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CHAPTER-I
DEGAUSSING
Introduction

1. Degauss means to neutralise the magnetic field strength. So degaussing is a name,

which has been given to measure adopted for protecting ship against or magnetic mine.
Detonation of magnetic firing devices is caused by local distortion of earth magnetic field by a
ship. The degaussing system reduces this distortion to a minimum thereby reducing the
chances of accidental explosion of such device. So degaussing system is a process by which
we can demagnetise the ship from an earth's magnetic field. Ship is a magnetic substance.
When it travels through sea due to earth magnetism a magnetic field is produced around the
ship. When this field comes close to a magnetic mine, mine may be exploded thereby
damage the ship. So it is necessary to demagnetise the ship to make it safe from magnetic
mine. The process of neutralising ships magnetism is called degaussing.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

2. Magnetism is a property, which can exist in various materials. When a bar of iron is
magnetized, the molecules of iron line themselves up between the two poles; “North-seeking”
or “RED” and “South-seeking” or “BLUE”. The lines of magnetic force flow externally from the
red end to the blue end. The points near the ends where the lines concentrate are known as
the poles. If a piece of ferrous metal is placed in a magnetic field it will become magnetised
with its own North and South Pole, it will then produce a field of its own. As a result the
original field will be distorted. It is distortion effect causes a magnetic mine to be fired when a
ship passes over the mine.

3. The earth being a great magnet it exhibits the magnetic properties. One is North
region and other is South region. The natural pole in the northern region is 'Red' pole and
southern region is ' Blue' pole. The conventional lines of force are from Red to Blue. So the
ships magnetization depends upon the location of the ships where it is being located. The
conventional lines of force, from RED to BLUE, surrounding the earth enter different localities
at different angles. Earth magnetic field can be resolved into two components i.e. horizontal
and vertical.

4. Ships are constructed of magnetic material and are subjected to the earth’s magnetic
field. They thus become magnetised in a direction and strength dependent on their location
and course. Hence ships magnetic field distorts the earth magnetic field. This distortion may
act as trigger for magnetic mines.

5. Thus to protect shipping from magnetic mine, means must be used to neutralise or
reduce the vertical and horizontal earth field around a ship to the value of earth’s ambient
field in the vicinity of the ship.

6. There are two methods of reducing a ship’s magnetic field:

a. The use of Degaussing Coils.

b. Magnetic Treatment i.e. wiping and Deperming.

Ships Magnetic Field

7. As the earth magnetic field enters and leaves the ship at some angle, it is convenient
to resolve the magnetizing force into three directions relative to the ship i.e. Vertical,
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Longitudinal and Athwart ship. These three components may be still further subdivided into
permanent and induced magnetism. The induced components will vary with the location and
course of the ship. The permanent components are fixed when the ship is built or under going
a large refit. Thus there are six components of magnetism in a ship, which have to be
measured separately and for which allowance must be made if degaussing is to be efficient.
They are:

a. Induced vertical magnetism (IVM).

b. Induced longitudinal magnetism (ILM).
c. Induced Athwartship magnetism (IAM).
d. Permanent vertical magnetism (PVM).
e. Permanent longitudinal magnetism (PLM).
f. Permanent Athwartship magnetism (PAM).

Concept of Degaussing System

8. As we know that degaussing system aims for neutralising the effect of magnetic field
produced by the earth and ship itself so it is needed to know the values of earth magnetic
field as well as ships magnetic field. In a conventional system, both values are calculated and
manually fed to the system. In auto degaussing system sensors are used to provide the value
of different components of earth magnetic field and is automatically fed to the corresponding
degaussing coils. The magnetic signature of the ship is determined by ranging and equivalent
current is set to the corresponding degaussing coils. Most of the automatic degaussing
equipment aboard Navy ships provides automatic compensation for the induced magnetism
due to changes in the ships heading.

Typical Layout of Degaussing Coils of a Ship

9. To reduce the vulnerability of ships to magnetic mines it is necessary to reduce the

ships magnetic field. Fitting Degaussing Coils to the vessel and energising these coils in such
a way that the resultant magnetic field opposes the ships field giving a reduced residual
magnetic field may achieve this. There are different types of degaussing coils used in this
purpose. They are explained in the following paragraphs.

