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S7 UD Notes Student 1920
S7 UD Notes Student 1920
S7 UD Notes Student 1920
Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Topic 1 Structures (natural and manmade) are found everywhere.
Structure something that has a definite size and shape, which serves a definite purpose or function (job).
1.1 Classifying structures
Natural Structures
• not made by people
• occurring naturally in
the environment
Manufactured (manmade) Structures
• built by people
• many are modelled after
natural structures
Structures can also be classified by their DESIGN 3 Main types of designs:
KEY CONSIDERATIONS: • Materials cost $$$: More material = more $$$
• Strong structures need: Effective design, strong materials and joints
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Solid Structures...
• formed from a solid piece (or • held in place by its own • massive, so they
solid combination of pieces) weight use a lot of material
of some strong material. • losing small parts has almost to build (material is
• have little or no space inside no effect on overall strength $$)
• rely on its own mass to of structure
• difficult to move
resist the forces that act on it • usually stronger than frame (heavy)
of shell structures
Shell Structures...
• use a thin, carefully shaped, outer layer of material that spreads forces through the whole structure,
giving it strength and rigidity.
• each part of the structure only supports a small part of the load, giving it strength
• keep their shape and support loads without a frame or solid structure inside.
• flexible shells include: parachutes, plastic bags, etc.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• thin, so uses little material (cheap) • tiny imperfections in the shell
• lots of space inside, so they make great containers can lead the structure to fail
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 1
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
1.2 The Function of Structures
Function the job or purpose of the structure. What the structure has to DO.
• To perform its function, every part of the structure must resist forces (stresses such as pushes or pulls)
that could damage its shape or size.
Most structures have several functions What are the functions of an airplane?
• supporting (its own weight DEAD LOAD)
• containing (substances)
• transporting Common function, different design
• fastening
• separating
• communicating
• holding
• lifting
• sheltering
aesthetics
Materials
The most effective structures balance Design,
Materials, Cost, Safety and Aesthetics with Function safety
Function Design Cost
Function What does the structure have to DO? What's its job?
Materials What materials would be best for this structure to do its job?
Design What design features would be best for this structure to do its job?
Cost What is the cheapest way to make this structure do its job?
Safety What is a reasonable margin of safety for this structure?
Aesthetics The study of art and design in structures. How can the structure also be nice to look
at?
1.3 Human built structures around the world: differences in function, materials and aesthetics
Humans need shelter. The design
and specific functions of homes from
around the world depend on:
• climate (i.e. hot vs cold temp, rain
vs snow)
• building materials (i.e. natural
resources in the area... trees vs
bamboo)
• culture and tradition (inform
aesthetic to reflect values and
beliefs)
• technologies to build homes (i.e.
are machines required)
• economics (i.e. what's cheap to
build)
Topic 2 External and Internal Forces act on Structures
2.1 Measuring Forces
FORCE a push or pull that can cause an object to change its
movement or shape
Unit: Newton (N) Instrument: Spring scale
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 2
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Draw arrows to show the forces acting on the car
Force arrows show:
• magnitude (strength of force)
• direction of force
• location of force
a) car that's not moving b) car that's moving
The effect of a force depends on...
1) the magnitude (size) of the force 2) the direction of the force 3) the location the force is applied
If direction of force is... Where force is applied matters.
Magnitude = Force = Force's effect Applying a force at a high point
on structure • With gravity
(downhill) = easy could tip the structure over.
Two people pushing on a large object • against gravity Applying force at a lower point is
exert more force than one person. (uphill) = hard more stable.
2.2 External Forces Acting on Structures
1 kg = 1000g
EXTERNAL FORCE force applied to a
structure by something else. The greatest
external force is gravity kg g : multiply by 1000
MASS the amount of matter in an object.
• unit of measurement: kg or g g kg: divide by 1000
• instrument: scale
Key Concept: The more mass an object has, the greater the gravitational force
Mass vs Gravity what's the difference?
Jupiter 10N = 1Kg
The Earth The Moon
N Kg: divide by 10
Kg N: multiply by 10
1 N = 100g
Mass on N g: multiply by 100
Mass on Mass on the
Earth: 50 kg
Jupiter: 50 Kg moon: 50 kg g N: divide by 100
Weight on
Weight on Weight on
Earth: 500 N
Jupiter: 600 N Moon: 300 N
Your mass doesn't change whether you are on Earth, the Moon or Jupiter. Your weight does, because
the planets/moon are different masses. The greater the mass, the greater the gravitational force.
