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 ENGLISH 26 – TRANSLATION AND EDITION OF TEXT

PART I – Overview of Translation

1.1 Etymology of Translation

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from
trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past
participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across" – in this
case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have
calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio, substituting their
respective Slavic or Germanic root words for the Latin roots. The remaining Slavic
languages instead calqued their words for "translation" from an alternative Latin word,
trāductiō, itself derived from trādūcō ("to lead across" or "to bring across")—from trans
("across") + dūcō, ("to lead" or "to bring").

The West and East Slavic languages (except for Russian) adopted the translātiō pattern,
whereas Russian and the South Slavic languages adopted the trāductiō pattern. The
Romance languages, deriving directly from Latin, did not need to calque their equivalent
words for "translation"; instead, they simply adapted the second of the two alternative Latin
words, trāductiō.

The Ancient Greek term for "translation", μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"),
has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as
contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).
"Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence";
and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an

imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one
meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given
language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be
useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to
translation.
1.2 History of Translation

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of
Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st
centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed
Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.

Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The
9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in
commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and
Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile, the Christian Church frowned on even
partial adaptations of St. Jerome's Vulgate of c. 384 CE, the standard Latin Bible.

In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well
over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting
the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government
(contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the
translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades
to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed.

The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world,
they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages,
translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in
Spain.[95] King Alfonso X the Wise of Castile in the 13th century promoted this effort by
founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts,
Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish,
and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin
translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance
European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

1.3 History of Literary Translation

Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a
literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators
are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson, and Linda Gaboriau; and the
Canadian Governor General's Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-
French and French-to-English literary translations.

Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators,
include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges,
Robert Stiller, Lydia Davis, Haruki Murakami, Achy Obejas, and Jhumpa Lahiri.
In the 2010s a substantial gender imbalance was noted in literary translation into English,
with far more male writers being translated than women writers. In 2014 Meytal Radzinski
launched the Women in Translation campaign to address this.

1.4 General Purposes

General Purposes

1. Retrieval of lost information

2. Understanding of the Universal Truth

3. Sharing of beliefs

4. Understanding and appreciation of culture

5. Bridging cultural barrier

6. Advancement in human achievement

7. Addressing social needs

8. Social Empowerment

9. Binding nations

10. Neo-culture development

PART II – Types of Translation

2.1 Language Interpretation

Language interpretation

General Definition

Language interpretation refers to the process of providing ease of understanding between

users of language of origin and target language. This could take the form of sign-language,
oral interpretation or technologically-assisted programs.

Interpreting refers to the actual process of providing ease of understanding from one
language form into its actual or approximate equivalent. Interpretation pertains to the
output of interpreting one language to another form (speech, signals, text, etc.)

Interpreter assumes the position of the person who converts thoughts or expression of a
language form and defines its equivalent to target language.

Equivalence in interpretation refers to linguistic, emotional, tonal and cultural parallel

meaning of a language format with the target language.
 General Contrast

Modes of
Language Interpretation

Simultaneous (extempore) - interpreter renders the message in the target language as

quickly as he can formulating from the source language while the source continuously
provides input.

Consecutive interpretation (CI) - interpreter renders the message into the target language
after the source stopped provided the information. The interpreter relies on memory and
sometimes uses memory aids to render long passages. Sight translation - refers to the
process of transfering the language as he sees it and usually done for legal or medical
documents. Could also be classified as partial or full consequtive interpretation.

Whispered - interpreter sits or stands next to the small target-language group and
simultaneously interprets information coming from the source language.

Relay -usually used when there are several target languages. A source-language interpreter
interprets the text to a language common to every interpreter, who then render the message
to their respective target languages.

Liaison - involves passing on the message through relay, between two or more,
consecutively with the assistance of short notes as memory aid.
2.2 Technical Translation

Technical Translation

A technical translation refers to the need for specialist translators due to the use of
uncommon vocabulary in a text. Topics such as medicine, finance, law, engineering,
software, manuals, etc would all be considered as technical. These fields usually contain
big amount of specific circumstances or ways to describe situations from the subject and
also contain high amount of jargon, words that are used (almost) only within that specific
technical field.

Technical translation can also be defined as the translation of technical writing (owner's
manuals, user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts that contain a high degree of
technical or specialized terminology, that is, words or phrases that are virtually used only
within a specific profession, or describe that profession in great detail. Technical translation
covers the translation of many kinds of specialized texts which requires a high level of
subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant terminology.

In general, technical translation and language translation contrast in many ways. One of
the differences would be the subject of their focus – technical translation focus on easing
the understanding of particular jargons used while language translation finds a way to
convert the language format into another language format as a whole. Technical translation
may use similar language format for the origin language and the target language but
concentration would be on the set of language use in understanding the literature. It is also
interesting to note that language translation uses text-to-text format while technical
translation uses the process of explaining the details if actual equivalent is not available.

As previously defined, translation refers to the process of giving target language equivalent
to the language of origin. The same process is being applied in technical translation as the
translators attempt to produce actual equivalent or approximate equivalent through
explanation of the source language into the target language format.

2.3 Literal Translation

Literal translation

Transference of one language format to another following the form of the source language
and using the ‘verbum pro verbo’ principle. This is also known as metaphrase process and
commonly used in technical translation and legal annotation conversions to preserve the
original format of the text undermining the context of the original text.

In the light of contextual aspect, literal translation can be considered as erroneous since it
does not carry the register of the source language.
As for usage, literal translation can be a very useful tool for translation preparation as it
serves as a foundation in translating unfamiliar language format.

In communication, literal translation is currently being used in the form of machine

translation. One the most common example of these would be internet translators (i.e.
babelfish, google translate, microsofttranslator, freetranslation, worldlingo, etc.)

Without the tweaking process of human translators, machine translation could be

misleading and sometimes totally erroneous. The common result of this would be pidgins or
translation with reference to the target language’s native format and mistranslations that
contextually unacceptable.

2.4 Legal Translation

Legal translation

By nature, legal translation is a delicate process that only professional translators

commissioned by the court should handle the process. Laws are culturally subjective and
require expertise in understanding passages of documents that are legal in nature.

In the international law, legal translation follows the following general rules:

1. Legal system of the source language must suit the culture of the language format
and reflective of the legal language

2. The translation should be read by someone who is well-versed with the other legal
system where the translation was prepared

3. Proper documentation of the translation is required such as certificate of accuracy,

witness statement, court orders, immigration documents, labels and other related
documents.

Since legal translation is culture-based, the process is lexis dependent and must be
structure base on the linguistics standards which is generally accepted to produce formal
and legal equivalence of the target language.

Some examples of legal translations are contracts, international court decisions and
proceedings, safety precaution instructions, flight transactions, import/export laws,
international transactions, etc.
PART III – Context Retention

3.1 Principle of Equivalence

Vinay and Darbelnet and their definition of equivalence in translation

Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which 'replicates

the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording' (ibid.:342).
They also suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can
maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the TL text. According to them, equivalence is
therefore the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés,
nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds.

With regard to equivalent expressions between language pairs, Vinay and Darbelnet claim
that they are acceptable as long as they are listed in a bilingual dictionary as 'full
equivalents' (ibid.:255). However, later they note that glossaries and collections of idiomatic
expressions 'can never be exhaustive' (ibid.:256). They conclude by saying that 'the need for
creating equivalences arises from the situation, and it is in the situation of the SL text that
translators have to look for a solution' (ibid.: 255). Indeed, they argue that even if the
semantic equivalent of an expression in the SL text is quoted in a dictionary or a glossary, it
is not enough, and it does not guarantee a successful translation. They provide a number of
examples to prove their theory, and the following expression appears in their list: Take one
is a fixed expression which would have as an equivalent French translation Prenez-en un.
However, if the expression appeared as a notice next to a basket of free samples in a large
store, the translator would have to look for an equivalent term in a similar situation and
use the expression Échantillon gratuit(ibid.:256).