10. ‘M’ Coils. The vertical ships magnetism, PVM and IVM are neutralised by the effect
of a coil in the horizontal plane, which passes completely round the ship at approximately
waterline level. This coil is known as the ‘Main’ or ‘M’ coil. The ‘M’ coil is usually in three
parts, the Forward, Mid ship and After or Quarter deck sections. The coil parts are known as
the MF, MM and MQ sections respectively. In considering the design of an internal ‘M’ coil,
the height of the coil above the keel and the shape of the coil are chosen so that:

a. Accurate compensation is provided at all depths.

b. Over the whole of an area at a given depth, the ship’s residual magnetic field is
near zero as possible.

Thus it may be necessary to very the height of the coil to obtain good compensation at all
sections of the ship.

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W/L
MQ MF
MM

MQ MM MF

11. ‘L’ Coils. The ship’s longitudinal magnetism is made up of PLM and ILM .The
former can be reduced to a minimum by a process known as DE-PERMING. Theoretically a
coil known as ‘L’ coil with its axis in the longitudinal plane would provide the best
compensation of the ILM. The ‘L’ coil is in thirteen section and number from L1 to L13 starting
from Forward.

L1
L13 L12 L6 L 5 L 4 L 3 L 2

12. ‘Fi and Qi’ Coils. ‘Fi (Forward) and ‘Qi’ (Quarterdeck) coils are designed to produce
vertical field and is and run between a quarter and a third of the ships length from the bow
and stern. To obtain best compensation at all depths with the Fi and Qi coils, it is necessary
to fit them as high in the ship as is practicable and to keep the compensation required by
them as small as possible. The two sections of the coil are always in opposition to each other
and supplied in series.

1/3 1/4
Qi Fi

Qi Fi

13. ‘Ai’ Coils. The ships athwart ship magnetisms (PAM and LAM) are
neutralised by a coil having its axis athwart ships (i.e. in the vertical plane). The IAM is
neutralised by the ‘Ai’ coil. This coil is in two sections one either side of the centre line, to
avoid obstructions and to improve its fit.

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Athwartship Coil

DG Coil Polarity Conventions

14. A DG coil effect is designated ‘Positive’ if it neutralises or compensates a ‘Positive’

ship’s field components.

15. For Horizontal DG coils (M, F & Q coils), the polarity is considered ‘Plus’ or ‘Positive’
with forward current in the coil (anti-clockwise viewed from above) generating a Red pole up.
The polarity is ‘Minus’ or ‘Negative’ with Reverse current in the coil generating a Blue pole up.

16. For vertical DG coils (L coils), the polarity is considered ‘Plus’ or ‘Positive’ with
Forward current in the coil (anti-clockwise viewed from the stern) generating a Blue pole to
Bow. The polarity is ‘Minus’ or ‘Negative’ with Reverse current in the coil generating a Red
pole to Bow.

17. For vertical DG coils (A coils), the polarity is considered ‘Plus’ or ‘Positive’ with
Forward current in the coil (from bow to stern in upper limb) generating a Red pole to
Starboard. The polarity is ‘Minus’ or ‘Negative’ with Reverse current in the coil generating a
Blue pole to Starboard.

Polarity Testing of DG Coil

18. To ensure that the polarity of the coil is indicated correctly by the ampere-turn meter,
the DG coil should be tested by using a pocket compass Patt. 0671/5220223. These tests
should be carried out after refits or after any work involving the coil circuitry has been
completed. In wartime, the tests should be carried out prior to proceeding to sea.

19. The pocket compass should be checked by comparison with the ship’s magnetic
compass before and after use. Each DG coil is tested separately, the coil under test being the
only one switched on.
20. For testing horizontal coils (‘M’ coil and ‘Fi’, ‘Qi’), the coil being tested should be
approached slowly, the pocket compass being brought to rest approximately 2 feet ABOVE
any part of the coil. If Forward current is flowing (i.e. produces a RED pole up), the Red end
of the pocket compass will point Outboard.
R

PC
B B
B MQ
MM MF

PC
PC R
R

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21. For ‘Ai’ coils the compass should be held 2 feet BELOW the upper limb of the coil.
When Forward current is flowing, the Red end of the compass will point to Starboard.