Where does gravity act on a structure?
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S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Center of Gravity (CoG) The specific point where all the mass of a structure is evenly distributed around.
• The force of gravity acts on all parts of the
structure.
• If the mass of the structure is evenly
distributed around the CoG, then the
structure is stable. If not, it will tip over or fail.
• Stable structures = wide base = LOW CoG
• Engineers locate the CoG of a structure in order to stabilize the structure.
• By locating the CoG, an engineer can tell if the structure is stable or unbalanced.
• A structure that tips will right itself
if its CoG lands within the base.
• A structure will tip over if its CoG
lands outside its base
Symmetrical structures are mores stable
A structure will be stable if the same
mass (and thus the same force) is
found on either side of the foundation
(where it's supported). This is also
where the CoG is located.
Which point will be the most stable? Why?
Which point is the least stable and will cause the pencil to fall over? Why?
A B C
LOAD external force acting on a structure. Load can be measured as weight.
Examples of static (dead) and dynamic (live) loads
The Burj Khalifa
Static Load: Static Load
Static Load:
Dynamic Load:
Dynamic Load: Dynamic Load
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 4
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Supporting the Load: The Bridge
• General function: support itself (dead load) and live loads
• Specific function depends on
> what bridge is crossing (i.e. water or land)
> type of load it must support (i.e. pedestrians or cars)
Main Bridge Designs:
1. Beam • most common bridge used
• simplest beam bridge may
be supported by additional
piers (vertical supports)
2. Truss • lightweight but strong
• made of trusses (triangleshaped frames) along sides
3. Suspension
• bridge that hangs between two ends that are anchored firmly
• modern suspension bridges have tall towers on either end that support the
main cables holding up the bridge
• the main cables are anchored in concrete at each end of the bridge
• smaller cables,which support the bridge, are suspended from the main cables.
4. Cable stayed • bridge that is supported by cables that attach to the towers
• different than suspension bridge because the cables are not
anchored to the ground
• used in places where suspension bridges can't be properly anchored
due to poor ground conditions
5. Arch • designed to withstand heavy loads
• the dynamic load of people and other traffic causes each piece of
wood or stone in the arch to push against the piece next to it,
transferring the load to the ground
• the ground pushes back, creating strength and resistance.
6. Cantilever
• cantilever structure
that is supported at
only one end or point
• load is supported by
the ends; it is not
suspended
• Think: diving board
Measuring a Structure's Load Performance Water slide:
Performance requirements the conditions • must be able to support the weight
that a structure must meet after it is built to show of 10 people at a time and the
it is performing to certain standards. These water
conditions involve safety, cost and efficiency • must withstand high winds, heavy
parameters. Load performance often expressed snow without becoming unstable
Elevator
as a weight.
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 5
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
2.3 Internal Forces within Structures
Internal force the force that one part of a structure exerts on other parts of the same structure. Forces
that act INSIDE a structure.
There are 4 main type of internal forces
Compression Force that acts to Tension Force that acts to stretch
press an object or and pull apart something.
push parts within an Can cause lengthening
object together and possibly snapping of
a component
comPRESSion exTENding something
Shear
Torsion
Force that acts to push
Force that acts to twist parts of a
parts that are in contact
structure, causing them to shear
with each other in
in a twisting way.
opposite directions
TORsion = disTORt
Bending
Bending is the result of opposite forces acting on a structure
at the same time: tension and compression
bENDing = move ENDs together
2.4 Designing Structures to Resist Forces and Maintain Stability
Strongest Shape: Triangle
• Whenever possible, use triangles because they transfer forces the best
Structural Components The following components combine to make strong structures
Arch
• A common shape in structures such as bridges
• Can support a large load because the force of the load
is carried down through the arch to the foundation
• arches spread out the load
• arches need a strong base to handle load
• A shell structure is a domeshaped arch.
Beam Column
• A flat structure that is supported at each end.