Jakobson and the concept of equivalence in difference

Roman Jakobson's study of equivalence gave new impetus to the theoretical analysis of
translation since he introduced the notion of 'equivalence in difference'. On the basis of his
semiotic approach to language and his aphorism 'there is no signatum without signum'
(1959:232), he suggests three kinds of translation:
 Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase)
 Interlingual (between two languages)
 Intersemiotic (between sign systems)
Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the translator makes use of
synonyms in order to get the ST message across. This means that in interlingual
translations there is no full equivalence between code units. According to his theory,
'translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes' (ibid.:233). Jakobson
goes on to say that from a grammatical point of view languages may differ from one another
to a greater or lesser degree, but this does not mean that a translation cannot be possible,
in other words, that the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation
equivalent. He acknowledges that 'whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be
qualified and amplified by loanwords or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts,
and finally, by circumlocutions' (ibid.:234). Jakobson provides a number of examples by
comparing English and Russian language structures and explains that in such cases where
there is no a literal equivalent for a particular ST word or sentence, then it is up to the
translator to choose the most suitable way to render it in the TT.

There seems to be some similarity between Vinay and Darbelnet's theory of translation
procedures and Jakobson's theory of translation. Both theories stress the fact that,
whenever a linguistic approach is no longer suitable to carry out a translation, the
translator can rely on other procedures such as loan-translations, neologisms and the like.
Both theories recognize the limitations of a linguistic theory and argue that a translation
can never be impossible since there are several methods that the translator can choose. The
role of the translator as the person who decides how to carry out the translation is
emphasized in both theories. Both Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Jakobson conceive the
translation task as something which can always be carried out from one language to
another, regardless of the cultural or grammatical differences between ST and TT.

It can be concluded that Jakobson's theory is essentially based on his semiotic approach to
translation according to which the translator has to recode the ST message first and then
s/he has to transmit it into an equivalent message for the TC.

Nida and Taber: Formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence

Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence—
which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal
correspondence—and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence 'focuses attention on
the message itself, in both form and content', unlike dynamic equivalence which is based
upon 'the principle of equivalent effect' (1964:159). In the second edition (1982) or their
work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.
Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a
SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal
equivalents between language pairs. They therefore suggest that these formal equivalents
should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than
dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious
implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target
audience (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber themselves assert that 'Typically, formal
correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language,
and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor
unduly hard' (ibid.:201).

Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator

seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger
the same impact on the TC audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience.
They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the
change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual
consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is
preserved and the translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982:200).

One can easily see that Nida is in favour of the application of dynamic equivalence, as a
more effective translation procedure. This is perfectly understandable if we take into
account the context of the situation in which Nida was dealing with the translation
phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the Bible. Thus, the product of the
translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different
readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that 'dynamic
equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information'
(ibid:25).

Despite using a linguistic approach to translation, Nida is much more interested in the
message of the text or, in other words, in its semantic quality. He therefore strives to make
sure that this message remains clear in the target text.

Catford and the introduction of translation shifts

Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida
since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this
approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the
field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of
translation. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:
  The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation);
 The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-
bound translation vs.unbounded translation);
 The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted
translation).

We will refer only to the second type of translation, since this is the one that concerns the
concept of equivalence, and we will then move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts,
as elaborated by Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal
correspondence and textual equivalence. In rank-bound translation an equivalent is sought
in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme encountered in the ST. In unbounded
translation equivalences are not tied to a particular rank, and we may additionally find
equivalences at sentence, clause and other levels. Catford finds five of these ranks or levels
in both English and French, while in the Caucasian language Kabardian there are
apparently only four.

Thus, a formal correspondence could be said to exist between English and French if
relations between ranks have approximately the same configuration in both languages, as
Catford claims they do.

One of the problems with formal correspondence is that, despite being a useful tool to
employ in comparative linguistics, it seems that it is not really relevant in terms of
assessing translation equivalence between ST and TT. For this reason we now turn to
Catford's other dimension of correspondence, namely textual equivalence which occurs
when any TL text or portion of text is 'observed on a particular occasion ... to be the
equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text' (ibid.:27). He implements this by a process of
commutation, whereby 'a competent bilingual informant or translator' is consulted on the
translation of various sentences whose ST items are changed in order to observe 'what
changes if any occur in the TL text as a consequence' (ibid.:28).

As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as 'departures from formal
correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL' (ibid.:73). Catford argues that
there are two main types of translation shifts, namely level shifts, where the SL item at one
linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis), and
category shifts which are divided into four types:

1. Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST

and that of the TT;
2. Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different
grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun;
 3. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;

4. Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'SL and TL possess systems which
approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation
involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system' (ibid.:80). For
instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.

Catford was very much criticized for his linguistic theory of translation. One of the most
scathing criticisms came from Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that Catford's definition of
textual equivalence is 'circular', his theory's reliance on bilingual informants 'hopelessly
inadequate', and his example sentences 'isolated and even absurdly simplistic' (ibid.:19-20).
She considers the concept of equivalence in translation as being an illusion. She asserts
that the translation process cannot simply be reduced to a linguistic exercise, as claimed by
Catford for instance, since there are also other factors, such as textual, cultural and
situational aspects, which should be taken into consideration when translating. In other
words, she does not believe that linguistics is the only discipline which enables people to
carry out a translation, since translating involves different cultures and different situations
at the same time and they do not always match from one language to another.

House and the elaboration of overt and covert translation

House (1977) is in favour of semantic and pragmatic equivalence and argues that ST and
TT should match one another in function. House suggests that it is possible to characterize
the function of a text by determining thesituational dimensions of the ST.* In fact,
according to her theory, every text is in itself is placed within a particular situation which
has to be correctly identified and taken into account by the translator. After the ST
analysis, House is in a position to evaluate a translation; if the ST and the TT differ
substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent, and the
translation is not of a high quality. In fact, she acknowledges that 'a translation text should
not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional
means to achieve that function' (ibid.:49).

Central to House's discussion is the concept of overt and covert translations. In an overt
translation the TT audience is not directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to
attempt to recreate a 'second original' since an overt translation 'must overtly be a
translation' (ibid.:189). By covert translation, on the other hand, is meant the production of
a text which is functionally equivalent to the ST. House also argues that in this type of
translation the ST 'is not specifically addressed to a TC audience' (ibid.:194).
House (ibid.:203) sets out the types of ST that would probably yield translations of the two
categories. An academic article, for instance, is unlikely to exhibit any features specific to
the SC; the article has the same argumentative or expository force that it would if it had
originated in the TL, and the fact that it is a translation at all need not be made known to
the readers. A political speech in the SC, on the other hand, is addressed to a particular
cultural or national group which the speaker sets out to move to action or otherwise
influence, whereas the TT merely informs outsiders what the speaker is saying to his or her
constituency. It is clear that in this latter case, which is an instance of overt translation,
functional equivalence cannot be maintained, and it is therefore intended that the ST and
the TT function differently.

House's theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than Catford's.
In fact, she gives authentic examples, uses complete texts and, more importantly, she
relates linguistic features to the context of both source and target text.

