NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY

BHOPAL

PROJECT

ON

History – ii

Semester - iii

B.A.L.L.B (HONOURS)

TOPIC – research on chola administration

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

Prof. Uday Pratap Singh Ajit jaiswal

2019BALLB83

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude and deep regards to my teacher for history subject Prof. Uday Pratap
Singh for giving me such a challenging topic and also for his exemplary guidance,
monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this thesis.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to my seniors in the college
for their cordial support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing
this task through various stages.

I am obliged to the staff members of the Gyan Mandir, for the timely and valuable
information provided by them in their respective fields. I am grateful for their cooperation
during the period of my assignment.

Lastly, I thank almighty, my family and friends for their constant encouragement without
which this assignment would not have been possible.

AJIT JAISWAL

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the research paper on RESEARCH ON CHOLA
ADMINISTRATION has been prepared and submitted by AJIT JAISWAL, who is
currently pursuing his BALLB. (Hons.), National Law Institute University, Bhopal in
fulfillment of HISTORY-II course. It is also certified this is original research.

Signature of the student ……………………………

Signature of the research supervisor …………………………..

Review of Literature
  RISE OF THE CHOLAS APOCALYPSE : - Rajaraja Cholan, a former ruler of an
ancient, powerful empire in India, learned of a prophecy that foretold the apocalypse.
The prophecy declared that a black hole would come hurtling toward Earth at nearly
the speed of light and that there was no hope for mankind to survive the event.
Springing into action, the king declared that his son Rajendra Cholan would take the
throne of the Chola Dynasty.
 SOUTH INDIA UNDER THE CHOLAS - This book explores different aspects of
state-society interactions in medieval south India under the reign of the Cholas.
Divided into two parts-Epigraphy and History, and State and Society-the first
provides an in-depth analysis of Tamil epigraphy and inscriptions.

Hypothesis

The probable outcome of this research will be the detailed study of the Chola Kingdom, their
various sources of information and the rulers of this kingdom. And how they left a lasting
legacy in the field of Tamil literature and architecture.

Statement of Problem

The one of the basic problem which is assumed to be solved in this research paper is to how
caste didn’t remained as a bar in the society and people can do change their profession, how
was the condition of women in this kingdom and also how the Cholas were not swayed away
by the rise of Buddhism and Jainsim.

Research Methodology

The project is basically based on the doctrinal method of research.

Aims & Objectives

 To present a detailed study of ‘The Chola Administration’ through available texts and
different writings, articles & sources.
 To know more about the administrative procedures of Cholas Empire, their
functioning and government.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………5-6

2. Sources of Information……………………………………………………………..7-9

3. The Rulers of Chola Dynasty……………………………………………………...9-12

4. The Chola Administration…………………………………………………………...13

4.1 The Central Administration…………………………………………………13-16

4.2 The Provincial Administration………………………………………………16-18

4.3 The Local Administration…………………………………………………...18-19

5. Social, Economic & Religious Conditions of Cholas……………………………20-23

6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..24-25

7. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………26
INTRODUCTION
India, having a vast history ranging from ancient times to the modern time, have
witnessed reigns of various dynasties from time to time and from one to another region. One
of such empires of the Southern India were of the CHOLAS which was also called
CHOLAMANDALAM or Coromandel, which emerged in the early medieval or later ancient
period of Indian history.

The Chola Dynasty was said to belong to the 9th century AD but the historicity of the
early Cholas is a bit doubtful. For the Chola period, there are many sources but mainly we get
references from the Sangam texts1 which is said to be compiled during 4th century BC and
mainly refers about the administration and functioning of Chola government. Also we get
references of chola empire in the works of Katyayan , in Ashokan inscriptions. The Periplus2
gives us information about the ports and inland towns of the chola territory. The sources of
information for this dynasty are going to be discussed in detail.

The Chola Dynasty, a Tamil dynasty, ruled primarily in southern India until the
thirteenth century. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley
of the Kaveri River. It laid north and south between the two
rivers, PENNAR and VELLARU. The Chola territories
stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far
North as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.
Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed
parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives.