D/G Coil Compass to be held Needle should point

All ‘M’ Coils and ‘Fi’ 2 feet above coil cable Outboard
‘Ai’ 2 feet below upper limb Starboard
‘Qi’ 2 feet above coil cable Inboard

Locating Earth on DG Coil

22. Due to length and nature of D/G coil cable an earth leakage point is difficult to locate. If
damage along the coil cable is not self-evident, the following method should be employed.

23. Connect bell to ring as shown in figure below. This will set up an oscillatory current,
which will be heard in the Headset or S/P Unit held the ear with Rx or coil carried along the
cable and will cease when leakage point is passed.

Disconnected
220V Input JB Turn or Turns

Rx Induction
Coil
Bell or SP Unit
Buzzer Headset

Battery Assumed
Leakage

Basic DG Coil Control Circuit

24. Control Requirements.

a. To adjust DG coil strength during inspection after refit. The DG officer will set
the ‘’Ballast Resistor’’ as necessary to obtain maximum current flow. This is NOT to be
changed by ship’s staff unless ordered by the Degaussing Authority.

b. To alter the direction of current in the ‘M’ coils according to the Hemisphere.

c. To adjust the amount of current in all coils as ship’s position alters according
to magnetic zone by means of Zone regulator.

d. To alter the direction and strength of current in Ai, Fi, Qi coils according to
Hemisphere and ship’s course.

25. A basic control circuit for all degaussing coils is arranged as in figure below.

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Ballast Resistor Zone Regulator

Reversing
Switch
Ampere-Turn
Meter JB DG Coil
220V DC

Supply to
Compass
Corrector Coils

220V DC System

26. The coils are energised from 220V DC, which is either obtained from a transformer
and a rectifier or a rotary converter. The three part ‘M’ coil systems have a zone regulating
and ballast resistor, hand-operated polarity reversing switch and a local ampere-turn meter in
each part of the system.

27. Reversing switch used to change direction of current flow in ‘M’ coils on change of
Hemisphere, in Ai and Fi Qi coils for change of course.

28. Ballast resistor is fitted to enable adjustment to be made to the coil by the DG officer
after refit so that the designed current value for the coil is obtained. This resistor is not to be
adjusted by the ship’s personnel unless directed by a DG officer.

29. Zone regulator adjusted by Range Officer while Ranging. Information should be
entered on ship’s Degaussing Certificate by the DG Officer showing zonal alterations to be
made by ship’s staff during passage around the world.

30. Compass correction NIR. This resistance is in the ballast resistance box and supplies
6 volts to feed the compass correction adjusting resistance boxes in the wheelhouse lobby.
Compass correction is not fitted in modern ships.

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MAGNETIC TREATMENTS
General

1. The application of a magnetic treatment to a ship requires the temporary rigging of an

insulated conducting cable around the ship in either a horizontal or vertical plane or both.
When energised with direct current, a magnetic field is generated and the ship’s hull can be
magnetised so as to be in opposition to one or other of the ship’s neutral magnetic field
components thus greatly reducing the resultant field below the ship. In this way ships not
fitted with DG coils can be given a considerable measure of protection.

2. Magnetic treatments are best carried out at a berth alongside a DG station with the
necessary facilities. The later will include a direct current supply up to a maximum of about
4000A (submarine type battery), current control equipment, cable etc and a measuring
installation for monitoring the resultant field under the ship before, during and after the
treatment. For larger ships unable to berth at the station, a Degaussing Vessel (mobile
treatment station) is available.

3. There are two main types of treatment, Wiping and Flashing. In the wiping process the
energised cable is moved over the ship’s plating whilst in the flashing process the cable
remains stationary throughout the treatment. In general both these treatments are supplied
only a ships not fitted with DG coils. Deperming is a flashing treatment, which is applied to
both coiled and uncoiled ships.

Wiping

4. This process is a development of the method of magnetising a ferrous specimen by

stroking with a magnet. Normally the process is used to compensate the ship’s vertical
component (PVM and IVM) and is valid only for the zone, in which the treatment is given. The
wiping cable is rigged as shown in figure below, supported by rope lanyards also used for
hauling up the cable. The cable is energised with a gradually increasing direct current of up to
say 500A and then hauled up the ship’s side as far as possible kipping the cable horizontal.
The current is steadily reduced to zero and the cable lowered to the starting position. Both
sides may be wiped together or separately. As a result a magnetic field with axis vertical is
wiped into the ship’s side of polarity opposite to the ship’s vertical component. The process is
repeated using a controlled increase of current until the wiped-in field gives the desired
compensation. It is normal practice to over compensate to allow for the initial rapid decay or
ageing of the wiped-in field. The wiping effect is not permanent and will last from about six
weeks to three months after which the treatment will have to be repeated.

