Chapter 9.

Non-Ferrous Materials 
Copper and Copper Alloys75 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys76 Physical Metallurgy of Aluminum7
6 Effect of Alloying Elements on Aluminum77 Effect of Iron77  Effect of Silicon77  Effect of Mangan
ese77  Effect of Magnesium77  Effect of Copper78  Effect of Zinc78  Effect of Chromium78  Effect of 
Zirconium79  Effect of Lithium79  Age Hardenable Alloys79 Nickel and Nickel Alloys81 Titanium an
d Titanium Alloys81  Copper is used for its high electrical and thermal conductivity, good
corrosion resistance, machinability, strength, and ease of fabrication. It can be welded, 
brazed, or soldered. Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc, and bronze refers to any copper alloy
without zinc. Cupronickel alloys contain up to 30% nickel and are always single-phase
alloys. Aluminum is extracted by a smelting process from bauxite. It is a non- ferromagnetic, non-
pyrophoric and non-toxic material, processed by heat treat- ment and work hardening to increase its
strength. Aluminum alloys contain iron, silicon and other two or more elements to enhance their
properties. Nickel is noted for go
+

od corrosion resistance, and is particularly useful in oxi- dizing environments. It forms tough, ductile
solid-solution alloys with many metals. Titanium has a low density compared to steel, giving it an
excellent strength- to-weight ratio. It has excellent corrosion resistance up to 538°C
(1,000°F). Keywords Non-ferrous metal, copper, aluminum, nickel, titanium, alloy, brass,
bronze, cupronickel. 
Copper and Copper Alloys Copper is used for its high electrical and thermal conductivity, good
corrosion resistance, machinability, strength, and ease of fabrication. It can be welded, brazed, or
soldered. Copper used for electrical conductors contains over 99.9% Cu and is identified as either
electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP) copper or oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC) copper. Most copper
alloys are ho- mogeneous, single-phase alloys and are not susceptible to heat treatment. Strength is
increased by alloying or cold-working. Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc. The composition may be
further alloyed with lead, tin, or aluminum. Alpha (α) brass contains up to 36% Zn andhas good
corrosion resistance. Yellow α brasses contain 20 to 36% Zn and have high ductility and strength. They
are susceptible to dezincification and stresscorrosion cracking. Red brasses contain 5 to 20% Zn and
have better corrosion resistance than yellow brasses. Alpha(α) plus Beta(β) brasses contain 54 to 62%
copper and have two phas- es. Muntz metal is the most widely used because it has high strength and
good hot-working properties. Bronze refers to any copper alloy without zinc. Copper alloyed with tin,
silicon, aluminum, and beryllium are common bronze alloys. Cupronickel alloys contain up to 30%
nickel and are always single-phase al- loys. They have high corrosion fatigue resistance. These alloys
also have excel- lent resistance to seawater corrosion.  
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Aluminum is a non-ferromagnetic, non-pyrophoric and non-toxic
material. Its density is 2.7g/cm³, which is about one-third that of steel. Many aluminum al- loys have
better strength-to-weight ratios. Aluminum has good malleability and formability, high corrosion
resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and is non-
sparking. Pure aluminum’s tensile strength is about 90MPa (13,000psi) and it can be alloyed and heat-
treated to increase the strength up to 690MPa (100,000psi). These advantages properties have made alu
minum an important engineering material. Its use has significantly changed several of the engineering
machines and equipment that we use and depend on.
Alu- minum is not naturally available; in nature it is found in its oxide form (Al2O3) and is commonly
called alumina. The extraction process is briefly described below. Aluminum is extracted by a smelting
process from bauxite ore by the Hall- Heroult process which involves electrolyzing a bath to extract
alumina. The bauxite is dissolved in a cryolite bath, with fluoride salts added to control
the temperature. As the electrical current is passed through the bath, the dissolved alumina is
electrolyzed. Oxygen is formed which reacts with the carbon anode, and aluminum as the metal
collects at the cathode. The metal is periodically si- phoned out to crucibles and subsequently cast into
ingots. Aluminum recov- ered by this method is often referred to as primary aluminum. The term
sec- ondary aluminum refers to aluminum which has been recovered from scrap. The ingots are further
processed and refined to meet industrial specifications. 
Plates, sheets, foils and extruded shapes and tubs are some of the end prod- ucts. 
 Physical Metallurgy of Aluminum The physics of aluminum is defined by heat treatment, work
hardening, and the effect of alloying elements. Heat treatment and work hardening are the two primary
methods used to increase the strength of pure aluminum to make it an engineering material with
strength:  • Non-heat treatable alloys are treated by dispersing second-phase con- stituents in solid
solution, and then cold working the alloy • Heat treatable alloys are treated by dispersing the alloying
elements into solid solution, and then precipitating them as coherent submicroscopic particles.  These
can be further studied in detail by reviewing the various phase diagrams of different alloys. 