The history of the Cholas falls naturally into four periods: the early Cholas of the
Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the
medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the
Chalukya Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh
century.3 Karikala Chola4 stands as the most famous among the early Chola kings, while
Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I ruled as notable emperors of the
medieval Cholas. The Cholas reached the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh and

1
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 106
2
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Ancient History source book).
3
The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to a bloody end with the assassination of
Virarajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I a distant relation to the main Chola line through marriage ascended the
throne in 1070.
4
Majumdar, p 137
twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola,
the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. Rajendra Chola sent a
victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler
of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.

The notable cities of the Cholas were Tanjore, Trichanapolis, Kumbakonam. The
capital of the Chola empire was Gangaikondacholapuram which was built by Rajendra-I who
took the title of Gangaikondachola which means the conqueror of Ganga. This capital is said
to have existed between 11 and 12 century AD. The two centres of this period which depict
the very evidence of the Chola rule was PUHAR on the coast and the PURAIYUR island.

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India came, for the first time, brought
under a single government5, when a reform movement attempted to face and solve the
problems of public administration. The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and
commerce. The Chola rule witnessed a large scale development in all spheres of life.
Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples, literature and monuments speak much about the
social, economic and religious life of the people during the Chola period. The Chola kings
followed a highly systematised and efficient system of administration. The people of the
Chola Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration. The administration of the
Chola empire is going to be described in the subsequent chapters.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

5
The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence
occured during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1614)
About the Cholas, we came to know with the help of different kinds of Sources. Historians
during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of
sources such as ancient literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple, monuments and
copperplate inscriptions. In detail, they are-

Historical Sources

History of any society or kingdom can be written only with the help of available relevant
source materials. Lot of inscriptions, archaeological and literary sources are available for the
study of the history of the Cholas.

Literature: Great literature like Mahavamsam6 talks about the early Cholas. Foreign visitors
like Megasthenes, give useful information about the early Cholas. The inscriptions of Ashoka
and many contemporary sources talk about the early Chola rule. The Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea present brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and
commerce. Periplus represents a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the
time of Domitian (81 – 96 C.E.) and contains minimal information of the Chola country.
Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolem7y gives more detail about the Chola
country, its port and its inland cities.

Inscriptions: Inscriptions are the main sources of information for the history of the Chola
period. Inscriptions were placed on the walls of the temples and pillars. This is amply
illustrated in the Brahadeeswarar temple at Tanjore known as “Big temple”. Many important
inscriptions are found in Cuddalore, Villupuram, Trichy, Tanjore, Chidambaram,
Kumbakonam and Nagapattinam,

The stone inscription gives us useful information about the administration of the Chola rulers.
Thiruvandhipuram inscriptions speak about the reign of Rajendra III. The Uttaramerur
inscriptions give information’s about the kudavolai system, village administration, taxation
and land revenue. Meikirthis are also found in inscriptions Anbil plates, the Kanyakumari
stone inscription, Karanthai plates and Thiruvalangadu copper plates give useful
information’s about the Cholas.

6
Wilhelm Geiger, THE MAHAVAMSA 6th Century B.C.E. to 4th Century AD , translated from the
Palilakdiva.org.
7
Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form Khaberis) - Proceedings, American
Philosophical Society 122 (6) (1978).
Monuments: Monuments are useful source of information of the Chola empire.The
Brahadeeswarar temple of Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, Airavateesvarar
temple of Dharasuram and the Kambagareswarar temple in Thirupuvanam are some of the
important monuments of the Cholas.

Numismatic Sources

The Chola kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Specimen of gold coins is extremely
rare. Silver and copper coins are found in plenty.
Figure of tiger was engraved as the Chola emblem on every Chola coin issued during that
period. Names of the Chola Kings are also engraved on chola coins. Chola Coins is useful to
fix the chronology of the Chola rulers. Coins are also useful to study the social and economic
condition of the Chola period.