Baker's approach to translation equivalence

New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual,
pragmatic equivalence, and several others) and made their appearance in the plethora of
recent works in this field. An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence
can be found in Baker (1992) who seems to offer a more detailed list of conditions upon
which the concept of equivalence can be defined. She explores the notion of equivalence at
different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all different aspects of
translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative approach. She
distinguishes between:
 Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating
from one language into another. Baker acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach
to translation, equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into
consideration by the translator. In fact, when the translator starts analyzing the ST
s/he looks at the words as single units in order to find a direct 'equivalent' term in
the TL. Baker gives a definition of the term word since it should be remembered that
a single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different languages
and might be regarded as being a more complex unit or morpheme.This means that
the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single
word, such as number, gender and tense (ibid.:11-12).
 Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories
across languages. She notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and
this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL.
In fact, she claims that different grammatical structures in the SL and TL may cause
remarkable changes in the way the information or message is carried across. These
changes may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the TT
 because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself. Amongst these
grammatical devices which might cause problems in translation Baker focuses on
number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender.
 Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL
text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important feature in
translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of
the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and
coherent text for the TC audience in a specific context. It is up to the translator to
decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the SL
text. His or her decision will be guided by three main factors, that is, the target
audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type.
 Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of avoidance
during the translation process. Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but
what is implied. Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied meanings in
translation in order to get the ST message across. The role of the translator is to
recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a way that enables the TC
reader to understand it clearly.

3.2 Back Translation

Back translation
Involves taking the translated version of a document or file and then having a separate
independent translator (who has no knowledge of or contact with the original text) translate
it back into the original language.

A back translation allows you to compare translations with the original text for quality and
accuracy. Back translations help to evaluate equivalence of meaning between the source
and target texts.

Due to the nature of language, a back translation will never be 100% exactly the same as
the original source text, but it does help to identify any confusion, ambiguities or errors
that may arise from the nuances of language.

Back Translations are often performed as literally as possible to give an accurate depiction
of the exact meaning of the translation in the target language. Because of this, some back
translations may feel artificial or unnaturally written. However, if there are major semantic
differences between the source and back translation, it is not clear whether the fault is with
the forward translation or with back translation. At this point, you may opt for
reconciliation.
3.3 Fidelity and Transparency

Fidelity and transparency are two factors that, for thousands of years, have been regarded
as the highest ideals to be endeavored for in human translation (particularly literary
translation); even up until now, when translation jobs are farmed out to different
professional translation groups and translation service freelancers, these twin qualities are
still considered top-priority guidelines to better achieve successful translation work with
clear messages.

In other words, a translation could have more fidelity and less transparency or vice-versa,
but never both at equally high amounts. More to the point, as many a translation service
agency or professional translation company knows, fidelity refers to the faithfulness of the
translation to the source text, while transparency refers to the comprehensibility of the
translation in terms of the target audience's cultural perspective.

In-Depth Definition Fidelity refers to the limits to which a given human translation work
precisely depicts the underlying message or meaning of the source text without distorting it,
without intensifying or weakening any part of its context, and otherwise without
subtracting or adding to it at all.

Meanwhile, transparency pertains to the degree to which a translation caters to native

speakers and the target audience, such that idiomatic, syntactic, and grammatical
conventions are followed while cultural, political, and social context is kept in mind at all
times.

Translations that have high fidelity are classified as "faithful" translations; in turn,
translations that meet the second standard are referred to as "idiomatic" translations. Then
again, the two ideals aren't necessarily mutually exclusive from each other; keeping the
context intact, for example, can be seen in both a high-fidelity translation and a high-
transparency translation.

3.4 Equivalence

Equivalence is one of the core concepts of translation, and often one of the best places to
start when explaining the process of language translation.

Equivalence will always be an important part of human translation as long as the latter
exists. To be more specific, equivalence is one of the most important considerations of
professional translation agents and freelance translation service experts alike when it
comes to localizing a website or straightforwardly translating textual material.
The Importance of Equivalence
The factors that affect human translation the most are mostly the ones that are cultural or
linguistic in nature. If these so-called parameters are as effective and accurate as expected,
they will help streamline the translation process in a convincing and correct manner.

3.5 Understanding Jargon

Jargon
is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular
situation, profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings
accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-
literary pieces of writing.

 The language, esp. the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade, profession, or

group: medical jargon.
 Unintelligible or meaningless talk or writing; gibberish.
 Specialized language concerned with a particular subject, culture, or profession
 The terminology or idiom of a particular activity or group

Jargon is the collective name for words that only make sense to certain people.
Examples
“Dow Jones Industrial Average”
This phrase will be understandable by people who trade on the stock
Market

“H2O”
Most people understand this to mean “water” but it is science Jargon

“Integer”
To a mathematician (someone who uses numbers every day), this means “a
number”

The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing,
when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these
terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language, or as a language of a
specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to
that particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the
group of people working within the same field or occupation.
Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business
that makes use of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations,
such as LOC (loss of consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order).

PART IV – Transliteration

Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves
swapping letters (thus trans- + liter-) in predictable ways, such as Greek ⟨α⟩ → ⟨a⟩, Cyrillic
⟨д⟩ → ⟨d⟩, Greek ⟨χ⟩ → the digraph ⟨ch⟩, Armenian ⟨ն⟩ → ⟨n⟩ or Latin ⟨æ⟩ → ⟨ae⟩.

Transliteration is not primarily concerned with representing the sounds of the original but
rather with representing the characters, ideally accurately and unambiguously

Transliteration is opposed to transcription, which maps the sounds of one language into a
writing system. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to
letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for some specific pair of source and target
language.

If the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages, a transliteration
may be very close to a transcription. In practice, there are some mixed
transliteration/transcription systems that transliterate a part of the original script and
transcribe the rest.

For many script pairs, there is one or more standard transliteration systems. However,
unsystematic transliteration is common.
PART V – Translators

5.1 Computer-Assisted

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI), a program of instructional material presented by

means of a computer or computer systems.

Students using computers in a

classroom

The use of computers in education started in the 1960s. With the advent of convenient
microcomputers in the 1970s, computer use in schools has become widespread from
primary education through the university level and even in some preschool programs.
Instructional computers are basically used in one of two ways: either they provide a
straightforward presentation of data or they fill a tutorial role in which the student is tested
on comprehension.

If the computer has a tutorial program, the student is asked a question by the computer;
the student types in an answer and then gets an immediate response to the answer. If the
answer is correct, the student is routed to more challenging problems; if the answer is
incorrect, various computer messages will indicate the flaw in procedure, and the program
will bypass more complicated questions until the student shows mastery in that area.

There are many advantages to using computers in educational instruction. They provide
one-to-one interaction with a student, as well as an instantaneous response to the answers
elicited, and allow students to proceed at their own pace. Computers are particularly useful
in subjects that require drill, freeing teacher time from some classroom tasks so that a
teacher can devote more time to individual students. A computer program can be used
diagnostically, and, once a student’s problem has been identified, it can then focus on the
problem area.
5.2 Machine Translation

Machine translation (MT) is an automatic translation from one language to another. The
benefit of machine translation is that it is possible to translate large swathes of text in a
very short time.

Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT (not to be confused

with computer-aided translation, machine-aided human translation or interactive
translation), is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of software
to translate text or speech from one language to another.

How does machine translation work?

Up until late 2016, all of the machine translation products on the market were based on
algorithms that use statistical methods to try to ascertain the best possible translation for a
given word. This technology is known as Statistical Machine Translation (SMT). SMT
involves advanced statistical analysis to estimate the best possible translations for a word
given the context of a few surrounding words.