15’

Wiping Cable
Over Wiping

5. This is a treatment, which gives a longer lasting effect from six to twelve months and is
normally the method employed. An added requirement is the rigging of a solenoid coil as
shown in figure below before the wiping cable is rigged. The ship is ‘over wiped’ until the
resultant field amidships is about two to two and a half times the ship’s original field and of
opposite polarity. The wiping cable is then fixed at water level and a reverse field ‘flashed’
with successive increases of current until the desired compensation is achieved.

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6. Due to the considerable magnetic disturbance caused by the treatment there is a

tendency to introduce PLM into the ship. During the ‘flashback’ a check is made of the PLM
value and if necessary a ‘Deperming’ is carried out.

Flashing

7. To achieve by vertical flashing a similar effect would require much higher current
values and is seldom used. ‘Flash D’ is a flashing process developed in the USA, which gives
much longer lasting effect (up to three years) than the over wipe process but requires two
separate power supplies.

116. Polarity convention for wiping and vertical flashing is similar to that for ‘M’ coils, i.e. a
Positive wipe or Flash gives a Blue pole Doen and requires current in a counter-clockwise
direction when viewed from above.

Deperming

8. Most steel ships are not fitted with a coiling system to compensate for PLM and
Deperming is the title of any process for eliminating or reducing this component.

9. The ship is temporarily fitted with a solenoid coil as shown in figure below, a current is
‘flashed’ in the solenoid so generating residual magnetism in opposition to the ship’s PLM.

2/3 b 1/3 b
1/3 b

Connecting Lead to be b = Maximum beam of Ship

Laid Inboard Together
10. The usual method is Deperming C, monitored by vertical sensors below the ship, or
Deperming CH, monitored by two horizontal sensors at the side of the ship. The process in
each method is the same and consists of an over flash in stages of increasing current to
generate a PLM about two and a half times the ship’s initial PLM and of opposite polarity. A
series of increasing ‘flashback’ or ‘reverse flash’ currents are then applied to give a resultant
PLM of about 1000 gamma of the same polarity as the original PLM. Three or four low
amplitude flashes of alternate polarity are then given always finishing with a positive flash,
which should reduce the final PLM to zero.

11. A positive flash generates a Red pole to Bow; a Negative flash generates a Blue pole
to Bow.

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12. True Deperming. This process, also known as Deperming by Reversals or Blind
Deperming or Deperming by Demagnetisation, consists of direct current flashes of
decreasing amplitude and of alternate polarity applied to the solenoid commencing with a
high current value (4000A) and finishing when a flash of 50A has been given. It is not usual to
monitor this process.

13. Athwartship Deperming. This process, also known as Deperming, is designed to

compensate for PAM in steel ships but is rarely used. In principle and technique it is similar to
Deperming C except that the flashing has its magnetic axis in athwartship and in form is very
like an external A coil. Only the over flash and flashback routines are used as the low
amplitude flashes are not required.

Effects of Degaussing on Magnetic Compass

14. The directional property of a magnetic compass is dependent on the ambient earth’s
field horizontal component (H). When fitted in a ship, the compass will be affected by the
ship’s magnetic field thus causing an error of deviation. This deviation is corrected by
compensating the ship’s magnetic field using permanent magnets and pieces of soft iron
(Kelvin’s spheres and Flinder’s bar) at the compass binnacle. Compensation by permanent
magnets is applied in three directions mutually at right angles relative to the ship i.e.
vertically, horizontally fore and aft and horizontally athwartship.

45. The methods of degaussing (magnetic treatment and DG coiling) introduce more
magnetic fields in the ship so causing further errors of deviation of the compass.

16. After a magnetic treatment a ship should be ‘swung for compass adjustment’. For
ships fitted with a DG coil system there will be two magnetic states: DG Off and DG On. In
the DG Off state the effect of the ships magnetic field at the compass position will be
compensated. In the DG On state the magnetic field generated by the DG coils, whilst
adequately compensating the field under the ship, can cause considerable deviation of the
compass at its position unless some form of compensation is applied. This is achieved
through providing ‘corrector coils’ at the compass position.