 Effect of Alloying Elements on Aluminum Aluminum alloys contain iron silicon and two or more
other elements to en- hance its properties. The phase formed and the functions obtained are de- scribed
below.  Effect of Iron Iron is present in all aluminum as an impurity, generally as a leftover from
the smelting process of bauxite. The maximum solubility of iron in aluminum is 0.05%. During the
solidification of an iron-aluminum alloy, most of the iron re- mains in the liquid phase until a eutectic
freezes. This consists of solid
solu- tion plus Al3Fe intermetallic constituent particles with a monoclinic crystal structure. Depending
on the presence of other alloying elements, e.g.,
man- ganese, constituent particles of the metastable orthorhombic Al6Fe phase can form instead of the 
Al3Fe.  
Effect of Silicon  Silicon is also present as an impurity. Two ternary phases, cubic αAl12Fe3Si
and monoclinic βAl9Fe2Si2, are formed by eutectic reaction. At low silicon content, almost all the iron 
is present in the Al3Fe phase. As the silicon level is increased, the αAl-Fe-Si phase appears, followed
by the βAl-Fe-Si phase. In larger amounts, alloyed silicon improves the castability and fluidity of
the alloy. It is a preferred alloy for brazing sheets. The casting alloys contain sil- icon in the range of 5
to 20%. Silicon along with manganese allows for precip- itation hardening – this is the basis of the
6xxx type of aluminum alloy.
  Effect of Manganese Manganese imparts excellent formability to the alloy. During
solidification, some of the manganese (Mn) forms Al6(Mn, Fe) and cubic Al12(Mn,Fe)Si by eutectic
reaction. The remaining Mn remains in solution and is
precipitated during the ingot preheat as Al12(Mn,Fe)Si and Al6(Mn, Fe) dispersoid. These dispersoids
strengthen the alloy and control the recrystallized grain size. The Al-Cu-
Mn alloy precipitates as Al20Cu2Mn3 dispersoid particles. The effect of these on the strength is
minimal but they are helpful in controlling grain size during the solution heat treatment. The 3xxx
types of alloys are an example of Al-Mn alloys. 
 Effect of Magnesium The phase diagram of the aluminum magnesium alloy system (Al-Mg),
indi- cates a positively sloping solvus, which is a necessary condition for a precip- itation hardening
system. The difficulty associated with the nucleation of
face centered cubic (fcc) Al3Mg2 precipitates has prevented the commercialization of a heat treatable
Al+Mg alloy. Class 5xxx wrought and cast alloys are based on this system. They have excel- lent
strength and corrosion resistance, achieved by solid solution strength- ening and work hardening. 
 Effect of Copper During solidification some copper combines chemically with aluminum
and iron to form either tetragonal Al7Cu2Fe or orthorhombic α(Al.Cu,Fe) con- stituent particles. The
subsequent heat treatment cannot dissolve these phases but can transform them from one to another. 
The aluminum and copper alloys that contain magnesium (Mg) form
an Al2CuMg phase by eutectic decomposition. Metastable precursors to face- centered orthorhombic A
l2CuMg precipitate-strengthen the alloy. Wrought and cast 2xxx alloys result from this phase; these
alloys are desired by the aero- space industry for their strength, fracture toughness and resistance to
crack growth.  
Effect of Zinc Aluminum and zinc do not offer much strengthening to alloy, but aluminum, zinc and
magnesium precipitates provide two phases that give them
strength. Depending on the zinc:magnesium ratio, the two phases, hexagonal MgZn2 and bcc Al2Mg3
Zn3 can form by eutectic decomposition in Al-Zn-Mg alloys. The copper-free alloys are strengthened
by a metastable precursor to
either MgZn2 or Al2Mg3Zn3. In alloys with copper, copper and aluminum replace Zn in MgZn2 to for
m Mg(Zn,Cu,Al)2. Al2CuMg particles can also form in these alloys by eutectic de- composition of
solid-state precipitation. Wrought and cast alloys of the 7xxx group are a result of this alloy system.  
Effect of Chromium The solubility of chromium can be reduced to such an extent that
primary particles (Al7Cr) can form by peritectic reaction. These primary particles are harmful to the
ductility fracture toughness and fatigue strength of the material, and so the acceptable upper limit of
chromium is dependent on the levels of other elements in the system. Chromium dispersoids contribute
to strength in the non-heat treatable alloy (of the 5xxx system) that has an fcc structure
in Al18Mg3Cr2 dispersoids. However the alloys that can be heat-treated (e.g. 7xxx) have a dispersoid c
omposition of Al12Mg2Cr.  

Effect of
Zirconium This element forms a peritectic with aluminum. The equilibrium Al3Zr phase is tetragonal
, but fine dispersoids of metastable cubic form during preheating treatment of the ingot. Most of the
 5xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx alloys have
some amounts of zirconium (Zr), usually less than 0.15%, to form an Al3Zr
dispersoid for recrystallization control.
  Effect of Lithium This costly element is used mainly for alloys used in the space industry. It re- duces
the density and increases the modulus of aluminum alloys. In a
binary alloy it forms an Al3Li precipitate and combines with aluminum and copper in an Al-Cu-Li
alloy to form a large number of Al-Cu-Al phases.  
