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In The Name of
ALLAH
The Most Beneficent
The Most Merciful
14/02/2020
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Physical Properties
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Physical properties

include

the thermal, electrical, magnetic & optical properties

 Physical Properties
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Physical / Thermal properties

 Properties of particular interest in manufacturing
are:
 density
 melting point
 specific heat
 thermal conductivity and expansion
 electrical and magnetic properties
 resistance to oxidation and corrosion
 Physical Properties
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Density
 Density
depends
on weight,
radius and
packing of
the atoms.
 Physical Properties
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Melting point
 Depends on the energy required to separate its
atoms.
 Higher melting point, more difficult the operation.
 Melting points are also related to the rate of
material removal and tool wear.
 Physical Properties
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Specific heat
 Specific heat is the amount of energy that must be added to or
removed from a given mass of material to produce a 1C
change in material.
 It is important in casting or heat treatment
 High temperature will affect the product quality by
a) affecting surface finish and dimensional accuracy
b) causing tool and die wear
c) resulting in metallurgical changes in the material
 Physical Properties
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Thermal conductivity
 Thermal conductivity indicates the rate at which heat flows
within and through the material.

 It is directly proportional to electrical conductivity, metals like Al,

Cu Au have good thermal conductivity

 Alloying elements with difference in thermal conductivities will

have effect on thermal conductivity of alloys.
 Physical Properties
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Thermal expansion
 The linear expansion or contraction per unit length per degree
temperatures between specified lower and upper temperatures.
Or

 Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in

volume in response to a change in temperature
 Coefficient of thermal expansion Materials expand upon heating &
contract on cooling, but the amount vary with materials
 Physical Properties
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Thermal expansion
 Thermal stresses results from expansion and contraction of
components.

 Thermal stresses may also be caused by anisotropy of

thermal expansion of the material.

 Thermal fatigue results from thermal cycling.

 Thermal shock is the development of cracks after a single

thermal cycle.
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ELECTRICAL AND
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
 Electrical and magnetic properties
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Electrical and magnetic properties

 Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well the material
conducts electric current, e.g., Cu, Al

 Electrical resistivity is the inverse of conductivity, and

materials with high resistivity (insulators).

 These properties vary not only with material, but also with temp
& the way the material has been processed

 Superconductivity is where zero electrical resistivity occurs

below a critical temperature.
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STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
 Crystal structures
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 Solid materials may be classified according to the regularity

with which atoms or ions are arranged with respect to one
another.
 A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distances; that is, long-range order exists, such that upon
solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a
repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is
bonded to its nearest-neighbor atoms.
 Crystal structures
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 All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers

form crystalline structures under normal solidification
conditions.
 For those that do not crystallize, this long-range atomic
order is absent; these noncrystalline or amorphous
materials are also discussed briefly later on.
 Some of the properties of crystalline solids depend on the
crystal structure of the material, the manner in which
atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged.
 Space lattice
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 Metallic atoms, on solidification, arrange themselves in a regular three

dimensional pattern.
 The three dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting atoms is
called space lattice, or
 The pattern of points made by the corners of the unit cells when they
are packed together is called the space lattice.
 Three dimensional lattice indicates the external shapes of crystal.
 Unit cell
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 The unit cell is a small box containing one

or more atoms, a spatial arrangement of
atoms. or
 The smallest unit having the full symmetry
of the crystal is called the unit cell.
 The unit cells for each metal is defined by
its lattice parameters, which are
 the edges of the unit cell a, b, c (called
axial lengths) and
 the angles α (between b & c), β
(between a & c) and  (between a & b)
are called interaxial angles.
 Figure: For the face centered
cubic crystal structure,
(a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation,
(b) A reduced-sphere unit cell,
And
(c) an aggregate of many
atoms

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 Unit cell
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 A unit cell is chosen to represent the symmetry of the

crystal structure, wherein all the atom positions in the
crystal may be generated by translations of the unit cell
integral distances along each of its edges.
 Thus, the unit cell is the basic structural unit or building
block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom positions
within.
 Crystal Structures of Metals
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 Metals are characterized by the

 metallic bonds and
 possess the distinguishing characteristics of
 Crystalline structure
 good electrical and thermal conductivity,
 luster,
 the ability to be plastically deformed to a fair degree without
fracturing, and
 a relativity high specific gravity (density) compared to non-
metals.
 strength
 Crystal Structures of Metals
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 When metals solidify, the atoms arrange themselves in a

geometric lattice.
 Many metals exist in only one crystal structure or lattice forms.
 Some metals can exist in solid state in two or more lattice
forms. These metals are said to be allotropic or polymorphic
(poly means “more than one”; morph means “structure”), and
 The change from the one lattice to another is called allotropic
transformation. The most notable example of such a metal is
iron.
 Crystal Structures of Metals
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 3 basic patterns of atomic arrangement in metal:

Body-centered cubic (bcc) Face-centered cubic (fcc) Hexagonal close packed (hcp)
 Crystal Structures of Metals
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 Most commercially important metals solidify into one of

the three lattice types:
 Examples
 Face - centered cubic (FCC): e.g. Ag, Au, Pd, Al, Ca,
Cu, Ni
 Body - centered cubic (BCC): e.g. Cr, Fe, Mn, Nb

 Hexagonal closed - pack (HCP): e.g. Ti, Zn, Mg, Cd, Zr

 Face – centered cubic (FCC crystal structure)
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 In FCC, there is one lattice point at each corner of the cube

and one at the centre of each cube face.
 The atoms in the FCC crystal structure are packed as closed
together as possible.
 Face – centered cubic (FCC crystal structure)
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 Two other important characteristics of a crystal structure are

the coordination number and the atomic packing factor
(APF).
 For metals, each atom has the same number of nearest-
neighbor or touching atoms, which is the coordination number.
 For face-centered cubic, the coordination number is 12. This
may be confirmed by examination of Figure shown previously;
the front face atom has four corner nearest-neighbor atoms
surrounding it, four face atoms that are in contact from behind,
and four other equivalent face atoms residing in the next unit
cell to the front, which is not shown.
 Face – centered cubic (FCC crystal structure)
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 The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within
a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard sphere model) divided
by the unit cell volume—that is

 For the FCC structure, the atomic packing factor is 0.74, which
is the maximum packing possible for spheres all having the
same diameter.
 FCC is the preferred structure for many of the engineering
metals and tend to provide the exceptionally high ductility that
is the characteristic of Al, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Fe (at elevated).
 Body – centered cubic (BCC crystal structure)
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 The unit cell for BCC consists of a sphere (atom) at the centre
of cube with 8 other spheres at the corners of the cube &
touching the central sphere.
 Body – centered cubic (BCC crystal structure)
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 APF for the BCC = 68, i.e. 68 percent of the volume of BCC
unit cell is occupied by atoms and the remaining 32 percent is
empty space.
 Therefore packing is not so close as compared to FCC or HCP.
 Many metals such as iron, Cr, W, Mo and V have the BCC
crystal structure at room temp.
 Compared to materials with other structures, BCC metals
tend to be high strength.
 Body – centered cubic (BCC crystal structure)
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 The coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8;

each center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner
atoms.
 Since the coordination number is less for BCC than FCC, so
also is the atomic packing factor for BCC lower— 0.68 versus
0.74
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ASSIGNMENT # 1
 Assignment # 1 (Due date one week)
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 How many atoms per unit cell of FCC are present?

 How many atoms per unit cell of BCC are present?

 Explain them with the help of suitable diagram.

 THANK YOU FOR YOUR
INTEREST
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