School Name

PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
SESSION: 2019 – 2020

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Physics Teacher Name: Saraswoti Karki
Class: 12-A
Ms. Divya Rajesh
Report Notebook
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled, Logic Gates
submitted by Saraswoti Karki in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for CBSE in PCM at Gems School
Our OwnNameIndian
School is an authentic work carried out by her under my
supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the

project has not been submitted to any other Institute.

Ms. Divya Rajesh

Physics Teacher
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to the
Principal, Ms. Lalitha Suresh for her encouragement and for
all the facilities that she provided for this project work.
I extend my hearty thanks to Ms. Divya Rajesh, who guided
me to the successful completion of this project. I take this
opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for her
invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, immense
motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of
this Project work.
I can’t forget to offer my sincere thanks to my parents and
also to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project
work successfully and for their valuable advice and support,
which I received from them time to time.

Saraswoti Karki
12th – A
INDEX
SNO TITLE PAGE NO
1. Aim 1
2. Introduction 2
3. BASIC TERMINOLOGY 3-4
 Signals (Analog  Boolean algebra
and Digital) and expression
 Truth Table  Logic gate
definition

4. Principal 5
5. Basic Gates 6-7
 The OR gate, The AND gate, The NOT gate
6. The OR gate 8-9
7. The AND gate 9-10
8. The NOT gate 11-12
 Knowledge cloud
9. Derived Gates 13-15
 NAND GATE, NOR GATE, XOR GATE
10. Universal Logic Gates 16
 Knowledge cloud
11. Construction of logic gates circuit for a given 17-20
Truth Table
12. Applications of Basic Logic Gates 21-22
13. Bibliography 23

Report Notebook
 AIM

To design an appropriate logic gate

combination for a given truth table.

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 INTRODUCTION

A logic gate can be defined as digital circuit which either allows

a signal to pass through or stops it. These gates are related to
Boolean Algebra. These gates allow signals to pass through them
only when some logic is satisfied. A semiconductor diode {P—N
junction) acts as a closed switch when it is forward biased, i.e. it
allows current to pass through it. It acts as an open circuit when
it is reversed biased, i.e. it allows very little or no current to pass
through it. This unique property of diode is employed in the
design of logic gates and the circuits.

The logic gates are building blocks of electronic devices. Logic

gate may have one or more inputs but can only have one output.
Possible values of input and output of logic gates are expressed in
form of tables called truth tables.
Two values of logic statement are denoted by binary numbers 1
and 0 where 1 represent higher value and 0 represent lower value.

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BASIC TERMINOLOGY
SIGNAL

Information converted in electrical form and suitable for transmission is called

a signal. There are two types of signals:
i. Analog signal
ii. Digital signal

 Analog signal

A signal in which current or voltage varies continuously with

time is called analog signal.
The electronic circuits which process analog signals are called
analog circuits.

Analog signal

 Digital signal

A signal in which current or voltage can take only two discrete

values is called digital signal.
A digital signal can take only two values 1 and 0 which are
labelled as high and low values.
The electronic circuits which process digital signals are called
digital circuits.

Digital signal

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean Algebra is the mathematical foundation of digital circuits. Boolean

Algebra specifies the relationship between Boolean variables which is used to
design combinational logic circuits using Logic Gates.

The logical statements are known as Boolean variables. A Boolean variable

can have either a true value or a false value. The true value is represented by
1 and a false value by 0.

They are three Boolean operators: OR, AND, NOT.

 A + B means A OR B
 A • B means A AND B
 means NOT A

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

The logical statements that logic gates follow are called Boolean expression.

TRUTH TABLE

The Truth Table shows the values of the circuit output for all input values.

LOGIC GATES

A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performing a particular logical

operation. As it works according to some logical relationship between
inputs and output voltages, so it is generally known as logic gates.

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 PRINCPAL
Any Boolean algebra operation can be associated with inputs
and outputs represent the statements of Boolean algebra.