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola

found in Sri Lanka showing the
Tiger emblem of the Cholas

Literature

Literature sources are very useful for the study of both Sangam Cholas and later Cholas.
Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam deals with the life of Saiva devotees. Sekkilar was a contemporary
of Kulothunga II Kalingathuparani of Jayamkondan, three Ulas and the Kulothungan pillai
tamil of Ottakoothar give useful information’s about the Cholas. Other literary works like
Veerasoliyam. Sthalapuranam. Navachola charitham and Cholavamsa charitham speak about
the early Cholas.

Foreign sources

Mahavamsam the Ceylon literature talks about the relationship between the early Chola
country and Ceylon kingdom. European traveler Marcopolo and foreign writer Megasthanese
give interesting information’s about the Cholas. Al-beruni a Muslim historian writes about
the Cholas.

THE RULERS OF CHOLA DYNASTY

There are descriptions of various rulers belonging to the Chola Dynasty, there is a long
lineage but many of them didn’t get much recognition. The Sangam literature also testifies
the rule of several Chola rulers. The first ruler is said to be the feudatories of Pallavas of
Kanchi, he was Vijalaya Chola.

Vijayalaya: (850-870 AD). In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya8 founded the dynasty probably by
starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the conflict between Pallavas and Pandyas,
Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his capital and thus, was also called the master of
Tanjore. He was succeeded by his son Aditya-I.

Aditya-I: He defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana, the Kongu
ruler.He was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I.

Parantaka-I: He ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached supremacy under his
reign. He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon conquered the Vadumbas. He swept
away all the traces of Pallavas power, but received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.

Sunder Chola: He ruled between 957-973 AD. Not much information is available about him.
He is succeeded by Rajaraja-I.

Rajaraja Chola: (985-1014 AD). He was the one of the imperialistic and greatest rulers of
South India. He was known as ‘Rajaraja, the Great’. Under the rule of Rajaraja, the Chola
kingdom grew into an extensive and well knit pire. It maintained
diplomatic ties with countries as distant as Burma (now Myanmar),
China and Malaysia across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja I with the help
of his able son Rajendra conquered nearly the whole of the present

8
The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga
Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna.
Madras Presidency. He defeated the eastern Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and
the Gangas of Mysore. He was an able administrator and also a great builder. Rajaraja chola
built a magnificent temple at Tanjore, which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.

Rajendra-I9: He ruled between 1014-1044.He built a new capital ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’

and hence acquired the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’. He set up Vaishnava centre and the
Vedic college for teaching Vedas. He had a friendly relationship with the China emperor, and
had a peaceful reign of 32 years. He extended the territory inherited from his father, and
subdued the power of Pandyas and Keralas. During Rajendra Chola reign the kingdom was
called the "Golden Age of Cholas." After his death the Chola kingdom began to decline. His
successors were weak and so the kingdom started disintegrating.

The next ruler Rajendra-II (1052-1064 AD) just managed to maintain the Chola empire
though he had to struggle with the troubling Chalukyas.

Vira Rajendra: Vira Rajendra (1064 - 1070 AD) was the elder brother of Rajendra-II. He
succeeded his brother to reign for the next seven years. He met the invasion of Chalukya
King and defeated the Chalukya ruler. He reconquered Vengi and foiled the efforts of
Vijayabahu of Ceylon who was trying to drive the Cholas out of Ceylon. Soon after the death
of Vira Rajendra in 1070 AD, there was a contest for the throne and Adhi-Rajendra, the heir
apparent took the throne.

Kulottunga-I: Rajendra-II succeeded Adhirajendra under the title Kulottunga Chola.

Pandyas and Chera's attack were put down by Kulottunga10.
The southern Kalinga revolt were put down too. In about 1118
AD, the Viceroy of Vengi - the Vikramaditya VI took control
of Vengi from Chola and thus succeeded in separating the
Cholas from the Eastern Chalukyas.

Gangavadi and Nolambavadi were lost to Hoysala's

Vishnuvardhana.

9
Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V
prisoner. See Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 194–210.
10 a b
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India
Vikrama Chola: (1120-1135 AD). The next successor, the son of Kulottunga-I restored the
Chola power by reconquering Vengi and by taking control of part of Gangavadi. His reign
was somewhat peaceful to his subjects though there were floods and famines in the South
Arcot. The Hoysala expansion took control of Chola power slowly and subsequently.

