PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A STAR

Objective
1. To plot the H-R diagram for stars and use it to estimate the temperature and luminosity
of a star, given its spectral class.
2. To determine the mass, radius, and lifetime of a star, using the appropriate equations
and graphs.
Equipment
Scientific calculator, pencil, highlighter, and semi-logarithmic graph paper, which is
provided at the end of this document.
Introduction
There are six physical quantities, which are used to define a star:
1. Photospheric Temperature
2. Luminosity
3. Mass
4. Radius and Volume
5. Average Density
6. Lifetime and chemical composition
Let us examine how each of these quantities can be deduced.
Photospheric Temperature
The photospheric temperature (T) is measured in K. This can be calculated by direct
observation from Earth. The photosphere of a star emits a continuous spectrum observable
from the Earth. By dispersing the spectrum and graphing its Planck curve, the maximum
wavelength can be determined using Wien's Law, T = 2.898 x 106 K-nm / λmax where the
maximum wavelength is measured in nanometers.
Another method used to determine the temperature of a star is by interpreting its spectral
signature. Astronomers have correlated the spectral lines observed with the degree of ionization
present in the star’s photosphere. Since temperature determines the degree of ionization, once
the spectral class of a star is identified, it is possible to use a table like the one below to
determine a star’s temperature. Remember the spectral sequence is O, B, A, F, G, K, M, with
the O stars being the hottest. Each letter category is in turn divided into 10 sub-categories,
ranging from zero to nine. A star with the classification B9 is therefore slightly cooler than B8,
but hotter than A0.

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 Spectral Type Temperature
O5 30,000 K
B0 25,000 K
A0 10,000 K
F0 8,000 K
G0 6,000 K
K0 5,000 K
M0 4,000 K
M7 2,000 K

Luminosity
The luminosity is the energy emitted by the star's photosphere each second at all wavelengths
of the electromagnetic spectrum. If the distance to the star can be determined, the luminosity
can be calculated. Here are the steps by which that calculation is done:
1. The parallax angle of the star is measured.
2. The distance (d) is calculated.
3. The apparent visual magnitude (m) is measured.
4. The apparent visual magnitude (m) and distance modulus (m – M) are used to calculate
the absolute visual magnitude (M), since m – M = 5 log (d) – 5.
5. The luminosity (L) is calculated from the absolute visual magnitude (M), using the
equation, L = 10-(M-4.83)/2.5 where L is in solar units. The absolute visual magnitude (M) of
the Sun is 4.83. This means that if the value of L works out to be 5, the star is 5 times
more luminous than the Sun.
Unfortunately stars that are further than 200 pc are too far away for their parallax to be
measured. The luminosity for these stars has to be estimated using other techniques.
The luminosity of a hydrogen-burning, main sequence star can be estimated using the H-R
Diagram (i.e., luminosity-temperature plot) which does not require knowing the distance. As a
matter of fact once the luminosity is estimated from the H-R Diagram, the distance can then be
calculated using the six steps above, but in reverse order. Finding the distance of a star in this
manner is called the spectroscopic parallax method.
Mass
The mass of a star is a measure of how many and what types of atoms it contains. Astronomers
first measured the mass of stars in binary systems (i.e., systems that contain two stars
gravitationally bound to each other). Approximately 50% of the stars are members of binary
systems.

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For nearby systems with a measured parallax and known distance, Newton's Law of Gravity and
Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion can be used to calculate the total mass of the stars in
these systems. Further observations of the two stars as they orbit about each other can be used
to calculate each of the two masses.
Of course, not all stars are in binary systems, and not all binary systems have a measurable
parallax. When astronomers compared the masses and luminosities of hydrogen-burning, main
sequence stars, they discovered that the luminosity could be used to estimate the mass
accurately. Today, astronomers call this the Mass-Luminosity Relationship, which is only valid
for main sequence stars. A graph between the mass and luminosity is shown below. Thus if a
star’s luminosity is calculated to be 1,000, from the graph below it can be seen that its mass will
be 7 solar masses, or 7 times the mass of the Sun.

Radius & Volume

The luminosity represents the total energy output of the star per second. This is related to the
star’s temperature as noted above. But it is also related to the size of the star. A larger star will
naturally have a higher energy output than a smaller one at the same temperature. Since stars
are assumed to be spherical, it is possible to relate the luminosity (L) and temperature (T) of a
star to its radius (R), through the equation
R = [L]1/2 / T2
In the equation above, the luminosity and temperature must be expressed in solar units. This
means if you determine the real temperature of the star to be 8,000 K, its value is (8,000/5,800)
= 1.38 times that of the Sun. The number 1.38 rather than 8,000 will be used in the equation
above.