• Weakest point is in the middle where it may bend or break • A solid
• Changing the beam's shape can increase its strength structure that
can stand by
• Simple beam lightweight but not as strong as IBeam or Box
itself
beam
• can be used
• IBeam Less material as a solid beam but just as strong
to support
• BoxBeam hollow rectangular prism. Light and strong
beams
• Truss framework of beams joined together,
usually made from interlocking triangles
• Cantilever a beam supported only at one
end.
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 6
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Structural Stress, Fatigue or Failure
Structural stress structural fatigue repeated
the result of too great abnormal use of a structure, Structural failure occurs
a combination of causing permanent structural when a structure can no
external and internal changes caused by internal longer resist the forces acting
forces acting on a forces (compression, tension, on it. E.g.: bridge collapsing
structure to weaken it. shear). Evidence: cracks
Other examples of structural failure:
Sometimes stress, fatigue and failure can be desirable traits in structures
buckling in cars prevents
propeller blades will shear off to twisting fibers of cotton makes
injuries by absorbing more
prevent motor damage them stronger
shock of impact
A structure needs strength and stiffness to avoid failure:
• the strength of a structure is defined by the load at which if fails
> example: if it takes 100kg to break a skateboard, the strength would be 100kg
• the stiffness of a structure is its ability to withstand changing its shape under a load
> example: the skateboard must be stiff enough to prevent failure for any load up to 100kg
T3: Structural strength and stability depends on properties of different materials and their joints
Classifying Material Properties
Materials for a structure are chosen based on their properties and the function the structure needs to fulfill.
Some Properties of Materials Other considerations
• brittleness how easily does the material break • aesthetics appearance, texture
• ductility how easily can the material be made in to wire • consumer demand
• hardness • availability and cost
• plasticity how easy is it to shape the material • effect on the environment can
• resistance to heat material be used safely
• resistance to water • disposal of waste can the
• resistance to compression material be recycled or reused?
• tensile strength Is there a cost to depose of it?
Testing Deformation and Flexibility of Materials in Structures
Property material: STRENGTH
• Materials need to be able to resist forces acting on a structure, therefore structures need to be
made of materials that won't deform easily.
• Too much deformation and the structure or structural component will fail
Deformation a change in
shape in the structure or
structural component because
material is unable to resist the
load acting on it
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 7
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Flexibility the ability of a material to be bent under force without breaking
• The more an object can change shape under load without breaking, the more flexible it is
Spandex used in yoga clothes Earthquake buildings in Vancouver are modeled after trees. Most of
allows for a snug fit but flexibility of the building is suspended from the central 'trunk' so it will flex with
movement without losing its shape the earthquake.
Boeing 787 is made of a carbon fiber composite (not aluminum) which allows it to be a lot more flexible.
3.2 Joining Structural Components (Joints)
Joint the place where structural parts are joined together
Natural occurs in nature
manmade people make these joints
Types of joints
rigid joints parts of a structure are held together and don't move
mobile joints parts of a structure are held together but allow movement. Mobile
joints must be properly lubricated to reduce friction between moving parts.
Friction the drag or resistance of one surface against another
• The greater the surface area, the greater the friction
• The rougher the surface, the greater the friction
soldering
Rigid Joints
Fasteners melted
ties
Interlocking
shapes
Adhesives
welding
**Rigid joints depend on friction to hold structural components together**
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 8
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Fasteners: These joints rely on friction between the metal and material to do their job
Interlocking Shapes
• Carefully shaped pieces of a joint that hold themselves together
• Friction increases when the area of contact increases
• Folded seams in flexible materials (i.e. sheet metal, cloth) strengthen the joints
• joints in flexible material need to be carefully designed and assembled to fit precisely
Mass Rigid Joint Ties
A joint held together by the mass and friction • thread, string and rope can also fasten structural
between structural components. Structure held components
together by its mass. • most fabrics are fastened using ties from sewing
Retaining wall
splitrail fence
Joints that rely on bonding
Adhesives
• two surfaces are joined together by a common material
(i.e. glue) that harden to hold the joint
• ex: tape (adhesive on one side), glue, cement
Melted Joint: Soldering Melted Joint: Welding
• two or more metals are joined together by melting join together metal pieces or parts by heating
another piece of metal (filler metal) to join the two the surfaces to the point of melting using a
metal pieces together blowtorch (or electric arc, etc) and uniting them
• a 3rd piece of metal is melted to 'glue' the parts by pressing, hammering, etc.