The last rulers namely Kulottunga - II, Rajaraja - II, Rajadhiraja - III could not stop
the Hoysalas annexation of Chola Kingdom. Cholas hold on Pandyan kingdom had already
weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava chief declared independence. The Kakatiyas and
Hoysalas partitioned among themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire
ceased to exist for ever.

THE GENEOLOGICAL TABLE

 Vijayalaya

Aditya-I

Parantaka-I

Rajaditya-I Arinjaya

Parantaka-
II

Aditya-II Rajaraja-I

Dau.
Rajendra-I
Kundavva

Rajadhiraja Rajendradeva-II Virarajendra Dau. Ammangadevi

-I

Rajamahendra Adhi- Rajendra-

Rajendra III

Mummadi- Vikrama
Rajaraja Vira Chola
Chola Chola

Kulottunga
chola

THE CHOLA ADMINISTRATION

 The Chola kings followed a highly systematised and efficient system of’
administration. The details of this administration were based primarily on literary sources.
The form of government was usually hereditary which was occasionally modified by the
ruling kings choice as ‘Yuvaraj’. The coronation was celebrated with ‘pomp and show’ at
different places like Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, and other places. The entire Tanjore
district, parts of’Trichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of’ the Chola
Mandalam. Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire embraced the entire south Indian
peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north by an
irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a
separate political existence, its intimate connection to the Chola Empire extended, for all
practical purposes, the Chola dominion to the banks of the Godavari river11. Tanjore was the
capital of the Cholas.

The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central Government,
Provincial Government and Local Government. The efficient Chola administrative system
has been well appreciated by many historians and rulers.

1. The Central Administration

The Central Government remained under the headship of the King. Administration of Chola
dynasty was monarchical12. The king was a benevolent dictator and the supreme commander.
He issued oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. In
the tasks of administration and in executing his orders a powerful bureaucracy assisted the
king. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of
Central Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower officials
were called Siruntaram. The justice of the orders of the King depends on the goodness of
the man and in his belief in a sense of righteousness. UDAN-KUTTAM were the high
officials of the state and they served as the intermediaries between the king and the regular
Bureaucrats. KANKANIS were the supervisors who are the agents of central department of
control and audit. They also served as a check on the officers of various departments in each

11
Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 448
12
Kulke and Rothermund, p 104
locality. As regards the methods of appointment including the promotions of these officers,
we have very less information.

Role of the King in Chola Administration

The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queens were
considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The Chola kingship
was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle that eldest son should succeed
the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs
enjoyed enormous powers and privileges. The Chola kings took up titles like Chakrvartigal
(or Chakravarti). which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. The
palace servants were called as ‘Vellams’ and they were settled in separate quarters in the city.
Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem. The Chola kings built temples and endowed
them with great wealth13. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres
of economic activity, benefiting their entire community14.

All handles and levers of the administration were controlled by King as he enjoyed
absolute power. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the
administration of Central Government. The Chola administration system was a highly
centralised one. The feudal chiefs were kept away from administration. The government had
a direct link with the peasants instead of the feudatories. The Chola kings had adopted the
Yuvaraja during king’s rule. The orders of the kings were written and copies of it would be
sent to respective departments and officers. The royal priest was the reliable advisor of the
King.

Law and Order Under Cholas

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. The Chola king was the chief
justice. The Chola kings gave enough care for the judicial administration. Justice was
administered through village courts, royal courts and caste panchayats. Minor disputes were
settled at the village level. Village assemblies exercised large powers in deciding local
disputes. Punishment was in the form of fines or donation for some charitable purpose.
Crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such
13
Vasudevan, pp 20–22
14
Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the
wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and
contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. – Keay, pp 217–218
as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases
was either execution or confiscation of property. Disputes were settled with proper evidences.
Punishments were awarded by the judicial officers.