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CHAPTER-V
RANGING
Introduction

1. The term ranging implies to the methods of determining ships magnetic signature. This
is achieved through some types of range.
Types of Range

2. There are four types of ranges:

a. Open (Traditional and Open Sea Magnetic Signature Measurement Range).

b. Fixed.
c. Transportable.
d. Harbour Entrance.

Traditional Open Range

3. The traditional Open Range is used for calibration, routine and check ranging. It
consists of a number of sensors (usually 18) laid on the seabed in a navigable channel in a
water depth approximately equal to the beam of the types of ships, intended to range. Thus in
the traditional range there are deep, medium and shallow ranges to cater for all classes of
vessel. Each range site usually has two sets of underwater sensors, one laid on magnetic N-
S and one on magnetic E-W, the ships being ranged is normally required to make a number
of passes over both ranges in order to obtain the complete magnetic signature of the vessel.

Open Sea Magnetic Signature Range

4. The traditional ranges are now being replaced by new Magnetic Measurement
Ranges, laid on inter cardinal headings and in water depths of 9 m, 20 m and 30 m. These
ranges use a single seabed array of five three -axis data in conjunction with ships track
information provided by a local infra-red tracking system and automatically calculates coil
settings for the ship being ranged. These new ranges are able to carry out all the function of
the traditional open ranges with a higher degree of accuracy with a reduced time on the
range for the ships.

Note: Both the above ranges will produce a plot of the ship’s magnetic field, known as the
Magnetic Signature as shown in figure below:
Intensity

Fixed Range

5. Fixed range is required to allow vessels magnetic field to be measured during

440Treatment andBow
Magnetic SternVessels (MCMV) for the detection of
for Mine Counter Measures
magnetic fields caused by ships roll and electrical equipment. Fixed Ranges are so called
because the ship to be measured is moored in a stationary position over the range during the
process of magnetic measurement. Measurements are taken at a series of equidistant points

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below the keel and the magnetic field due to the ship is calculated at each point by noting the
change of field experienced when the ship is present compared with conditions existing
before arrival of the ship. The range consists of a line or lines of detector units on or sunk into
the seabed, usually alongside a quay or wharf. The units are permanently fixed and
connected by cable leads to a recording station ashore where instruments can determine the
value of the vertical magnetic field existing at the location of each unit.

Transportable Range

6. It may be necessary to confirm that a ship’s degaussing system is working correctly in

areas of the world away from Open Range facilities. The Transportable Range as the name
suggests, is capable of being air/sea/land transported to suitable location to allow ship’s
degaussing systems to be optimised in the area of operation.
7. The modern Transportable Range is computer controlled and it is designed to be
quickly laid in any area where ships can navigate in the required ranging depth of water.

Harbour Entrance and Harbour Approach Range

8. The Harbour Entrance Range has been introduced so as to reduce time spent by
ships on Open Ranging and to improve the material state and effectiveness of degaussing
systems at sea. Detector arrays are laid on the seabed across harbour degaussing or across
approaches to harbour entrances used by the fleet. Ships pass over the detectors when
entering or leaving harbour and magnetic signatures are obtained without disturbing the ships
routine. The ranges are normally fully automatic in operation, the measurement of its
magnetic signature by cutting a light beam placed across the entrance or by the range
equipment detecting a change in magnetic field as the ship approaches. All information
obtained by the ranges is stored on computer and a video camera records the ship involved.
DG problems, detected by Harbour Entrance Ranges, are informed to the ship and usually
the ship is required too carry out a Routine ranging on an Open Range to identity and rectify
the fault.
Preparation for Ranging
9. Detail preparation is prior to degaussing ranging are laid down in BR 825(2) Chapter 1
and in BR 2000(63), however DG systems should normally be energised when entering or
leaving Naval Bases to enable effective Entrance Ranging to be carried out.

Types of Ranging
10. Ships may be required to use the magnetic signature reduction ranges for a number of
reasons:
a. Calibration ranging
b. Routine ranging

Calibration Ranging (Initial Ranging)

11. The traditional Open Range or the new Open Sea Magnetic Signature Reduction
Ranges ascertains the capabilities of the ship’s degaussing system and the magnetic effect
of each degaussing coil.
Routine Ranging (Operational Ranging)

12. The traditional Open Range, Open Sea Magnetic Signature Reduction Range or the
Transportable Range is used to verify that the ships degaussing coil setting are optimised
and degaussing equipment working correctly. Any changes in the ship’s permanent magnetic
field may also be detected.