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The volume compared to that of the Sun, i.e., the star’s relative volume will be V = R3.
Density
Once the mass and volume of an object are known, its density denoted by D, can be
determined, since density D = mass/volume. Since the mass and volume of the star is
determined relative to the Sun, the use of this equation provides the relative density, i.e., the
density of the star in comparison to the Sun.
Lifetime and chemical composition
The Sun is a hydrogen-burning, main sequence star. Its chemical composition is believed to be
representative of the composition of other main sequence stars:
Element % of the Total # of Atoms % of the Total Mass
Hydrogen 91.2 71.0
Helium 8.7 27.1
Others 0.1 1.9

In fact, there are some stars with far less "Others" (generally referred to as the Metals) than the
Sun. These stars are found to be several billion years older than the Sun. Astronomers believe
that these stars formed early in the development of the Universe when there was only hydrogen
and helium. As they aged and shed their atmospheres, they deposited metals back into the
Universe which were at one time hydrogen and helium.
The Sun formed out of this redeposited material. This means the atoms that make up the Sun
and the planets were at one time in the interior of stars that long ago shed their atmospheres.
The Sun is said to belong to Population I (i.e., the stars that formed from the redeposited
material). The earlier stars are said to belong to Population II. Note: You would think these two
numbers are reversed; however, astronomers identified these populations before they
understood what caused their differences.
How long a star will burn depends on how much mass it has to begin with. The more mass it
has, the longer it can remain "alive". But how fast it burns its fuel also plays a role. If its
luminosity is high, it will be using up large amounts of fuel very fast. In that case, it will not last
very long, like the journey time of a "gas-guzzling" automobile. The star’s life is thus inversely
related to its luminosity and directly related to its mass.
To calculate the star’s time on the main sequence, use t = M/L where M = stellar mass and L =
stellar luminosity. Once again, since M and L are in solar units, the star’s life time will also be in
comparison to the Sun.
Summary

For a hydrogen-burning, main sequence star, the following procedure can be used to determine
its physical quantities:
1. Read the spectral classification of the star and estimate its temperature (T) in Kelvin

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 2. From your H-R diagram, use the spectral class to estimate the luminosity (L)
3. Use the Mass-Luminosity Relationship (graph on page 3 in this exercise) to estimate the
mass (M). Note: Here M refers to mass; earlier, it referred to the absolute visual
magnitude.
4. Calculate the relative radius using the equation R = [L]1/2 / T2
5. The estimated duration of the hydrogen-burning phase or lifetime t = M/L
Each of the quantities T, L, M, R, and t will be expressed in solar units, meaning in comparison
to the Sun. In order to find actual values, you will need the Sun’s values. For the Sun these
quantities are:
Tsun = 5,800 K
Lsun = 4 x 1026 Watts
Msun = 2 x 1030 kg
Rsun = 7 x 108 m
tsun = 1010 years
You should have enough information to complete the pre-laboratory exercise.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A STAR PRE-LAB ANSWER SHEET

FILL IN THE BLANK FOLLOWING EACH QUESTION WITH THE LETTER
CORRESPONDING TO YOUR ANSWER.

PRE-LABORATORY QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following stars will be the hottest?
a) O9
b) A5
c) A7
d) K4
ANSWER _______

2. Which of the following stars will be the coolest?

a) G2
b) G8
c) K5
d) K2
ANSWER _______
3. The temperature of a G5 star will be approximately
a) 7,000 K
b) 6,000 K
c) 5,500 K
d) 10,000 K

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 ANSWER _______

4. Spectroscopic parallax is a method to determine

a) the spectral classification of the star.
b) the parallax angle for the star
c) the temperature of the star.
d) the distance of the star.
ANSWER _______

5. The graph between the mass and luminosity of stars shows that
a) as the mass of a star increases, its luminosity decreases.
b) as the mass of a star increases, its luminosity varies
c) as the mass of a star increases its luminosity increases.
d) none of the above are correct as there is no correlation between mass and
luminosity.
ANSWER _______

6. A star with a large radius will have

a) high luminosity and high temperature.
b) low luminosity and low temperature.
c) low luminosity and high temperature.
d) high luminosity and low temperature.
ANSWER _______

7. The most abundant element present in all stars is

a) oxygen.
b) metals like iron.
c) hydrogen.
d) helium.
ANSWER _______

8. The life-time of a star depends on its

a) luminosity.
b) density.
c) mass.
d) both a & c
ANSWER _______

9. A star has a volume of 5 solar units. This means its volume is

a) the size of Jupiter.
b) one-fifth the size of the Sun.