Military Administration of Cholas

The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola army consisted of elephant,
cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training. Commanders enjoyed the ranks of
NAYAKS and SENAPATHIS. KARUMIGAL and PANI-MAKKAL are the general terms
given to the officials. The exact functions of the officials are not given in the records. The
army was divided into 70 regiments. The Chola army had 60,000 elephants. The Chola kings
defeated the Cheras at Kandalur salai. The kings of Ceylon and Maldives were also defeated.
The Chola navy was formidable one in South India. With the help of their navy the Cholas
controlled Coromandal and Malabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola lake. The Chola
army and navy together had 1,50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary chieftains
also joined Chola army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was led by the King or
Yuvaraja. The king was the commander of army and navy which acted under his instructions.
They helped the king in temple protection and revenue collection other than participating in a
war.

Revenue System under Cholas

The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola Government. Proper
land survey was made. ‘PURAVU-VARI-TINAIK-KALAM’, this is the term given for Land
Revenue Department, which is mentioned in the literary evidences. Agriculture was the
principle occupation of the people, the land tax was termed as ‘IRAI-KUDIGAL’. The taxes
were collected in cash or kind which was the chief source of revenue.

Lands were classified as taxable land and non taxable land. There were many grades
in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed according to these grades. Generally 1/6 of the
land yield was collected as tax either in cash or in kind or both according to the convenience
of the farmers. Besides land revenue, there were some other sources of income like customs
and tolls. Taxes on mines, ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax and
house tax were also collected. Many other taxes were levied. Tax burden was more on the
society. State revenue was utilized in public works, in construction, maintenance of
institutions and temples. In the village and town, the residential part of the village , temples,
tanks, burning grounds and others were exempted from all taxes. Many irrigation projects
were undertaken by the Chola kings like dam construction. Lake Cholagangam was an
artificial reservoir build during the Chola rule. The village assemblies were responsible to the
central government for the payment of the land revenue.

Foreign trade

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence
overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the ninth century, southern India
had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, possessing parts of
both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, stood at the forefront of those ventures.

A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild
Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and
the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country15. The inscription
dated 1088, indicating an active overseas trade during the Chola period. Local organisation of
merchants were called as NAGARAM. The rate of interest on loans was usually twelve and a
half percent per annum, though, fifteen percent in many cases was also known.

2. The Provincial Administration

Chola kingdom was divided into provinces (mandalam), their being generally eight or
nine of these. Each MANDALAM was divided into VALANADUS (or districts). These in
turn were subdivided into groups of villages, variously called KURRAM, NADU, or
KOTTAM. Occasionally a very large village would be administered as a single unit and this
was called TANIYUR. The administrative unit was the village and to that extent there was a
little significant difference between Chola administration and that of the Guptas. However,
the nature of the village administration was certainly of a very different order. The degree of
autonomy at village level was something quiet remarkable for the times. Chola officials
participated in village affairs more as advisors and observers than as administrators.

The basic assumption in the type of village autonomy emerging at this period was that
each village should be administered by the villagers themselves. For the purpose a village
assembly was formed, and authority was vested in this assembly.
15 a b
Kulke and Rothermund, p 118
General Assemblies

The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three categories:
the UR consisted of the tax paying residents of an ordinary village; the SABHA was
restricted to the Brahmans of the village or else was found exclusively in villages gifted to
Brahmans; and finally, the NAGARAM was found more commonly in trade centers. In some
villages the Ur and the Sabha were found together. Very large villages had two Urs if this
was more convenient for their functioning. The working of these assemblies differed
according to local conditions. The Ur was open to all male adults of the village but in affect
the older members took a more prominent part, some of them forming a small executive body
for routine matters. The Sabha had the same system and in addition had the power to
constitute smaller committees of any size from among its members.

Generally mandalams or provinces were named after the original names or the titles of
the Chola kings. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close relatives of kings were
appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant touch with the Central Government.
Viceroys received orders from the king. They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had
a large number of officials to assist them in the work of administration.