On the other hand, Neural Machine Translation, or NMT as it is abbreviated, performs the
process by attempting to model high level abstractions into data, much closer to how it is
undertaken by a human than the traditional statistical approach. Neural networks better
capture the context of full sentences before translating them, which entails higher quality
and a more human-sounding output.

5.3 Subtitling

Subtitles are text derived from either a transcript or screenplay of the dialogue or
commentary in films, television programs, video games, and the like, usually displayed at
the bottom of the screen, but can also be at the top of the screen if there is already text at
the bottom of the screen.

There are two types of Subtitling, hard and soft subtitles. Hard subtitles are encoded into
the source material while soft subtitles are mixed to the video from another data file,
enabling the display of subtitles to be switched by the viewer, or the data file to be altered.

5.4 Editing/Post Editing

Post-editing is the process whereby humans amend machine-generated translation to

achieve an acceptable final product. A person who post-edits is called a post-editor. The
concept of post-editing is linked to that of pre-editing.

The concept of post-editing is linked to that of pre-editing. In the process of translating a

text via machine translation, best results may be gained by pre-editing the source text.
For example:

By applying the principles of controlled language – and then post-editing the machine
output. It is distinct from editing, which refers to the process of improving human
generated text (a process which is often known as revision in the field of translation).

Post-editing involves the correction of machine translation output to ensure that it meets a
level of quality negotiated in advance between the client and the post-editor.

5.5 Internet

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.

It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and

government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless,
and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of
the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.

PART VI – Press Freedom and Limitations

6.1 Constitutional Guarantee

Press Freedom as a Constitutionally-Protected Right

The freedom of the press is a constitutionally-guaranteed right and is enshrined in Section

4 Article III which explicitly provides that “No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of
speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and
petition the government for redress of grievances.”

This constitutional right is essentially a carry-over of similar provisions in earlier

constitutions as the Constitutional Commission of 1987 deemed it necessary to preserve
extant Philippine and American jurisprudence on this bill of right. A significant change
though is the expansion of this right to include the phrase “of expression”. 

The constitutional right of free speech or expression was a novel concept when it was first
introduced in the Philippines by the Second Philippine Commission (also known as the Taft
Commission) in 1900. Bernas?

In recognizing the importance and sacredness of this right, Justice Malcolm duly
commented in the case of United States v. Bustos  as follows:
“Turning to the pages of history, we state nothing new when we set down that freedom of
speech as cherished in democratic countries was unknown in the Philippine Islands before
1900. A prime cause for revolt was consequently ready made. Jose Rizal in “Filipinas
Despues de Cien Años” (The Philippines a Century Hence, pages 62 et seq.) describing “the
reforms sine quibus non,” which the Filipinos insist upon, said:”

The minister, who wants his reforms to be reforms, must begin by declaring the press in the
Philippines free and by instituting Filipinos delegates.

The Filipino patriots in Spain, through the columns of “La Solidaridad” and by other means
invariably in exposing the wants of the Filipino people demanded “liberty of the press, of
cults, and associations.” (See Mabini, La Revolucion Filipina.) The Malolos Constitution, the
work of the Revolutionary Congress, in its Bill of Rights, zealously guarded freedom of
speech and press and assembly and petition.

Mention is made of the foregoing data only to deduce the proposition that a reform so
sacred to the people of these Islands and won at so dear a cost, should now be protected
and carried forward as one would protect and preserve the covenant of liberty itself.

In general it can be said that the constitutional freedom of speech and expression, and of
the press allows one to freely utter, say or publish one’s ideas or opinions without prior
restraint, and to be protected against any subsequent responsibility for so doing as long as
it does not violate the law, or injure someone’s character, reputation or business. From a
literal reading of the text it shows that the protection is a guarantee against government
intervention.

It has been said that the terms speech and expression are all forms of utterances whether
oral or written.  Additionally the term “expression” can be interpreted to cover expressions
of opinion not made publicly. On the other hand, the term “press” covers all kinds of
publications and also television and radio as a form of mass media. 

It is important to note that the freedom of expression is one of the preferred rights
enshrined in the Bill of Rights. In a 1973 case , Justice Felix Makasiar said:

“(1) In a democracy, the preservation and enhancement of the dignity and worth of the
human personality is the central core as well as the cardinal article of faith of our
civilization. The inviolable character of man as an individual must be “protected to the
largest possible extent in his thoughts and in his beliefs as the citadel of his person.”

(2) The Bill of Rights is designed to preserve the ideals of liberty, equality and security
“against the assaults of opportunism, the expediency of the passing hour, the erosion of
small encroachments, and the scorn and derision of those who have no patience with
general principles.”
In the pithy language of Mr. Justice Robert Jackson, the purpose of the Bill of Rights is to
withdraw “certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them
beyond the reach of majorities and officials, and to establish them as legal principles to be
applied by the courts. One’s rights to life, liberty and property, to free speech, or free press,
freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental rights may not be submitted to a
vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections.” Laski proclaimed that “the happiness of
the individual, not the well-being of the State, was the criterion by which its behaviour was
to be judged. His interests, not its power, set the limits to the authority it was entitled to
exercise.”

(3) The freedoms of expression and of assembly as well as the right to petition are included
among the immunities reserved by the sovereign people, in the rhetorical aphorism of
Justice Holmes, to protect the ideas that we abhor or hate more than the ideas we cherish;
or as Socrates insinuated, not only to protect the minority who want to talk, but also to
benefit the majority who refuse to listen. And as Justice Douglas cogently stresses it, the
liberties of one are the liberties of all; and the liberties of one are not safe unless the
liberties of all are protected.

(4) The rights of free expression, free assembly and petition, are not only civil rights but also
political rights essential to man’s enjoyment of his life, to his happiness and to his full and
complete fulfillment. Thru these freedoms the citizens can participate not merely in the
periodic establishment of the government through their suffrage but also in the
administration of public affairs as well as in the discipline of abusive public officers. The
citizen is accorded these rights so that he can appeal to the appropriate governmental
officers or agencies for redress and protection as well as for the imposition of the lawful
sanctions on erring public officers and employees.

(5) While the Bill of Rights also protects property rights, the primacy of human rights over
property rights is recognized. Because these freedoms are “delicate and vulnerable, as well
as supremely precious in our society” and the “threat of sanctions may deter their exercise
almost as potently as the actual application of sanctions,” they “need breathing space to
survive,” permitting government regulation only “with narrow specificity.”

Property and property rights can be lost thru prescription; but human rights are
imprescriptible. If human rights are extinguished by the passage of time, then the Bill of
Rights is a useless attempt to limit the power of government and ceases to be an efficacious
shield against the tyranny of officials, of majorities, of the influential and powerful, and of
oligarchs — political, economic or otherwise.
In the hierarchy of civil liberties, the rights of free expression and of assembly occupy a
preferred position as they are essential to the preservation and vitality of our civil and
political institutions; and such priority “gives these liberties the sanctity and the sanction
not permitting dubious intrusions.”

The superiority of these freedoms over property rights is underscored by the fact that a
mere reasonable or rational relation between the means employed by the law and its object
or purpose that the law is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory nor oppressive would suffice
to validate a law which restricts or impairs property rights. On the other hand, a
constitutional or valid infringement of human rights requires a more stringent criterion,
namely existence of a grave and immediate danger of a substantive evil which the State has
the right to prevent. So it has been stressed in the main opinion of Mr. Justice Fernando in
Gonzales vs. Comelec and reiterated by the writer of the opinion in Imbong vs. Ferrer. It
should be added that Mr. Justice Barredo in Gonzales vs. Comelec, supra, like Justices
Douglas, Black and Goldberg in N.Y. Times Co. vs. Sullivan, believes that the freedoms of
speech and of the press as well as of peaceful assembly and of petition for redress of
grievances are absolute when directed against public officials or “when exercised in relation
to our right to choose the men and women by whom we shall be governed,” even as Mr.