Although these circuits may be complex, they may all be

constructed from three basic devices. We have three different
types of logic gates.

These are the AND gate, the OR gate and the NOT gate

LOGIC STATE
1 0
HIGH LOW
+ve -ve
ON OFF
CLOSE OPEN
RIGHT WRONG
TRUE FALSE
YES NO

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 BASIC GATES

THE “OR” GATE

It is a device that combines A with B to give Y as the result. The

OR gate has two or more inputs and one output.

The logic gate of OR gate with A and B input and Y output is

shown below:

In Boolean algebra, addition symbol (+) is referred as the OR.

The Boolean expression:

A+B=Y, indicates Y equals A OR B.

THE “AND” GATE

It is a device that combines A with B to give Y as the result.

The AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The
logic gate of AND gate with A and B input and Y output is
shown below:

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In Boolean algebra, multiplication sign (either x or.) is referred
as the AND. The Boolean expression:

A . B = Y, indicates Y equals A AND B.

THE “NOT” GATE

It is a device that inverts the inputs. The NOT is a one input and
one output. The logic gate of NOT gate with A and Y output is
shown below:

In Boolean algebra, bar symbol (-) is referred as the NOT.

The Boolean expression:

X’ =Y, indicates Y equals NOT X

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THE “OR” GATES
AIM:

TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE OR GATE CIRCUIT.

COMPONENTS:

Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2).

THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:

A two input OR gate can be realised by using two ideal diodes

D1 and D2 and a resistor R. The negative terminal of the battery
is grounded (.i.e. it is at zero volt) and corresponds to the 0 state,
and the positive terminal (which is at, say 5 V) corresponds to
the 1 state.

INFERENCE:

1. If switch A & B are open LED do not glow (A=0, B=0),

Hence Y=0.

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 2. If Switch A open B closed then LED glow (A=0, B=1),
Hence Y=1.
3. If switch A closed B open then LED glow (A=1, B=0),
Hence Y=1.
4. If switch A & B are closed then LED glow (A=1, B=1),
Hence Y=1. (Because both D1 and D2 are in parallel. So, the
voltage drop across R is still 5 V.)

TRUTH TABLE:

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

THE “AND” GATES

AIM:

TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE OR GATE CIRCUIT.

COMPONENTS:

Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R.

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THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:

An AND gate can be realized by the electronic circuit, making use

of two diodes D1 and D2 as shown in the figure. The resistance R
is connected to the positive terminal of a 5V battery permanently.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and

corresponds to the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery
(i.e. voltage 5V in the present case) corresponds to level 1. The
output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

INTERFERENCE:
1. If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then LED will not
glow, Hence Y=0.

2. If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then LED will not
glow, Hence Y=0.

3. If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then LED will not
glow, Hence Y=0.

4. If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then LED will glow,
Hence Y=1.
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 TRUTH TABLE:

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y= A . B
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

THE “NOT” GATES

AIM:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE NOT GATE CIRCUIT.

COMPONENTS:
An ideal n-p-n transistor.

THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:

A NOT gate cannot be realized by using diodes. However, an
electronic circuit of NOT gate can be realized by making use of a
n-p-n transistor as shown in the figure.

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The base B of the transistor is connected to the input A through a
resistance Rb and the emitter E is earthed. The collector is connected
to 5V battery. The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

INTERFERENCE:

1. If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the LED will glow, Hence

Y=1.
2. If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the LED will not glow,
Hence Y=0.

TRUTH TABLE:

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A Y= A’
0 1
1 0

KNOWLEDGE CLOUD
The PN junction diode is a two terminal device, which is formed when one
side of the PN junction diode is made with P-type and doped with the N-type
material. The PN-junction is the root for semiconductor diodes.

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 DERIVED GATES
THE “NAND” GATE

A NAND gate is a combination of an AND and a NOT gate. It

is obtained by connecting output of an AND gate to the input of
a NOT gate as shown in figure.

