quartz crystal is subjected
to mechanical pressure, an electrical voltage can be measured on the crystal. This voltage is becoming higher, as the
mechanical pressure on the crystal increases. The piezoelectrical effect is used when receiving an ultrasonic pulse.
Figure – 1 Stationary vibration in crystal

The indirect piezo-electrical effect is the conversion of the previously mentioned effect. In this case a
voltage is applied to the crystal, which causes a mechanical deformation of the crystal. As a result, the
electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by means of a crystal. This effect is used for the
emission of ultrasonic pulses.
Figure – 2 Piezo Electric effect

2.2 - Construction principles of probes
Normal probe (straight beam probe) : The transducer is placed in a housing (frame), together with the crystal
backing, the necessary electrical connections and an adaptable coil. It has a metal coating on both sides, so that an
electrical voltage can be applied. When an alternating current makes it oscillate in the through thickness direction, it
transmits longitudinal waves directly into the object under examination. The crystal backing ensures fast damping of
the oscillation, so that only a single pulse is directed into the object under examination. At the same time, it absorbs
all ultrasonic waves, which are being irradiated inside the probe. Due to the small transducer thickness, the crystal is
sensitive to impact and abrasion (friction). being used nowadays.
Therefore, it is usually protected by a thin layer of synthetic material. If the position of the probe makes the
ultrasonic incidence to become perpendicular to the surface, i.e. the ultrasound is transmitted at an angle of 0° into
the object under examination, a process referred to as straight beam scanning takes place. In Figure 3, a typical straight
beam probe with its most important components is shown.
Figure – 3 Design of Probe

Angle probe (angle-beam probe) : For the purpose of achieving angular incidence, angle probes are used, which
transmit the ultrasound into the object under examination, through a plexiglas wedge, on which the transducer is set
into oscillation. The transducer, which is positioned obliquely to the test surface, directs the sound beam at an oblique
angle into the object under examination. The huge damping block left undertakes thereby the task of absorbing the
disruptive sound reflections, whereas the damping block right has to damp the oscillation as fast as possible.
According to Snell’s Law, longitudinal and transverse waves are created in the object under examination through the
refraction of the ultrasound. If certain critical angles are adhered to, only a transverse wave can spread out, when it
comes to using a standard angle probe.
Figure – 4 Design of Angle beam Probe

2.3 - Characteristics of probes
Pulse length : One of the important characteristics of a probe is the length of the pulses, which are being sent by it
into the object under examination (Fig.5). The pulse length is influenced by the damping and the nominal frequency
of the probe. Under conditions, where the frequency is the same, it is the damping that determines the number of
oscillations of the pulse and thus the pulse length as well. If the number of oscillations remains the same (≈
damping), the pulse length can be influenced by the frequency. Low frequencies have the tendency to increase the
pulse length as well. On the other hand, the pulse length exerts influence on the width of the echo, which is shown on
a display. Narrower echoes can be easily discerned from one another, i.e. reflectors with smaller differences in the
sound path travel distance, can be perceived separately. In order to acquire a high „resolution“, which is in this respect
necessary, short pulse lengths are required; i.e. probes with a high frequency and a strong damping. And vice versa -
the ultrasonic pulses become longer, the weaker the damping and the smaller is the frequency. Longer pulses lead to a
better penetration ability, since the amount of sound energy, transmitted into the object under examination, is larger.
A good penetration ability manifests itself by the fact that also in case of a small amplification, high signals can still
be achieved.
Resolution and penetration ability are thus two contrary features, so that the selection of the probe to be used,
depends largely on the examination problem concerned.
Figure – 5 Effect of Pulse length and frequency

Sound Field : The sound is sent from several points of the transmitter surface in a spherical form into the object
under examination. The spherical waves collide against each other, interact with one another and are finally bundled
and directed as a result of this interaction (interference). The area immediately underneath the crystal, in which this
bundling takes place, is called near field. Due to the interferences (superposition of waves), maximum and minimum
values of the sound pressure are achieved, so that indications, which have a reduced or increased amplitude are
represented or entirely “swallowed”. A meaningful testing procedure within the near field is therefore only possible to
a limited extent. The end zone of the near field is the area of the sound field, in which the sound is most strongly
bundled and where the sound pressure is the highest (focal zone). Beyond the end zone of the near field, the
ultrasonic beam spreads out in a spotlight manner. This zone is referred to as far field. Within this far field the sound
acts as any other radiation or wave, deriving from a single spot. Similarly to the cone of a flashlight (torch), the sound
disperses over an increasingly larger area as the distance from the transducer becomes bigger. The sound pressure per
unit of area reduces thus with the travelled path (as the travelled path increases); i.e. reflectors produce a lower echo
height, the bigger the distance from the crystal. In order to describe the far field as accurately as possible, the bundle
or the cone must be observed transversely to the direction of propagation. The highest sound pressure is always to be
found in the middle – the central beam (incident beam axis). The sound pressure diminishes on the outside, however
without fully disappearing. Therefore, the points, where the sound pressure is half the size of the central beam, are
picked out and in such a case the line connecting those points is called marginal beam. The angle between the central
beam and the marginal (edge) beam is referred to as a divergence angle. Taking the data of the probe (diameter of the
crystal DC and nominal frequency fN) and the sound velocity c of the object under examination into account, one
can calculate and draw the ultrasonic bundle in form of a near field length N and divergence angle ϑ (see Fig. 6).
Figure – 6 Sound field of Ultrasonic transducer
The data related to the ultrasonic bundle can also

be directly used from the data sheets (see Fig. 7) or
from drawings, so called sonograms, which are
provided by the manufacturers (see Fig. 8).
Figure – 7 Example for a data sheet (from Krautkrämer)