Justice Castro relies on the balancing-of-interests test. Chief Justice Vinson is partial to the
improbable danger rule formulated by Chief Judge Learned Hand, viz. whether the gravity
of the evil, discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free expression as is
necessary to avoid the danger.”

Nonetheless, it must be noted that the exercise of this right is not absolute.  As one author
said “it does not confer unbridled license to speak or publish without responsibility for
every possible use of language. There are other societal values that press for protection” , it
means that it may be regulated by a valid exercise of police power.

6.2 Delimitations

Delimitations are boundaries that are set by the researcher in order to control the range of
a study. They are created before any investigations are carried out in order to reduce the
amount of time or effort spent in certain unnecessary, and perhaps even unrelated, areas to
the overall study.

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. They
describe the boundaries that you have set for the study. This is the place to explain:

 the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not to do them).
 the literature you will not review (and why not).
 the population you are not studying (and why not).
 the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them).

Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do but
that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.
6.3 Anti-Obscenity Laws

Anti-Obscenity Laws

This anti-obscenity and pornography act of 2008 violates the Philippine constitution whose
basic tenets are freedom and democracy.

Pornography in the bill are any objects or subjects from film, tv shows to photographs,
music, paintings, advertisements, literature and others found in every form of medium from
digital to video to film, tv shows, electronic media, print, outdoor advertising and broadcast
media that “… excite, stimulate or arouse impure thoughts and prurient interest.”

The bill defines obscenity as anything indecent or offensive to good customs, religious
beliefs, principles or doctrine, that will “deprave the human being,” “…excite impure
thoughts, or violate the proprieties of language and human behavior.” Specific examples
include the showing, depicting, or describing sexual acts, sexual organs, the female breasts,
and nude human bodies.

Introduced by Senator Manny Villar on July 24, 2008 as amendation for the article 201 of
the revised penal code.

AN ACT PROHIBITING AND PENALIZING THE PRODUCTION, PRINTING, PUBLICATION,

IMPORTATION, SALE, DISTRIBUTION AND EXHIBITION OF OBSCENE AND PORNOGRAPHIC
MATERIALS AND THE EXHIBITION OF LIVE SEXUAL ACTS, AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE
ARTICLE 201 OF THE REVISED PENAL CODE, AS AMENDED

6.4 Libel

Libel

It’s the publication of false statements of fact that damage someone’s reputation. You’ll also
see it referred to as defamation.

Libel arises when one makes a false statement about another person or entity that causes
harm to that person's or entity's reputation. In order to be treated as libel, there must be
publication of the statement; in other words, the statement must be made to another
person. Publication of the libelous statement can be made by a written format, such as a
newspaper article or internet posting, or by an oral statement, such as in conversation or
by radio or television. In addition, the statement can be made to one person or many
people, such as in a speech. Furthermore, cartoons, signs, and artistic depictions can be
treated as libel if they include false statements and are communicated to another person.

The libelous statement must also be expressed as a factual statement. Thus, the statement
is not just another person's opinion about a person or entity.

For example:

If one says 'The actress looked disheveled,' this would be an opinion and not a statement,
and as such, does not constitute libel. On the other hand, if the statement was 'The actress
was drunk and looked disheveled', this would constitute libel if the actress was not drunk.
Consequently, if one is critiquing a person or entity, it does not constitute libel if the
critique expresses an opinion.
Moreover, libel differs from slander because slander refers solely to spoken words. However,
even though radio or television broadcasts involve spoken words, the fact that the words
are made via a transfixed method results in the radio and television broadcasts conveying
libel.

6.5 Copyright Law (E-book)

Under Philippine law, copyright infringement is punishable by the following: Imprisonment

of between 1 to 3 years and a fine of between 50,000 to 150,000 pesos for the first offense.
Imprisonment of 3 years and 1 day to six years plus a fine of between 150,000 to 500,000
pesos for the second offense.

The basic laws of copyright for e-books are the same as for any creative work. The author
has copyright protection from the time he creates the book. The ease of copying and
distributing e-books, however, and the increased threat of distributing pirated versions
brings in other copyright issues which continue to evolve and be the subject of debate.

Copyright Protection

Copyright protection is automatic for any creative work the moment it is created and set
down in a “tangible form of expression,” including a work that can only be read with the aid
of a device such as an e-book reader. The copyright owner has the exclusive right to
reproduce and distribute the e-book for public sale, rental or lending, or to make the book
available for free. Without express permission, others cannot reproduce and distribute
copies of the e-book.

6.6 Right of Privacy

The Philippine Constitution

Our right to privacy is a basic fundamental human right. It has been cited by several court
cases and it is well enshrined under the supreme law of the land – The Philippine
Constitution.

As a matter of fact the right to privacy was even present during the 1935 and 1973
constitutions respectively.

Under the most recent 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Right to Information and
Communications Privacy is recognized under Article III, Sec. 3(1), which states:

The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful
order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.

The same constitution also guarantees the freedom of expression and speech under Article
III, Sec. 4, which states:

No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or
the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of
grievances.
Article III Sections 1 and 2 of the 1987 constitution also recognizes every person’s right to
physical privacy, this states the government’s limited ability to search and/or deprive one’s
person, place and things of any unwarranted intrusion to one’s private affairs for any
reason unless legally allowed to do so.

Sec. 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law,
nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.

Sec. 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall
be inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable
cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation
of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place
to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.

Other facets of the right to privacy are protected in various provisions of the Article III of the
1987 Constitution are as follows:

Sec. 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law
shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel
be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health as
may be provided by law.

Sec. 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors,
to form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be
abridged.

Sec. 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

Under the Civil Code of the Philippines

The Civil code, under Art. 26 provides punishment as actionable torts of several acts by a
person of meddling and prying into the privacy of another:

Art. 26. Every person shall respect the dignity, personality, privacy and peace of mind of his
neighbors and other persons. The following and similar acts, though they may not
constitute a criminal offense, shall produce a cause of action damages, prevention and
other relief:

(1) Prying into the privacy of another’s residence;

(2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or family relations of another;

(3) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from his friends;

(4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his religious beliefs, lowly station in life,
place of birth, physical defect, or other personal condition.
The right to privacy in communications and correspondence is also enforced under Art. 723
of the Civil Code of the Philippines, however courts may authorize their publication or
dissemination for public good and in the interest of justice.

Art. 723. Letters and other private communications in writing are owned by the person to
whom they are addressed and delivered, but they cannot be published or disseminated
without the consent of the writer or his heirs. However, the court may authorize their
publication or dissemination if the public good or the interest of justice so requires.

Under the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines

Art. 229 of the Revised Penal Code provides for punishment for public officers who discloses
private information held to him in confidence due to his position.

Art. 229. Revelation of secrets by an officer. Any public officer who shall reveal any secret
known to him by reason of his official capacity, or shall wrongfully deliver papers or copies
of papers of which he may have charge and which should not be published, shall suffer the
penalties of prision correccional in its medium and maximum periods, perpetual special
disqualification and a fine not exceeding 2,000 pesos if the revelation of such secrets or the
delivery of such papers shall have caused serious damage to the public interest; otherwise,
the penalties of prision correccional in its minimum period, temporary special
disqualification and a fine not exceeding 50 pesos shall be imposed.