Its truth table can be obtained by using truth table of AND gate
and then finding the negation of its output.

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 THE “NOR” GATE

A NOR gate is a combination of an OR and a NOT gate. It is

obtained by connecting output of an OR gate to the input of a
NOT gate as shown in figure.

Its truth table can be obtained by using truth table of an OR gate

and then finding the negation of its output.

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 THE “XOR” GATE (Exclusive OR gate)

The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical
"either/or." The output is "true" if either, but not both, of the
inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false"
or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit
is to observe that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0
if the inputs are the same.

Truth table for XOR logic gate

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 UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATES

NAND and NOR gates as digital building blocks.

The repeated use of the OR, the AND or the NOT gates alone
cannot give a different gate. But the repeated use of the NAND
or the NOR gates alone can give all basic gates like OR, AND
and NOT gate. Hence the NAND and the NOR gates are also
called Universal Logic Gates. In digital circuits, these gates serve
as digital building blocks.

KNOWLEDGE CLOUD

Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880–81) showed that NOR gates alone (or
alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all
the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.The first
published proof was by Henry M.Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical
operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes
called Peirce's arrow.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF LOGIC GATES
CIRCUIT FOR A GIVEN TRUTH TABLE

Suppose we have to draw logics gates using truth table given below:

So, let’s get started:

Look at the first output: Y

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 Boolean expression for the given truth table

Now we can:

Building circuit
Using AND and OR gates

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Look at the second output: X

Boolean expression for the given truth table

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 Now we can:

Building the logic circuit

Precaution: To check the output, the inputs should be

applied carefully.

Conclusion: In conclusion, each basic gate works in

unique way, which is proved during this experiment. We
used the truth table to examine the operation of the basic
logic gate. It is proved from experiment that logic
gates work in basis of Boolean Algebra.

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APPLICATIONS OF BASIC LOGIC GATES
During the course of discussion about various digital logic gates, we have
mainly discussed about the design, property and operation of them. Here, we
will look at various applications of logic gates. Their applications are
determined mainly based upon their truth table i.e. their mode of operations.

APPLICATION OF OR GATE

Wherever the occurrence of any one or more than one event is needed to be
detected or some actions are to be taken after their occurrence, in all those cases
OR gates can be used. It can be explained with an example.

Suppose in an industrial plant if one or more than one parameter exceeds the
safe value, some protective measure is needed to be done. In that case OR gate
is used. We are going to show this with the help of a diagram.

The above figure is a typical schematic diagram where an OR gate is used to

detect exceed of temperature or pressure and produce command signal for the
system to take required actions.

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 APPLICATION OF AND GATE
There are mainly two applications of AND gate as Enable gate and Inhibit
gate. Enable gate means allowance of data through a channel and Inhibit gate
is just the reverse of that process i.e. disallowance of data through a channel.
We are going to show an enabling operation to understand it in an easier way.
Suppose in the measurement of frequency of a pulsed waveform. For
measurement of frequency a gating pulse of known frequency is sent to enable
the passage of the waveform whose frequency is to be measured. The diagram
below shows the arrangement of the above explained operation.

APPLICATION OF NOT GATE

NOT gates are also known as inverter because they invert the output given to
them and show the reverse result. Now the CMOS inverters are commonly used
to build square wave oscillators which are used for generating clock signals.
The advantage of using these is they consume low power and their interfacing
is very easy compared to other logic gates.

The above figure shows the most fundamental circuit made of ring
configuration to generate square wave oscillator. The frequency of this type is
given by

where, n represents the number of inverters and tp shows the propagation delay
per gate.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 NCERT TEXTBOOK
 S L ARORA TEXTBOOK
 www.google.com
 https://www.electrical4u.com/some-common-applications-of-
logic-gates/
 http://www.jjmelectronics.co.uk/rgcelec.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGilEPBfcT8
 https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/logic-gate-AND-OR-
XOR-NOT-NAND-NOR-and-XNOR
 www.wikipedia.org

Thank you!

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