The photoelectric effect

■ When a metal surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, electrons are emitted from the
surface (photoelectric effect).
■ Classical wave theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect.
■ Einstein proposed a particle model of electromagnetic radiation to explain the photoelectric
effect.
■ 1 electronvolt (eV) is the energy transformed by an electron as it moves through a p.d. of 1V.

Investigating the photoelectric effect

■ The photoelectric effect can be investigated by measuring the photoelectric current when the
frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation is varied.
■The stopping potential can be used to determine the work function of the metal
■ The Planck constant can be determined from the data obtained from photoelectric effect
experiments.
■ Φ = hf = (hc)/λ
0 o

■ hf = Φ + 1/ 2 mv = Φ + eVs
2

Millikan's oil drop experiment

■ Millikan's experiments showed that electric charge is quantised.

■ electric charges are integral multiples of a unique elementary charge e.
■The magnitude of the fundamental charge e = 1.6 x 10 C.19

Emission and absorption spectra

■ A line emission spectrum is a series of discrete bright lines on a dark background.
■ A line absorption spectrum is a continuous bright spectrum crossed by dark lines.
■ Line spectra provide evidence for discrete energy levels in isolated atoms.
■ Each line represents a photon of a specific energy. The photon is emitted or absorbed as a
result of an energy change of an electron. Specific energies (lines) are observed, therefore there
are discrete energy levels.
■ E - E = hf is used to calculate the frequency of an emitted photon when an electron undergoes
2 1

an energy change from E to E

2 1

Wave-particle duality
■ Wave-particle duality refers to the idea that light and matter have both wave and particle
properties.
■ de Broglie stated that the wavelength of a particle is given by λ = h/p
■ Electron diffraction provides evidence that particles are able to behave as waves.
■ Interference and diffraction provide evidence for the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation.
■ The photoelectric effect provides evidence for the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation

X-rays

■ X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal surface with electrons that have been accelerated
through a large potential difference.
■ The typical spectrum of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube consists of a continuous distribution
of wavelengths and a series of sharp high-intensity lines.
■ The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as it passes through matter.
■ X-rays are used to obtain shadow pictures of internal structures of the body, three-dimensional
images using CT scanners and in radiotherapy in the treatment of cancers.
■ I=I exp (-μx)
0
Atomic structure
■ In J. J. Thomson's model the atom is a positive sphere with negative electrons distributed
throughout it.
■ The alpha-scattering experiments provided evidence against this 'plum pudding’ model.
■ In Rutherford's model the nucleus is very small and positively charged with electrons orbiting
around it.
■ In Niels Bohr's model of the atom electrons orbit the small positively charged nucleus but
occupy discrete energy levels.

Nuclear reactions
■ Nuclear fission is an induced process whereby an unstable nucleus is bombarded by a neutron.
The nucleus splits into two or more stable fragments as well as several neutrons.
■ Nuclear fusion is the process whereby light nuclei become more stable by combining with
other light nuclei to form a heavier stable nucleus, accompanied by the release of energy.
■ Nucleon number, proton number and energy are conserved in nuclear reactions.

Binding energy

■ The energy required to completely separate the nucleons of a nucleus is called the binding
energy of the nucleus.
■ The binding energy per nucleon is equal to the binding energy of the nucleus divided by the
total number of nucleons.
■ Energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission.
■ Energy is released when light nuclei undergo fusion.
■ ΔE = Δmc2
Radioactivity

■ Radioactive decay is the spontaneous and random process whereby an unstable nucleus
attempts to become stable by disintegrating into another nucleus and emitting any one or more of
the following: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays.
■ Random nature: the decay is unpredictable. It is impossible to predict which nucleus will decay
next or when.
■ Spontaneous nature: the decay process is not affected by conditions external to the nucleus
(e.g. temperature and pressure).
■ A G-M tube, cloud chamber or spark counter can be used to detect ionising radiation.

■ Background radiation is random radioactivity detected from the surroundings.

Types of radiation
■ Three types of ionising radiation are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
■ An alpha-particle is a helium nucleus.
■ A beta-particle is a fast-moving electron.
■ gamma-rays consist of high-energy electromagnetic waves.
■ alpha-particles are the strongest ioniser and gamma-rays are the weakest ioniser.
■ alpha-particles are stopped by a thin sheet of paper (2 mm).
■ beta-particles are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium (1-10 mm).
■ gamma-rays are the most penetrating but most of the radiation is stopped by a sheet of lead.
■ alpha-particles and beta-particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
■ gamma-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
■ The intensity of gamma-rays from a point source is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the source.
Radioactive decay
■ Mass number and atomic number are conserved in nuclear reactions.
■ The activity A of a radioactive sample is the number of nuclei decaying per second.
■ The activity of a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of nuclei present in the
sample.
■ The decay constant A is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
■ The half-life of a radioactive substance is the average time taken for the number of undecayed
nuclei to decrease to half of its initial value.
■ Radioactive decay can be expressed mathematically by x = x e^-λt.0

■ Half-life and decay constant are related by the equation t = ln2/λ

1/2

Measuring half-life
■ The half-life of radon-220 can be determined experimentally. The count rate is measured over
a period of time.
■ The half-life can be measured by measuring the average time taken for the activity to decrease
by half its initial value.
■ The half-life can also be calculated from the gradient of a suitably plotted straight line.
Uses of radioisotopes
■ Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different mass
number.
■ Radioisotopes have many uses such as radioactive dating, tracers, thickness control, imaging,
smoke detectors and cancer treatment.