Age Hardenable Alloys The following is a list of age-hardenable aluminum alloys, containing
various combinations of alloying elements:  Wrought alloys Aluminum and copper (Al-Cu) Aluminum,
copper and magnesium (Al-Cu-Mg) Aluminum magnesium and silicon (Al-Mg-Si) Aluminum, zinc
and magnesium (Al-Zn-Mg) Aluminum, zinc, magnesium and copper (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu).  Casting alloys
such as:  Aluminum and silicon (Al-Si) Aluminum, silicon and copper (Al-Si-Cu).  Work hardenable
alloys such as:  Aluminum and magnesium (Al-Mg) Aluminum and manganese (Al-Mn).  To impart
additional properties to aluminum and its alloys, several heat treat- ment and work hardening
processes, or combinations of both, are used. The temper designations that are used to identify the heat
treatment condition for aluminum alloys are listed below:  F=As fabricated O=Annealed and
recrystallized 
H=Strain-hardened W=Solution heat-treated T=Thermally treated.  
Aluminum alloy designations indicate the alloy group, modifications, and heat treatment, where
applicable.
1. Unalloyed pure aluminum is classified as 1xxx, and is primarily used in the electrical and
chemical industries. Other aluminum alloy groups are listed below: 
2.Aluminum-Copper Alloys (2xxx Series) are age hardenable, and include some of the highest
strength aluminum alloys, such as Alloy 2024. With
a yield strength as high as 66ksi (455MPa) its engineering importance is made use of by the aircraft
industry. 
3.. Aluminum-Manganese Alloys (3xxx Series) are not heat treatable, have good formability, good
corrosion resistance, and good weldability. They are useful for architectural and general purpose
applications.
 3. Aluminum-Silicon Alloys (4xxx Series) are not heat treatable, have excel- lent castability and
corrosion resistance. They are used primarily for making welding and brazing consumables. 
4. Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys (5xxx Series) are not heat treatable and have good weldability,
corrosion, resistance, and moderate strength. Their good corrosion resistance to marine environments
makes them a useful material for boat hulls and other applications.
 5. Aluminum-Silicon-Magnesium Alloys (6xxx Series) are artificially aged and have excellent
corrosion resistance and workability. Alloy 6061 is commonly used for structural applications. 
6. Aluminum-Zinc Alloys (7xxx Series) develop the highest tensile strengths but are susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking. Yield strengths
exceeding 500MPa (73ksi) are achievable; this material is used for high strength appli- cations
including aircraft structures.  Aluminum is available in cast and wrought form for various applications.
The principal alloying element determines the wrought and cast aluminum desig- nation system as
discussed above. They are also designated based on the
temper, for both cast and wrought forms. The basic designations are similar to those discussed above.
The designations are repeated below:  FAs Fabricated OAnnealed HStrained Hardened WSolution
Annealed TSolution Heat-Treated  The system designation ‘T’ is further expanded to include different
levels of heat treatment; from T1 to T6. The strain hardened designation is also further divided into the
following grades:  H1Strained Hardened only H2Strained Hardened and Partially Annealed H3Strained 
Hardened and Stabilized H4Strained Hardened and Lacquered or Painted  
Nickel and Nickel Alloys Nickel is noted for good corrosion resistance, and is particularly useful in
oxi- dizing environments. It forms tough, ductile solid-solution alloys with many metals. Its
mechanical properties are similar to those of mild steel, as it retains strength at elevated temperatures
while also maintaining ductility and tough- ness at low temperatures. Nickel-Copper alloys such as
Cupro-Nickel have excellent corrosion resistance in a wide variety of environments and may be used at
temperatures up to 815°C (1,500°F). Nickel-Silicon alloys such as Hastelloy-D are strong, tough, and
extremely hard. They have excellent corrosion resistance in sulfuric acid at high
temper- atures. Nickel-Chromium-Iron alloys combine the corrosion resistance, strength, and toughness
of nickel with the high temperature oxidation resistance of chromi- um. 
Nickel-Molybdenum-Iron alloys such as Hastelloy-B have high corrosion resis- tance to hydrochloric,
phosphoric, and other non-oxidizing acids. Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum alloys such as Hastelloy-C
have high corro- sion resistance to oxidizing acids, good high temperature properties, and are resistant
to oxidizing and reducing atmospheres up to 1,093°C (2,000°F). 
 Titanium and Titanium
Alloys The density of Ti is about 0.16lb/in³ compared to steel’s 0.28lb/in³. This high- lights the
excellent strength-to-weight ratios of titanium alloys. Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance up to
538°C (1,000°F). Alloying elements influ- ence the alpha-to-beta transition temperature and so are
referred to as either alpha or beta stabilizers. Single-phase alloys are weldable and have good
duc- tility. Some two-phase alloys are also weldable but experience loss of ductility. Two-phase alloys
can be strengthened by heat treatment.