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Basic Requirements of Transducer
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality transducer:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
h) No deformation on removal of input signal

Note: Refer Definitions in Unit 2-Static and Dynamic Characteristics

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 I. UNITS AND STANDARDS OF INSTRUMENTS

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), formerly known as the
National Bureau of Standards (NBS), was established in 1901, replacing the Office of Standard
Weights and Measures. At the time, state laws for standard weights and measures were
antiquated. Some laws were virtually unchanged since colonial times when states adopted
standards of their own choosing. The NIST took over custody of basic standards for weights and
measures but - more importantly - began a broad program of physical research to determine
precise physical standards and construct new standards when necessary. Early in its history, it
developed instruments to measure electrical current and other properties of electricity. It also
contributed to the data in many areas other than fundamental measurement standards, including
data on physical constants, properties of materials, and tests and procedures, and has contributed
to national codes such as the National Electrical Safety Code.

Units of measurement:

The measurement of a quantity is done with specified measurement units. Measurement

units are the reference quantities that have been selected as a basis for comparison for most
measurable quantities. The definitions for various units are modified and improved from time to
time as necessary. The original "old" metric system was proposed by the French Academy of
Science in 1790. In 1875, at a conference called by the French, the Convention du Metre was
signed by 18 countries to set up and maintain a body of weights and measures in Paris. Through a
governing authority, the Conference General des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), delegates from
member countries adopted necessary procedures for the improvement of the metric system. By
international agreement, metric units have been adopted for use in all scientific and engineering
work. The dominant system in use today is called the International System of Units (Le Systeme
International d' Unites, abbreviated SI) which was defined at the Eleventh Session of the CGPM
in 1960. The SI system was simplified from the original system and was based on six
fundamental units (sometimes called base units) and two supplementary units.
In 1971, the General Conference added a standard of quantity called the mole to the
fundamental units. This addition was made because the number of atoms or molecules in a
substance is frequently more relevant to chemists than the mass of substance. A mole is defined
as the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12. All other SI units can be formed by combining
the fundamental and supplementary units so are called derived units. Table 3-1 lists the
fundamental units and Table 3-2 lists the supplementary units. Definitions' of the fundamental
units are given in Table 3-3.
In addition to the fundamental and supplementary units, 27 derived units were adopted by
the CGPM. Table 3-4 lists these 27 derived units and some additional useful electrical units. An
important advantage of the derived units was that of coherence. Coherence means that derived
units can be expressed directly in terms of products or quotients of fundamental units without
numerical factors.

2
 6 fundamental units:

 2 supplementary units:

 27 derived units:

To express very large and very small quantities, a prefix can be used in conjunction
3
with the measurement unit. An important advantage of the metric system is that metric prefixes are
based on the decimal system and stand for powers of ten. The names and abbreviations of the
metric prefixes, together with the powers of ten they represent, are shown in Table 3-5. The
prefixes can be used in conjunction with all measurement units; however, with electrical
measurements, prefixes with an exponent that is a multiple of three are preferred. Numbers
expressed with an exponent or metric prefix that is a multiple of three are said to be ex- pressed in
engineering notation. Engineering notation is used for marking many electronic components and
is also an aid to computations.
For historical reasons, the kilogram is the only fundamental unit defined with a metric
prefix. Names of decimal multiples and submultiples of the kilogram are formed by attaching
prefixes to the word gram. As an example, it is not correct to write a milligram as a
microkilogram.
Name and abbreviation of metric prefix

Standards:
Standards are divided into four categories: international standards, primary standards,
secondary standards, and working standards. All standards need to be rigorously traceable through
documentation to accepted international standards or definitions representing the fundamental
units. Traceability implies that local reference standards have been compared to higher-echelon
standards through an unbroken chain of comparisons to national standards maintained by the
NIST. Other important attributes of all standards include long-term stability, accuracy, and
insensitivity to environmental conditions.