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 c) five times bigger than the Sun
d) 25 times bigger than the Sun.
ANSWER _______

10. In the H-R diagram the two quantities plotted are

a) mass and luminosity.
b) distance and temperature.
c) volume and distance.
d) luminosity and spectral class.
ANSWER _______

Laboratory Exercise
A. CALCULATING THE LUMINOSITY
1. The table below provides the apparent magnitude, absolute magnitude, distance,
spectral type, and luminosity data for 15 main sequence stars. The luminosity of these
stars can be found by the equation L = 10-(M-4.83)/2.5. However, the calculations have already
been done for you and the luminosities listed in the table are to be used to plot your H-R
diagram.

2. Review the information given in the table below:

Star Name Apparent Absolute Distance Distance Spectral Luminosity

Magnitude Magnitude (ly) (pc) Type (L / Lsun)
(m) (M)
Acrux A 1.25 -3.9 325 99.69 B1 3100
Achernar 0.46 -2.7 140 42.94 B3 1030
Regulus 1.35 -0.58 79 24.23 B7 146
Vega 0.03 0.6 25.3 7.76 A0 49.2
Sirius A -1.43 1.47 8.58 2.63 A1 22.1
Fomalhaut 1.16 1.73 25 7.67 A3 17.4
Procyon A 0.38 2.66 11.4 3.50 F5 7.38
Alpha Centauri A 0.01 4.38 4.36 1.34 G2 1.5
Sun -26.74 4.83 1.55E-05 4.75E-06 G2 1
Tau Ceti 3.49 5.68 11.88 3.64 G8 0.46
Alpha Centauri B 1.35 5.7 4.36 1.35 K0 0.45
Epsilon Eridani 3.73 6.2 10.52 3.23 K2 0.28
61 Cygni A 5.2 7.48 11.4 3.50 K5.0 0.087
61 Cygni B 6.03 8.31 11.4 3.50 K7.0 0.041
Lacaille 9352 7.35 9.6 10.74 3.58 M2 0.013
B. DRAWING THE H-R DIAGRAMS.

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 3. Print out the semi-log graph paper at the end of this exercise. The spectral classes are
marked along the horizontal (x) axis and the luminosity scale along the y axis is shown.
Notice that the luminosity values in the table range from 0.013 for Lacaille 9352 to 3,100
for Acrux A. To enable us to plot this large range of numbers, we allow each large
square to increase by a factor of 10. Notice that the lines on the graph paper along the
vertical axis are not evenly spaced. This scale is called "logarithmic". Since the numbers
increase evenly along the x-axis, the graph paper is called "semi-logarithmic".
4. Plot the luminosity versus spectral class for the 15 stars given above. These are all main
sequence stars. To plot the first point for Acrux, go along the x-axis (to the right) to B,
and move one more square to the right to get to B1. Then move up along the vertical (y-
axis) to the line for 3,000, and go up a bit more to 3,100. Plot a point there, and write
Acrux next to it. Continue till you have plotted the points for all the stars above.

5. Draw a smooth curve through the middle of the points. Do NOT join all the dots, but
draw a wide curved line with a highlighter representing the "average" position. This is the
main sequence line. You will need to submit the completed diagram for grading.

C. USING THE H-R DIAGRAM : Calculations for Denebola have been done for you as an
example. Follow the same steps to do your own calculations for Omicron-2, Asterope, and Pi-3
Orion.
6. Use all the information we have accumulated to calculate the physical properties of
Denebola (beta Leo). Its spectral classification is A3.

From the H-R diagram x-axis, you can find Denebola’s temperature is 9,400 K.
Temperature (T) in Kelvin = 9,400 K
Temperature (T) compared to the Sun = 9,400 / 5,800 = 1.6 (solar temp)

Draw a line from A3 up to the main sequence line you plotted and read the luminosity. It
is about 20 times that of the Sun.
Luminosity (L) from H-R graph = 20 (solar luminosity)

From the mass-luminosity graph on page 3, a luminosity of 20 is about 2 solar masses.

Mass (M) from Mass-Luminosity graph = 2 (solar mass)

Use the equation to find Radius (R) = [L]1/2 / T2 = [20]1/2 / [1.6]2 = 1.75 (solar radius)

Use the equation to find Lifetime (t) = Mass / Luminosity = 2 / 20 = 0.1 (solar lifetime)
Actual Lifetime (t) in years = 0.1 (10 billion years) = 1 billion years

Summarize your findings for Denebola, such as:

Denebola is a star of spectral class A3. Its temperature is 1.6 x more than the Sun, but
its luminosity is 20 times higher. Its mass is twice and its radius is 1.75 times – almost
twice the size of the Sun. Its lifetime is only 1/10th the Sun’s at only 1 billion years.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A STAR ANSWER SHEET
7. Do the calculations for Omicron-2 in Eridanus which has a spectral classification of K1.
Show your work.