Art. 280 of the Revised Penal Code provides for the privacy in one’s home and punishes
those who violates one’s right to such privacy.

Art. 280. Qualified trespass to dwelling. Any private person who shall enter the dwelling of
another against the latter’s will shall be punished by arresto mayor and a fine not exceeding
1,000 pesos.

If the offense be committed by means of violence or intimidation, the penalty shall be

prision correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine not exceeding 1,000
pesos.

The provisions of this article shall not be applicable to any person who shall enter another’s
dwelling for the purpose of preventing some serious harm to himself, the occupants of the
dwelling or a third person, nor shall it be applicable to any person who shall enter a
dwelling for the purpose of rendering some service to humanity or justice, nor to anyone
who shall enter cafes, taverns, inn and other public houses, while the same are open.

Articles 290 until 292 of the Revised Penal Code also provides for punishment for those who
discloses or illegally obtains information in confidence of another such as a corporation or
private individual.

Art. 290. Discovering secrets through seizure of correspondence. The penalty of prision
correccional in its minimum and medium periods and a fine not exceeding 500 pesos shall
be imposed upon any private individual who in order to discover the secrets of another,
shall seize his papers or letters and reveal the contents thereof.

If the offender shall not reveal such secrets, the penalty shall be arresto mayor and a fine
not exceeding 500 pesos.

The provision shall not be applicable to parents, guardians, or persons entrusted with the
custody of minors with respect to the papers or letters of the children or minors placed
under their care or study, nor to spouses with respect to the papers or letters of either of
them.

Art. 291. Revealing secrets with abuse of office. — The penalty of arresto mayor and a fine
not exceeding 500 pesos shall be imposed upon any manager, employee, or servant who, in
such capacity, shall learn the secrets of his principal or master and shall reveal such
secrets.

Art. 292. Revelation of industrial secrets. — The penalty of prision correccional in its
minimum and medium periods and a fine not exceeding 500 pesos shall be imposed upon
the person in charge, employee or workman of any manufacturing or industrial
establishment who, to the prejudice of the owner thereof, shall reveal the secrets of the
industry of the latter.

Under the Rules of Court

Rule 130, Sections 24-25 also disqualifies admissability of evidence for matters containing
privileged information.

Section 24. Disqualification by reason of privileged communication. — The following

persons cannot testify as to matters learned in confidence in the following cases:

(a) The husband or the wife, during or after the marriage, cannot be examined without the
consent of the other as to any communication received in confidence by one from the other
during the marriage except in a civil case by one against the other, or in a criminal case for
a crime committed by one against the other or the latter’s direct descendants or
ascendants;

(b) An attorney cannot, without the consent of his client, be examined as to any
communication made by the client to him, or his advice given thereon in the course of, or
with a view to, professional employment, nor can an attorney’s secretary, stenographer, or
clerk be examined, without the consent of the client and his employer, concerning any fact
the knowledge of which has been acquired in such capacity;

(c) A person authorized to practice medicine, surgery or obstetrics cannot in a civil case,
without the consent of the patient, be examined as to any advice or treatment given by him
or any information which he may have acquired in attending such patient in a professional
capacity, which information was necessary to enable him to act in capacity, and which
would blacken the reputation of the patient;
(d) A minister or priest cannot, without the consent of the person making the confession, be
examined as to any confession made to or any advice given by him in his professional
character in the course of discipline enjoined by the church to which the minister or priest
belongs;

(e) A public officer cannot be examined during his term of office or afterwards, as to
communications made to him in official confidence, when the court finds that the public
interest would suffer by the disclosure. (21a)

Section 25. Parental and filial privilege. No person may be compelled to testify against his
parents, other direct ascendants, children or other direct descendants. (20a)

The Right to Privacy under the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote

international cooperation and to create and maintain international order.

It was established on October 24, 1945 with 51 founding member states (including the
Philippines).

The United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights (also known as UDHR or
‘Human Rights Declaration’) was adopted on December 10, 1948 by the United Nation’s
General Assembly.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is generally agreed to be the foundation of

international human rights law. Adopted in 1948, the UDHR has inspired a rich body of
legally binding international human rights treaties.

Right to Privacy under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The UDHR contains provisions with regard to the right to a private and family life and to
the freedom of expression.

Article 12 of the UDHR enshrines the right to a private life and associated freedoms, it
states:

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to
the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

The right to the freedom of expression is also enshrined in Article 19 of the UDHR, which
states:

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to
hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.
The Right to Privacy under the United Nation’s International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

Since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not legally binding on states parties, to
codify the rights embodied in the UDHR, two treaties would be created: the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (“ICCPR”) and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (“ICESCR”). These two documents would form the
basis of the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1950, the General Assembly declared
“the enjoyment of civil and political freedoms and of economic, social and cultural rights are
interconnected and interdependent.” The Human Rights Commission completed
preparation of the draft of the ICCPR at its ninth and tenth sessions, in 1953 and 1954.

On December 16, 1966, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted the
ICCPR. The ICCPR took ten years to enter into force on March 23, 1976.

Right to Privacy Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

Article 17 of the ICCPR also states the right to a private life

1. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family,
home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation.

2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 19 of the ICCPR states an individual’s right to the freedom of expression

1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.

2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to
seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either
orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.

3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special
duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these
shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:

(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;

(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (order public), or of public
health or morals.
6.7 National Security

National security

The National Security Policy (NSP) is a document which contains the statement of principles
that sets the strategic policy goals and objectives of the administration in order to attain the
state or condition wherein the national interests of the Philippines, the well-being of its
people and institutions; and its sovereignty and territorial integrity are protected and
enhanced.

The NSC's function is to advise the President with respect to the integration of domestic,
foreign, and military policies relating to the national security. It is also said that it serves as
the President's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government
departments and agencies in matters involving the national security

PART VII – Editing in Translation

7.1 Contextual Abstraction

Through contextual abstraction, an abstract component specifies the implementation

context from which developers of compliant #-components derive their types, which
publicize their implementation assumptions. We motivate the concepts behind abstract
components by using an example.

7.2 Light Editing and Full Editing

Light post-editing

This involves taking the raw MT output and performing as few modifications as possible to
the text in order to make the translation understandable, factually accurate, and
grammatically correct.

Light post-editing tasks include:

 correcting only the most obvious typos, word, and grammatical errors
 rewriting confusing sentences partially or completely
 fixing machine-induced mistakes
 deleting unnecessary or extra translation alternatives generated by the machine
 making key terminology consistent, but with no in-depth term checking

The localized text needs to convey the meaning of the source text concepts correctly. It
doesn’t matter if there is not a 1-to-1 correspondence between the source and target texts,
as long as the original concept is there in the translation. Only major errors (errors which
impact the user’s ability to perform the task, comprehend the text correctly, and impair
productivity) and critical errors (errors which may incur legal consequences, block the
user’s ability to perform the task at all, or comprehend the text at all) are covered. The
resulting content might sound robotic or just a little bit off in tone and style, yet it is fluid
enough for a reader to understand the meaning. All stylistic polishing is skipped.
This level of light editing is not easy to achieve: naturally detail-oriented linguists literally
have to force themselves to skip over ‘minor’ errors and limit their work; their job is to
achieve the stated quality level and no more. A light edit has a faster pace than a full edit,
and if linguists do more than a light post-edit, they may not be paid for that extra effort.

The key phrases for light post-editing are ‘factual correctness’ and ‘good enough’.