a. International standards

Except for the kilogram, all the fundamental units are defined in terms of nature. Intrinsic
standards are those that can be realized directly from their definitions rather than comparing
them to an artifact maintained at a laboratory. The advantage to intrinsic standards is that they can
be constituted in specialized laboratories throughout the world, thus ensuring that the units remain
stable, reproducible, and indestructible. Intrinsic (or "absolute") standards are tied to the basic
laws of physics rather than an artifact. Rules for specifying the practical realization of various
4
intrinsic standards were adopted by the CIPM in 1983. Advances in making standards based on
their physical definitions has recently improved, particularly in electrical standards, and will
ultimately improve the measurement accuracy at all levels.
When a physical object is used as a standard, as with the kilogram, it is called a prototype
standard. Although it would be useful to have a mass standard that is defined by nature, no one
has been able to propose a standard with the required precision. It is conceivable that, in the
future, actual counting of atoms in a specified crystalline structure could be employed as a
reproducible mass standard. The international kilogram is maintained by the BIPM along with a
series of working prototype standards of the kilogram that are used for comparison with national
prototype standards. The surest method of protecting the invariability of the international
prototype kilogram is to make the least possible use of the international kilogram. The BIPM has
only rarely compared the international kilogram with its own working prototype standards; a
series of measurements begun in 1988 is only the third use of the international prototype in nearly
100 years.
The BIPM maintains a number of other standards for fundamental and de- rived units that
can be used as calibration sources for the national laboratories. These standards are used for
routine calibrations as needed by national laboratories for international comparisons. They are not
available for use by the public.

b. National primary standards

A primary standard is one that does not require any other reference for calibration.
National Reference Standards are primary standards that are maintained and controlled by a
national measurements laboratory such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology for
the United States or the National Physical Laboratory for England. For example, a primary
standard for time is generated from a cesium atomic beam-controlled oscillator. NIST uses such a
device as the national reference standard.
The U.S. copy of the international kilogram (number 20) is kept in a vault at the NIST
laboratory at Gaithersburg, Maryland. It is considered a primary standard for the United States but
in fact is a very accurate copy of the international kilogram (number 1) retained by the BIPM in
Sevres, France. The U.S. prototype is used no more than once a year to compare with high-
precision copies that are accurate to 1 part in 100 million. Other primary reference standards of the
fundamental units can be reproduced from their definition in nature.

c. Secondary standards

The difference between a primary standard and a secondary standard is that a primary
standard does not require any other reference for calibration, but a secondary standard must be
compared periodically to a primary standard, depending on the accuracy required. Secondary
standards are often used as transfer standards, to move a unit of measurement from a primary
standard to one that can be used in a laboratory as a working standard. Secondary standards, with
calibrations directly traceable to NIST, are retained by many laboratories and industries. An
example of a secondary standard is the rubidium frequency standard. Although it is typically more
than 100 times more accurate than an ordinary quartz crystal oscillator, the rubidium gas cell is
subject to very small degrees of drift and must be periodically tested against a primary standard.

d. Working standards

Typical electronic measuring equipment cannot approach the precision of primary

standards. Except for the most exacting scientific work, it is seldom necessary to calibrate
electronic equipment to these standards. A working standard is a device used to maintain a unit
of measurement for routine calibration and certification work on test equipment. Working

5
standards require periodic calibration and certification to assure that they are accurate. They are
normally not used for routine measurements in an organization but instead are reserved for
calibration service. Calibration standards must have the attributes of accuracy and stability. They
must be used only for the measurement range for which they are intended.

Working standards form the basis of the quality of measurement work for an organization.
A record should be kept for all working standards. This record includes calibrations with higher-
echelon standards, comparisons made with other working standards, adjustments or repairs that
could give an indication of possible deterioration of the standard, and other pertinent information.
The calibration interval depends on the delicacy of the standard, required accuracy, frequency of
use, and the experience level of personnel who use the standard.