2.3 - Characteristics
of probes
Figure – 8 Sonograms (from Krautkrämer)

2.4 - Specific features of the dual-element probe
Up until now straight beam probes were presented, which contain only one crystal in the probe, performing both the
sending and the receiving function. This is the reason why the transmitter pulse is either entirely or partly represented
on the display. Echoes from reflectors, which are located near the surface are not detectable, because their echoes are
concealed by the transmitter pulse. This is referred to as lack of near resolution. There are often situations in practice,
where thin plates are being examined or reflectors lying near the surface have to be detected. In such cases dual-
element probes are used (see Fig. 9), also known as twin probes. These types of probes possess two separate crystals,
which are placed in a housing and separated acoustically from one another. Due to this type of construction, a specific
function is assigned to each transducer (transducer 1: transmitter (sending probe), transducer 2: receiver). The
disruptive initial pulse is lost due to the fact that the transducers are mounted to delay paths (lines) made of Plexiglas
(Perspex) which have a sufficient length. Two cables are needed for making a connection to the ultrasound device and
the operating mode switch must be adjusted to dual search.
Figure – 9 Dual Transducer design

The receiver crystal is only responsive to reflectors lying within certain depth ranges, i.e. only to those ones lying
within the sound field that overlaps with the sound field of the sending crystal. In areas near the surface, there is thus
a dead zone, within which reflectors of interest are not revealed. Therefore, both transducers are inclined to each other
in order to increase the sensitivity within the areas adjacent to the surface. This inclination angle (= angle deviation in
relation to the parallel position to the test surface) is referred to as roof angle (toein- semiangle). Roof angles between
0° and 12° are usually used. The influence that the roof angle exerts on the sensitivity is shown in Fig. 10. The
inclination of the transducers leads to a so-called extended sound path, i.e. the sound travels through the object under
examination, taking a longer („slanted“) path, rather than the straight one, which corresponds to its wall thickness (see
Fig. 8). This extended sound path is becoming longer, the larger is the necessary roof angle; i.e. the thinner is the wall
thickness that should be examined. In order to compensate for this error, one should use two different calibration
paths when setting the distance, which would cover the wall thickness that should be inspected.
Figure -10. Effect of rouf angle
2.5 - Operating Technology of Ultrasonic Equipment
Resonance technology : The earlier models of ultrasonic devices, especially those particularly developed for the
measurement of wall thicknesses, were operated by using a resonance technology. During such a process, a wavelength
is created as a result of a continuous change of the frequency. This wavelength leads to the creation of a stationary
wave, i.e. an oddnumbered multiple of half the wavelength. Such stationary (standing) waves reach maximum values of
sound pressure, which can be then evaluated in order to determine the wall thickness.
Figure – 11 Resonance technique

Through transmission technique : After it has passed through an object under examination, a continuous and pulsed
sound wave is received and assessed at the other end (opposite surface). The bigger the reflector is, the less amount of
sound passes through to the interface. The evidence is provided thus as a result of a sound pressure reduction due to
the shading effect of the reflector (see Fig. 12). When compared to the pulse-echo technique, there are some
disadvantages, which restrict the usage of this technique to some specific cases (e.g. high wall thicknesses and strong
sound attenuation):
• It is only an indirect detection. It is therefore not possible to determine the depth of the reflector’s position.
• Deviations in sound pressure on the measuring system or different coupling do not allow exact sizing
• It is absolutely necessary to enable access to the object under examination from both sides.
• Two probes, and therefore sometimes also two examiners are necessary.
Figure – 12 Through transmission technique

Pulse-Echo Technique (reflection technique) : This kind of operational technique is nowadays the most common one
in the ultrasonic testing. During this pulse-echo technique, the time of flight (round trip) and the sound pressure of
reflected ultrasonic pulses is measured (see Fig. 13). A probe, which acts simultaneously as sending and receiver probe,
is quite sufficient. The time span between the points of emission and reception of the pulses is proportional to the
distance between the probe and the reflecting surface. The ultrasonic device measures the time of flight of the pulses
and in doing so, it makes it possible to determine precisely the position of a reflector. Frequencies between 1–10
MHz are common when it comes to using the contact testing technique.
Figure – 13 Pulse-Echo Technique (reflection technique)