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CHAPTER – VI
DEGAUSSING EQUIPMENT

Introduction

1. Automatic degaussing equipment is now installed in all construction ships, which have
currents that must be changed whenever the ship heading changes. Most of the automatic
degaussing equipment aboard Navy ships provides automatic compensation for the induced
magnetism due to changes in the ships heading.

SSM AUTOMATIC DEGAUSSING SYSTEM

General

2. The SSM Automatic Degaussing Control System is a new standard system installed
on all new steel-hulled ships, which require degaussing. It differs from older systems in the
way the current is controlled and sent to the degaussing coils. The SSM uses solid-state
devices for magnetic amplifiers. The silicon control rectifier has taken over many tasks the
systems.

Remote Manual
Switchboard
Degaussing

Control Signal

440V 60 Hz 3 Phase
Remote
Control Unit Power
115V AC Gyro Ref Power
Remote Gyro Signal
Meter
Signal
Power Supply Control Signal
Power Supply

Power Supply

M Coil Power
A Coil Power
FP-QP Coil
FI-QI Coil

Supply

Supply

FI-QI Coil FP-QP Coil A Coil M Coil

3. The SSM is made up of the degaussing switchboard, FI-QI coil power supply, FP-QP
coil power supply, A coil power supply, M coil power supply, and a remote control unit.
Control circuits automatically controls the magnitude and polarity of the current, in the A and
the FI-QI degaussing coils as per the ship’s magnetic heading. The ships gyrocompass
equipment provides the heading information to the control circuits. The magnitude and

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polarity of the currents to the FQ –QP and M degaussing coils are manually set by controls
mounted on the degaussing switchboard.

Degaussing Switchboard

4. The degaussing switchboard contains the switching and control circuits required for
automatic and manual control of the degaussing current output of the FI-QI, FP-QP, M and A
coil power supplies. These circuits are mounted in drawers. Drawers and panels mounted in
the degaussing switchboard are: the computer drawer, the two channel automatic drawer, the
alarm and ground detector panel, the two-channel manual drawer and the power panel.
There are two access panels for front access to chassis-mounted fuses and terminal boards.

Alarm and Ground Detector Panel

Computer Drawer

Two Channel Automatic Drawer

Two Channel Manual Drawer

Power Panel

Access Plate

Access Plate

5. As illustrated in the block diagram the SSM controls the current in four separate
degaussing coils of the ship. The circuit controlling the degaussing current in each coil is
independent of the other three coils circuits. However, the 440v primary power and the
ground detector and alarm circuits are common for coils circuits. The ‘M’ and the FP-QP
channels are manually controlled; the polarity and magnitude of the current to these coils is
set to values specified in the ships degaussing folder for the ships zone of operation. The
automatically controlled channels (FI-QI and A coil channels) are similar to the manually
control channels, except that provisions are made in the control circuits to automatically
change the magnitude and polarity of the ground and listening for a click.

Precautions While Transistorised Circuits

6. The following precautions are to be observed while servicing transistorised circuits:

a. Ensure that all power all power has been removed from the equipment under
test before connecting any test equipment.

b. Connect a common ground lead from the chassis of the set under test to the
test equipment before making any other connection.

c. Use an isolation transformer with all test equipment that has a transformer in its
power supply.

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d. Before using an ohmmeter to check resistance in a transistor circuit, ensure that

the meter will not apply excessive voltage or voltage of the wrong polarity to the
circuit. Do not use a range that passes more than 1 ma current.

e. When an unidentified transistor is encountered in equipment, its type must be

identified before commencing any test. PNP and NPN transistors are not
interchangeable.

f. When testing transistor circuit do not remove a transistor or circuit under test.

g. Do not ground transistor elements while the power is on.

h. When soldering or de-soldering, use a light duty soldering iron rated at 50 watts
or less.

j. If there is any doubt about the leakage current, in a soldering iron, use an
isolation transformer. If an isolation transformer is not available, bring the iron to
soldiering temperature, remove it from the AC outlet, and then apply it to the part to
be soldered.

k. While soldering and de-soldering transistor or other semiconductor devices,

exercise cautions to avoid over heating the devices. If necessary, use heat sinks.

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