together
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 9
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Mobile Joints
Ball & Socket Hinge
Pivot Pin Joint
Designing Joints to Last
**A structure's basic shape may be stable and its Fatigue occurs in mobile joints due to friction
materials strong, but if its joints are not suited to • friction causes wear in one or both surfaces
how and where it is used, it won't last for long.** rubbing together
• friction generates heat when two surfaces rub
Rigid joints must be able to resist stresses for a
• reduce friction by using a lubricant (i.e.
long time
WD40)
Mobile joints must survive the force of repeated
movement without fatiguing or breaking
3.3 Properties of materials in plant and animal structures
Materials in the Human Structure
Bones hard and rigid. Forms the frame to support the body
and protect organs
Ligaments connect bone to bone. Tough but flexible, slightly
elastic. Torn ACL is a common sports injury
Cartilage provides cushioning and shock absorption between
bones. Smooth surface reduces friction in mobile joints
Muscles pull on bones to move skeleton by contracting
(shortening) and lengthening.
Tendons attach muscle to bones. Strong, flexible but not
stretchy. Ex: Achilles
Skin the human shell. Tough, flexible material that waterproofs
the body, protects it from infection and regulates internal
temperature through shivering and sweating
Joints in the Human Body Mobile Joints
Rigid Joints
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 10
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
Materials in a Tree
Topic 4 Structures are designed, evaluated and improved in order to meet human needs
4.1 Building safe structures in all environments
Monitoring structural safety
All structures must be SAFE for humans • look at how frequently a structure fails
• gather data through customer surveys and reported failure
margin of safety the limits Testing for safety needs to be done before a structure is in full
within which safety operation or available on the market
performance is acceptable
• Sometimes we want materials to fail a certain way to be safe. Ex:
cars are designed to crumple upon impact to absorb the shock
Accounting for Environmental Factors
Climate Conditions
• Buildings, bridges, vehicles and other outdoor structures must regularly withstand the forces of the
elements
• Elements: precipitation (snow, rain), wind, extreme heat and cold, humidity and dryness
Terrain conditions Piling
Unstable soils and steep terrain make building stable structures difficult
• Moist soil: water freezes and expands (frost heaving). When the ice melts,
the water drains away leaving holes where the ground settles (potholes).
Can lead to destabilization of house foundations and cracks form
Solution: solid foundation through Pilings and Footings
• Piling large wooden, concrete or metal cylinders that rest on bedrock to
support the load of the structure
• Footing the concrete foundation below a building that is wider than the Footing
foundation at surface level. Why? Spread the load. Wide base = stable
base with load spread out
• Both pilings and footings go in to the ground below the frost line to
minimize frostheaving and shear stresses on buildings from winter to
summer
• Frost line: the point in the soil where it won't freeze in winter
Earthquake risk
• many buildings are situated in
'earthquake zones' around the world
• Earthquakes don't kill people; buildings
do
• buildings in these areas of the world are
designed to withstand the up/down and
sideways motion of earthquakes without
caving in.
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 11
S7 Structures & Forces Notes 1920
4.2 Strengthening a structure to improve function and safety
• The goal of science and technology is to provide solutions to practical problems
• How? Through a trial and error process
test redesign build
test
build and so on...
START: proposed
Problem solution
redesign to
design
improve
test build
prototype prototype
Solving Structural Problems: altering materials
combine materials and components in new arrangements.
Corrugation process of forming
a material into wavelike ridges or
folds
e.g. corrugated cardboard corrugated metal
Lamination
• gluing layers of a material
together to create a strong bond
• laminated materials are stronger
than a single piece of the same Laminated floor automobile safety glass
laminated plywood
material of the same thickness (a.k.a. windshield)
Fabrics
woven non
knit strands are looped back
stretchy, good
and forth to allow for stretch
tensile strength
e.g. tshirts, hoodies, sweaters
e.g. linen, denim,
satin, chiffon
Reinforcement: strengthening component arrangement
• use trusses and arches to strengthen
• reinforce corners of a frame with braces
• use crossbeams
• KEY: Wherever possible, use triangles
to increase support
4.3 Evaluating Designs from an overall perspective
all structures need to answer 'yes' to the question...'Will it do the job I want it to?'
created by K. VandenBerg & L. Drozda 12