2.6 - Operating Functions of the Ultrasonic Device
The following block diagram and the switches of an analogue device provide an overview of the control functions.
Figure – 14 Block Diagram

Pulse generator : The pulse repetition frequency is created as square wave voltage in the pulse generator. This pulse
repetition frequency can be adjusted from approximately 50 Hz to approximately 10 kHz. In cases of long sound
path travel distances, the pulse repetition rate should be relatively small, in order to ensure enough break time before
the next pulse is emitted (transmitted). If the pulse repetition frequency is too high, so-called ghost echoes can be
created. This problem can be avoided by using devices with freely adjustable pulse repetition frequency or by means of
an automatic adjustment of the range settings. The option to change the pulse length, available for some devices,
represents a further possibility to make adjustments. The longer the pulse, the more energy is emitted. In this way the
penetration ability is enhanced, while at the same time the resolution becomes worse.
Transmission amplifier (excitation power amplifier) : In the transmission amplifier, the pulses are amplified by voltages
up to maximum 1000 V. The transmission voltage can be regulated through the strength of the pulse. In order to
avoid that the probe becomes strained (overloaded), and to avoid a resulting worse resolution, a lower strength of the
pulse, used as a standard, should be selected. Most of the probes require only voltages in the range between 250 and
500 V, in order to be optimally excited.
Receiving amplifier : In the receiving amplifier, there is an attenuation of the echo signals with high voltage, so that an
overload (saturation) of the amplifier can be avoided. The echoes are influenced in their representation by the:
• rectification
• screening
• filter
• threshold
• dB-regulation
These controls should be set by the examiner in such a way, as to achieve the best possible reading accuracy under best
resolution conditions, which however depends on the probe’s features and the amplifier settings. Since all previously
mentioned control switches influence the echo height, it is compulsory to keep a record of the adjustments made, i.e.
their positions. The most important setting however, is made by means of different amplifying controls, so that
reflectors inside the object under examination can be represented by a certain echo amplitude.
There are various types of amplifiers; for example:
• Preset controller (20 or 30 dB gradation)
• Precision regulator (2 dB gradation)
• Special regulator (toggle switch with fixed values, e.g.: 0,5 dB,
1 dB, 6 dB und 12 dB) In order to keep the background noise level low, the preset controller should always be
operated first.
Range adjustment : Three basic setting options have to be available for making range adjustments (range calibration):
• Spreading/expansion coarse (range adjustment)
• Spreading fine (infinitely variable)
• Correction of zero point (delayed time-base sweep)
These controls determine with what size, which section of the object under examination is represented on the screen.
The spreading, often referred to as sound velocity controller, stretches or compresses the reproduced picture to the
desired extent (see Fig. 15) The correction of zero point, also known as delayed time-base sweep, shifts a given image
frame across the entire depth of the object under examination, without changing the scale parameters. This controller
can also be used in cases where the immersion technique is used, in order to shift the disruptive transmission pulse to
the left, outside the display area, without changing the size of this area (see Fig. 17 and unit 4).
Figure - 15 Range adjustment

Figure – 16 Zero adjustment

Monitor (screen) : In order to ensure optimal readings of the echoes on the screen, both the brightness and focus
switches have to be adjusted according to the given circumstances. If reading errors are to be avoided, then in a case
where a cathode tube is being used, one must by all means choose an observation that is perpendicular to the screen.
Gates : A gate is used in order to report (signal) or automatically register indications within a certain area of the
time base. This occurs by means of optical or acoustic signals. A predefined display height must be achieved, so that
indications can be registered within the gate (see Fig. 17). In some devices, the function of the gate can also be
inverted, so that there is also a signal, if a certain display height is not reached. This function is provided for the
control of the back-wall echo in cases where a straight beam scanning is performed.
Figure – 17 Gate adjustment

Electronic distance-amplitude compensation : Losses in sound pressure at different distances (routes) are compensated
through an electronic circuit, which is found in the device. All indications, having the same size are thus displayed with
a constant display height, regardless of the sound path length (see Fig. 18). The electronic distance-amplitude is used
in automated testing systems, often in connection with a gate.choose an observation that is perpendicular to the
screen.
Figure – 18 Distance Amplitude correction

Thank You..

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UT LEVEL I+II

The frequency of the transducer is thus:

Figure – 1 Stationary vibration in crystal

Figure – 2 Piezo Electric effect

Figure – 3 Design of Probe

Figure – 4 Design of Angle beam Probe

Figure – 5 Effect of Pulse length and frequency

Figure – 6 Sound field of Ultrasonic transducer

The data related to the ultrasonic bundle can also

Figure – 7 Example for a data sheet (from Krautkrämer)

Figure – 8 Sonograms (from Krautkrämer)

Figure – 9 Dual Transducer design

Figure – 11 Resonance technique

Figure – 12 Through transmission technique

Figure – 13 Pulse-Echo Technique (reflection technique)

Figure – 14 Block Diagram

Figure - 15 Range adjustment

Figure – 16 Zero adjustment

Figure – 17 Gate adjustment

Figure – 18 Distance Amplitude correction

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