Full post-editing

Full post-editing, a slower and more in-depth pass, must produce absolutely accurate
translations that consistently use correct and approved terminology, have the appropriate
tone and style, have no stylistic inconsistencies and variations, and are free from any
grammatical mistakes. After this edit, the translation should read as if written in the target
language.

Full post-editing tasks include all of the light post-editing tasks plus:

 checking terminology against approved terminological resources to make sure it is

consistent and appropriate
 cross-referencing translations against other resources
 making syntactic modifications in accordance with practices for the target language
 producing stylistically consistent, fluent content
 adapting all cultural references, including idioms, examples, etc.
 ensuring perfect faithfulness — a 1-to-1 correspondence — between the source and
target text
 applying correct formatting and tagging
 correcting ALL grammatical errors, typos, punctuation errors, and spelling mistakes

The expectation is high: full post-edited content must be equal to human translation in all
aspects. Therefore, content must meet the quality criteria defined by the client for human
translations.

7.3 Style Writing

In literature, writing style is the manner of expressing thought in language characteristic

of an individual, period, school, or nation.

There are four main types of writing: expository, descriptive, persuasive, and narrative.
Each of these writing styles is used for a specific purpose. A single text may include more
than one writing style.
EXPOSITORY

Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing. When an author writes in an
expository style, all they are trying to do is explain a concept, imparting information from
themselves to a wider audience. Expository writing does not include the author’s opinions,
but focuses on accepted facts about a topic, including statistics or other evidence.

Examples of Expository Writing

 Textbooks
 How-to articles
 Recipes
 News stories (not editorials or Op-Eds)
 Business, technical, or scientific writing

DESCRIPTIVE

Descriptive writing is often found in fiction, though it can make an appearance in nonfiction
as well (for example, memoirs, first-hand accounts of events, or travel guides). When an
author writes in a descriptive style, they are painting a picture in words of a person, place,
or thing for their audience. The author might employ metaphor or other literary devices in
order to describe the author’s impressions via their five senses (what they hear, see, smell,
taste, or touch). But the author is not trying to convince the audience of anything or explain
the scene – merely describe things as they are.

Examples of Descriptive Writing

 Poetry
 Journal/diary writing
 Descriptions of Nature
 Fictional novels or plays

PERSUASIVE

Persuasive writing is the main style of writing you will use in academic papers. When an
author writes in a persuasive style, they are trying to convince the audience of a position or
belief. Persuasive writing contains the author’s opinions and biases, as well as justifications
and reasons given by the author as evidence of the correctness of their position. Any
“argumentative” essay you write in school should be in the persuasive style of writing.

Examples of Persuasive Writing

 Cover letters
 Op-Eds and Editorial newspaper articles
 Reviews of items
 Letters of complaint
 Advertisements
 Letters of recommendation
NARRATIVE

Narrative writing is used in almost every longer piece of writing, whether fiction or
nonfiction. When an author writes in a narrative style, they are not just trying to impart
information, they are trying to construct and communicate a story, complete with
characters, conflict, and settings.

Examples of Narrative Writing

 Oral histories
 Novels/Novellas
 Poetry (especially epic sagas or poems)
 Short Stories
 Anecdotes

PART VIII – Literary Translation

8.1 History

History of Literary Translation

First notable translation of the west would be the Septuagint, Jewish sacred scriptures
translated into Koine Gk. (Jews needed Gk version of their scriptures)

Middle age, 19th cent – Latin was the lingua franca; there were struggles in translating
religious and philosophical scriptures; text were then translated to vernacular Latin.

With the large-scale effort to spread Buddhism, Tangut Empire utilized block printing
translating centuries of calligraphically rendered scriptures – promoting understanding of
Buddhism as personally supported by the emperor and his mother

After Arab conquered the Greek world, scientific and philosophical accomplishments were
translated to Arabic texts. These text were then converted to Latin that later helped the
advancement of Scholasticism of European world.

13th century marked the flourishing of English equivalents that gave rise to the name of
Geoffrey Chauser whose literary work entitled Knight’s Tale marked the standards in
translation.

15th century dawned the translation of prose literature opening the door to Arthurian
literature to European writing.

Renaissance in Italy flipped another chapter in literature by introducing the works of Plato
in straightforward language that also paved the way for the works of other philosophers to
be introduced in European Literature.
8.2 Purpose

Literary translation involves translating dramatic and creative poetry and prose into other
languages, and it is a hugely important task. It helps to shape a reader's understanding of
the world, their history, philosophy, politics, and more.

Literary translation

There are four expansive translation categories, namely,

1. Business/commercial translation

2. Technical and scientific translation

3. Interpreting

4. Literary translation

Likewise there are specific fields, which include legal translation. With the Copyright Act,
the term literary translation is not confined to classic literature alone; it encompasses all
types of books, short stories, poems, plays, scripts, opera libretto, travel guide, school
books and other written works.

Qualifications

A degree in Modern Languages would be helpful for someone who wants to be a literary
translator, particularly if translation classes are included in the course. It is also helpful if
the translator has other academic qualifications, aside from a diploma in languages.

Someone interested in this type of translation work should possess some specific qualities,
such as a fascination and feeling for language, a deep knowledge of the source language, its
regional literature and culture and a more than average knowledge of the subject that the
literary work discusses. Being familiar with the other works of the author is also needed.

Creativity and skill in the target language is a must (being a native speaker will greatly
help). The translator must also be able to quickly transition from one writing style to
another, to convey the original work’s meaning, and produce the text that reads and flows
well without deviating from the theme and style of the source.

Importance

Translating a book allows other people who will otherwise be isolated through language to
learn more about other cultures. A book reflects the values, ideas and thoughts of the
author and possibly his community. When you read a translated book, you get to
understand the actions, principles, traditions and thoughts of the people from another
location. Without translation, people are deprived of other cultures’ accumulated wisdom
and ancient knowledge. Literary translation opens the door to a vast arsenal of literature
that is traditionally unavailable to a far larger number of people.

8.3 Technique

5 TECHNIQUES OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

1. ADAPTATION

Albir describes adaptation as a “technique whereby one cultural element is replaced by

another which is typical of the receiving culture. This technique is very useful when
translating advertisements, slogans, etc., which employ a number of different linguistic
processes. In these cases, the most important thing is the actual meaning of the message
rather than the words making it up.”

2. LINGUISTIC AMPLIFICATION

According to Albir, “this translation technique adds new linguistic elements in the target
text. It is the opposite of the linguistic compression technique.” This is usually about using
a paraphrase to explain a word that has no equivalent in the target language.

3. COMPENSATION

Compensation, on the other hand, is a “translation technique whereby a piece of

information or stylistic device is moved to another location in the text, because it does not
have the same effect if maintained in the same place as in the original text”. This process is
intended to compensate for the losses that a text suffers when it is translated. The
technique is especially useful when it comes to wordplay: if the translator cannot directly
adapt a pun, for instance, which tends to happen quite often, then they will try to create
another play on words in another part of the text.

4. ELISION

The fourth technique of literary translation described by Albir is elision. Elision is a process
that “involves removing items of information in the original language text so that they do
not appear in the target text. As with the linguistic compression technique, elision is the
opposite of the amplification process.” It is certainly frequently the case that the literary
translator is obliged to condense the information contained in certain passages being
translated. To do this, some items which are not considered essential must be removed as
their elision will improve the stylistic quality of the translated work.

5. BORROWING

Borrowing is a technique frequently used in literary translation, but which can also be
applied in medical and business translations, for instance. For Albir, this translation
technique involves “using a word or an expression in the original text and placing it as it is,
with no modification, in the target text.” This can be an expression taken from a third
language (e.g., Latin), or a familiar expression by speakers of the target language, or even
an untranslatable expression which is not worth explaining.