Temperature (T) in Kelvin = _5235/5800__5236__K

Temperature (T) compared to the Sun = T/5800 = __.90276___(solar temp)

Luminosity (L) from HR graph = __3/4__.44___(solar luminosity)

Mass (M) from Mass-luminosity graph = _______(solar mass)

Radius (R) = [L]1/2 / T2 = [___.44___]1/2 / [____.90276__]2 (1/2 power is the same as

square root)

= [___.66332___] / [__.8149____] =__.8139_____ (solar radius)

Lifetime (t) = Mass / Luminosity = ____.75___ / ____.44___ = _____1.7045___ (solar

lifetime)

Lifetime (t) in years = t x (1010 years) = ___.017045___ x (1010 years)

=___1.7045_______years

Summarize your findings for Omicron-2.

Omicron-2 is a star of spectral class _K1__. Its temperature is __.90276____

times the Sun, and its luminosity is ___.44 Solar Luminosity___. Its mass is ____.75

times___the sun____ and its radius is ___.8139______ times – about ____3/4____ the

size of the Sun. Its lifetime is ___1.7045__times____ the Sun’s at __17.045___ billion

years.

8. Do the calculations for Asterope, which is B9 and is one of the stars in Pleiades. Show
your work.

Temperature (T) in Kelvin = _____10010k_____K

Temperature (T) compared to the Sun = T/5800 = ____10010/5800 = 1.726_____(solar

temp)

Luminosity (L) from HR graph = ____81.77_____(solar luminosity)

Mass (M) from Mass-luminosity graph = ___3.515____(solar mass)

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 Radius (R) = [L]1/2 / T2 = [___1.77___]1/2 / [__1.726____]2 (1/2 power is the same as
square root)

= [___9.0427___] / [__2.979____] =_____3.0354___ (solar

radius)

Lifetime (t) = Mass / Luminosity = ____3.5156___ / __1.77_____= ____.04299____

(solar lifetime)

Lifetime (t) in years = t x (1010 years) = ___.04299___ x (1010 years) =___429.9 Million
______years

Summarize your findings for Asterope.

Asterope is a star of spectral class ___b9__. Its temperature is __1.726____

times the Sun, and its luminosity is ____81.77_______ times the Sun. Its mass is

____3.5156_______ and its radius is _____3.0354____ times – about _________ the

size of the Sun. Its lifetime is __________ the Sun’s at _____ million years.

9. Do the calculations for Pi-3 Orion, with spectral classification F6. Show your work.

Temperature (T) in Kelvin = ___6516_______K

Temperature (T) compared to the Sun = T/5800 = _____1.123____(solar temp)

Luminosity (L) from HR graph = ___2.822______(solar luminosity)

Mass (M) from Mass-luminosity graph = __1.236_____(solar mass)

Radius (R) = [L]1/2 / T2 = [__2.822____]1/2 / [__1.123____]2 (1/2 power is the same as

square root)

= [___1.68___] / [___1.261129___] =____1.332_______ (solar

radius)

Lifetime (t) = Mass / Luminosity = ___1.236____ / _2.822______=

____.4379872431____ (solar lifetime)

Lifetime (t) in years = t x (1010 years) = ___.4379872431___ x (1010 years)

=________4379872431____years

Summarize your findings for Pi-3 Orion.

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 Pi-3 Orion is a star of spectral class __f6___. Its temperature is __1.123____

times the Sun, but its luminosity is ______2.822_____ times the Sun. Its mass is

____1.236_______ and its radius is ______1.332___ times the size of the Sun. Its

lifetime is ____.4379872431______ the Sun’s at ___4.378__ billion years.

10. Summarize what you have learned from this lab. Write at least 4 complete sentences.
 In this lab I learned about the temperatures of different stars, and how they compare to
the sun’s temperature. This lab has also taught me the significance of the Hertzsprung–
Russell diagram, and how to plot stars on it. While learning about the stars in parts 7, 8,
and 9, I have learned the formula and how to calculate their lifetime and luminosity.
This lab was very helpful in learning more about the universe and some of the stars
inside it.

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This lab was developed by MKS Publishing, Inc. - Dallas, Texas

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