There were officials of various grades organized in higher and lower ranks. Every village
was a self-governing unit. The general assembly was classified into tax paying villagers,
Brahmins and traders. The central government officers examined accounts and supervised the
work of the tax paying villagers. The village assemblies received gifts from rich men or from
king for developmental activities. The feudatories were unable to impede in the village
management. Their job was very clerical in the sense it was a mere collection of taxes and
passing the share to the King. The land revenue was core of public finance, thereby
assessment of revenue being done carefully. Rajaraja I had introduced periodical land
surveys. Tax exemptions were carefully noted. The village as a whole was responsible for
payment of entire tax of a village. The other revenue sources were professional tax, salt tax,
tax on goods and so on.

3. Local Administration
 The most important feature of the Chola administration was the local administration at
districts, towns and villages level. Uttaramerur inscriptions speak much about the Chola
administration. Village autonomy was the most unique feature of Chola administrative
system.

Nadu

Nadu was one of the important administrative units of the Cholas. Nadus had
representative assemblies. The heads of the nadus were called Nattars. The council of nadu
was called nattavai. Representatives of the Nattavais and nattars promoted agriculture. They
also took care of the protection of the people and tax collection.

Village administration

The lowest unit of the Chola administration was the village unit. The entire
responsibility of the village administration was in the hands of the village assembly called
Grama Sabha. The village assemblies looked after the maintenance of peace, tanks, roads,
public ponds revenue collection, judiciary, education and temples. The village assemblies
were in charge of the payment of taxes due from the villages to the treasury. They regulated
public markets and helped people at times of famine and flood. Assemblies provided
provisions for education. The village assemblies possessed absolute authority over the affairs
of villages. They maintained law and order in every village. Brahmin settlement was called
Chathurvedi mangalam.

Variyams

Village Assemblies carried on village administration effectively with the help of

variyams. Male members of the society were the members of these variyams. Composition of
these variyams, qualification and durations of membership differed from village to village.
There were many variyams in every village. Niyaya variyam administered justice,
Thottavariyam looked after flower gardens. The Dharma variyam looked after charities and
temples. Erivariyam was in charge of tanks and water supply. The pon variyam was in charge
of the finance. The Gramakariya variyam looked after the works of all committees. The
members of these varivams were known as “Varivaperumakkal They rendered honorary
service. The village officials were paid salary either in cash or in kind. Good functioning of
these variams increased the efficiency of the local administration of the Cholas.

Kudavolai System

Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about Kudavolai system. This system was a very notable
and unique feature of the village administration of the Cholas. There were 30 wards in each
village. A representative for each ward was elected through Kudavolai system. Names of the
contestants from whom one could be chosen were written on palm leaf tickets. These palm
leaves were put into a pot and shuffled. A small boy picked up palm leaves one by one from
the pot. Persons whose name tickets were picked up by the boy were declared elected. Like
that 30 members for thirty wards were elected. This kind of peculiar election system was
called kudavolai system. Out of the thirty elected members, twelve members were appointed
to the Annual committee, twelve members were appointed as the members of the Garden
committee and six members to the Tank committee.

Members of the standing committee and a Gold committee were also elected.
Qualification of the members was given. A person who could be chosen through Kudavolai
system must have age from 35 to 70. He should possess one veli land and of a house built in
a taxable land on his own site. He should have knowledge about vedas and mantras. Persons
who killed brahmins or women or cow or children were disqualified. Thieves, drunkards and
people who had undergone punishments were also disqualified from contesting election from
kudavolaisystem.

The people of the Chola Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration.
Historians like K.A.Neelakanda Sastri appreciates the administrative efficiency of the Chola
kings. The best aspects of the Chola administration were followed by the rulers of the later
period.
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS OF CHOLAS

The Chola rule witnessed a large scale development in all spheres of life. Writings of
historians, inscriptions, temples, literature and monuments speak much about the social,
economic and religious life of the people during the Chola period. Professor K.A.Neelakanda
Sastri writes about socio economic and religious life of the people of the Chola period.
Economic prosperity, the benevolent attitude and religious faiths of the Chola kings were the
main factors which contributed more for these developments.

Social Condition

The Chola society was peaceful one. There were different sections in society. At the
same time, the society was based as Varnasrama”. According to the Varnasrama, society was
divided into four major divisions namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The
poor and unprivileged people lived in slums. Bonded laborers were also there. Professionals
like carpenters, weavers, blacksmiths, masons, goldsmiths also lived there. Slavery also
existed. There were several grades among the slaves. The details about the sale of slaves are
recorded in the inscriptions. Greater social freedom prevailed among the upper classes.