PART IX – Basic Copyreading and Proofreading

9.1 The Manuscript

A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any
document that is written by hand or, once practical typewriters became available,
typewritten as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or
automated way.

More recently, the term has come to be understood to further include any written, typed, or
word-processed copy of an author's work, as distinguished from its rendition as a printed
version of the same.Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were
manuscripts. Manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing
with mathematical calculations, maps, music notation, explanatory figures or illustrations.

9.2 Copy/Editing the Manuscript

Copyediting is the process of checking for mistakes, inconsistencies, and repetition. During
this process, your manuscript is polished for publication.

Contrary to popular belief, the copyeditor is not a glorified spell checker.

The copyeditor is your partner in publication. He or she makes sure that your manuscript
tells the best story possible. The copyeditor focuses on both the small details and the big
picture. He or she must be meticulous and highly technical, while still aware of the
overarching themes at work within your manuscript.

Copyediting has become somewhat of a catch-all term for all editing. But copyediting
typically only addresses grammar and usage issues, spelling and punctuation errors, and
word choice. Copywriting addresses a manuscript’s correctness. Why is the character
named Joseph in chapter one suddenly being called John in chapter eight? Why does Lara
have brown eyes in the prologue, but blue eyes in the final scene? Copyediting is less
focused on rhythm and flow and more on ensuring accuracy. It:

• involves making corrections at the sentence level

• checks for consistency issues with timelines, plot, and character

• addresses adherence to the Chicago Manual of Style and the author’s “house” style

• may result in significant document markups

• prepares the manuscript for proofreading and publication

After copyediting, the author receives a document with significant markups. The author is
responsible for either accepting or rejecting the editor’s changes and recommendations.

9.3 Proofreading

Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find

and correct production errors of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial
cycle before publication.

Proofreading means carefully checking for errors in a text before it is published or shared. It
is the very last stage of the writing process, when you fix minor spelling and punctuation
mistakes, typos, formatting issues and inconsistencies.

Proofreading is essential for any text that will be shared with an audience, whether it’s an
academic paper, a job application, an online article, or a print flyer. Depending on your
skills and budget, you can choose to proofread the text yourself or to hire a professional.

Proofreading example

In the publishing industry, proofreaders usually check a printed “proof copy” of the text and
mark corrections using specialized proofreading marks. In other fields, though, professional
proofreaders often work with digital texts and make corrections directly using the track
changes feature in Microsoft Word or Google Docs.

Proofreading means carefully checking for errors in a text before it is published or shared.
It is the very last stage of the writing process, when you fix minor spelling and punctuation
mistakes, typos, formatting issues and inconsistencies.

PART X – Modern Translation

10.1 Poetry

Views on the possibility of satisfactorily translating poetry show a broad spectrum,

depending largely on the degree of latitude to be granted the translator in regard to a
poem's formal features (rhythm, rhyme, verse form, etc.). Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1997
book, Le Ton beau de Marot, argued that a good translation of a poem must convey as much
as possible not only of its literal meaning but also of its form and structure (meter, rhyme
or alliteration scheme, etc.).

The Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson, however, had in his 1959

paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", declared that "poetry by definition [is]
untranslatable". Vladimir Nabokov, another Russian-born author, took a view similar to
Jakobson's. He considered rhymed, metrical, versed poetry to be in principle untranslatable
and therefore rendered his 1964 English translation of Alexander Pushkin's Eugene
Onegin in prose.

Hofstadter, in Le Ton beau de Marot, criticized Nabokov's attitude toward verse translation.
In 1999 Hofstadter published his own translation of Eugene Onegin, in verse form.

However, a host of more contemporary literary translators of poetry lean toward Alexander

von Humboldt's notion of language as a "third universe" existing "midway between the
phenomenal reality of the 'empirical world' and the internalized structures of
consciousness." Perhaps this is what poet Sholeh Wolpé, translator of the 12th-century
Iranian epic poem The Conference of the Birds, means when she writes:

Twelfth-century Persian and contemporary English are as different as sky and sea. The best
I can do as a poet is to reflect one into the other. The sea can reflect the sky with its moving
stars, shifting clouds, gestations of the moon, and migrating birds—but ultimately the sea
is not the sky. By nature, it is liquid. It ripples. There are waves. If you are a fish living in
the sea, you can only understand the sky if its reflection becomes part of the water.
Therefore, this translation of The Conference of the Birds, while faithful to the original text,
aims at its re-creation into a still living and breathing work of literature.

Poet Sherod Santos writes: "The task is not to reproduce the content, but with the flint and
the steel of one's own language to spark what Robert Lowell has called 'the fire and finish of
the original. According to Walter Benjamin:

While a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is destined
to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to perish with its renewal.
Translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of
all literary forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the
maturing process of the original language and the birth pangs of its own.

Gregory Hays, in the course of discussing Roman adapted translations of ancient Greek

literature, makes approving reference to some views on the translating of poetry expressed
by David Bellos, an accomplished French-to-English translator. Hays writes:

Among the idées reçues [received ideas] skewered by David Bellos is the old saw that
"poetry is what gets lost in translation." The saying is often attributed to Robert Frost, but
as Bellos notes, the attribution is as dubious as the idea itself. A translation is an
assemblage of words, and as such it can contain as much or as little poetry as any other
such assemblage. The Japanese even have a word (chōyaku, roughly "hypertranslation") to
designate a version that deliberately improves on the original.

10.2 Sung Texts

Sungs Text

Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another
language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry
because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse
in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting
of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music
tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A
rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the
German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.

Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry,
because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation
and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a
singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical
setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts,
less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining
notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation
because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung
melodic line.

Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and

phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high
notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original
language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely
different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum.

Translations of sung texts—whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less
literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors,
when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are
translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those
inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal
music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do
not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to
understand the meaning of the words they are singing.

10.3 Religious Texts

Religious texts

An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Such
translations may be influenced by tension between the text and the religious values the
translators wish to convey. 

For example, Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese occasionally

adjusted their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions
such as filial piety.

One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the 3rd century BCE
rendering of some books of the biblical Old Testament from Hebrew into Koine Greek. The
translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the supposedly seventy
translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible
at Alexandria, Egypt. According to legend, each translator worked in solitary confinement in
his own cell, and, according to legend, all seventy versions proved identical.
The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages,
including Latin, Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian.

Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into
Latin, is Jerome (347–420 CE), the patron saint of translators. For centuries the Roman
Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate), though even this translation
stirred controversy. By contrast with Jerome's contemporary, Augustine of Hippo (354–430
CE), who endorsed precise translation, Jerome believed in adaptation, and sometimes
invention, in order to more effectively bring across the meaning. Jerome's colorful Vulgate
translation of the Bible includes some crucial instances of "overdetermination".

For example, Isaiah's prophecy announcing that the Savior will be born of a virgin, uses the
word 'almah, which is also used to describe the dancing girls at Solomon's court, and
simply means young and nubile. Jerome, writes Marina Warner, translates it as virgo,
"adding divine authority to the virulent cult of sexual disgust that shaped Christian moral
theology (the [Moslem] Quran, free from this linguistic trap, does not
connect Mariam/Mary's miraculous nature with moral horror of sex)." The apple
that Eve offered to Adam, according to Mark Polizzotti, could equally well have been
an apricot, orange, or banana; but Jerome liked the pun malus/malum (apple/evil).
------THE END------