Valangai and Idankai groups

Valankai and Idankai caste groups were also there. 98 castes formed part of Valangai
(right hand) group and there were 98 castes in the Idangai (left hand) group. There were
disputes among these groups. Valangai group enjoyed more concessions from the
Government and privileges in the society. They had the privilege of using palanquins.
Women of Valangai group rounded the upper cloth across the right shoulder. The Idangai
group was considered socially inferior. They did not enjoy any rights. They paid heavy taxes.
In spite of these social divisions there was social harmony.

Education

Chola Kings gave importance for the development of education. There were Veda
padasalas, Buddha viharas and Jain pallis. During the reign of Rajendra I, two colleges were
there at Rajarajachaturvedi Mangalam and Tribhuvanam. The mutt of Thiruvavaduturai had
run a school of medicine. Apart from the medical and religious education, general education
was also imparted. Scholarships were given to students.

Status of Women

Women were given high status and freedom in the Chola society. Chastity and modesty were
considered important. The women of upper classes enjoyed the right to property. Some
queens were associated with the admimstration of the kingdom. Queens gave liberal
donations to temples. Queen Sembian Mahadevi and Kundavai were patrons of temples.
Monogamy was prevalent in society. Less skilled jobs were given to female laborers.

During the Chola period Sati was commonly practiced among the women of royal family.
Women were also appointed as officers in the Chola Government. There were child
marriages among the higher castes. Women who were talented in music and dance were
attached to the temples. They performed programs during festival times. There were also
women slaves. Writings of Morcopolo and some inscriptions speak about the position of
women during the Chola period.

Economic Conditions Under Cholas

The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and commerce. Income through agriculture
yield, land tax, trade tax and other taxes were main revenue of the Government. King was the
owner of all public land. Special officers were appointed to look into the income and
expenditure of the state. Government money was spent on public works, defense, justice,
education, temples, irrigation, police, king and his households, secretariat etc., The Chola
kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Merchant guilds were functioning to take care for
the welfare of the merchants and commerce. The Chola economy mainly depended on
agriculture and trade. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The ownership of
the land had a high social value. The landlords were members of the village administrative
units. Generally the economic condition of the people during the Chola period was good.

Foreign Trade

According to information’s given by writer’s like Ibin Batuta and Morcopolo, the Cholas had
trade relationship with China and other South East Asian countries. Elephants, cardamom,
cotton, textile were exported. Arabian horses were imported. Mahabalipuram,
Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai were Chola ports which were useful for foreign trade. The
liberal taxation policies of King Kulothunga I encouraged both internal and foreign trade.
Internal and foreign trade led to the economic, cultural and religious developments in Chola
territory.

Religious Conditions Under Cholas

Chola kings were saivites. They worshiped Lord Siva. They built many Siva temples.
Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajendra King Gandraditya and his
queen Sembiyan madevi contributed more for the development
of Saivism and Bakthi literature. Parantaka I covered the Siva
temple with gold at Chidambaram. King Rajaraja I Built
Brahadeeswarar temple (big temple) at Tanjore. Rajendra-I
Constructed Siva temple at Polonaaruva in Ceylon and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Lands, Jewels and vessels were
donated to these temples.

Chola Kings were tolerant towards other religions. Vishnu worship was also there. Chola
rulers supported the spread of Vaishnavisim Saint Ramanujar was the contemporary of Chola
Kings. Thiruvalangadu copper plates. Karanthai plates and Anbil plates talk about the
religious conditions of the Chola period. Masimaham Mahamaham, Karthigai, Thaipusam
Sivarathri, Chithiraivizha, Aipasivizha were important festivals celebrated during the Chola
period. Tanjore, Kumbakonam, Avudaiyarkoil, Kalahasti Tirukadaiyur and Kanchipuram
were important temple cities. Bakthi songs were sung in all temples. Some people followed
Buddhism and Jainism

Temples acted as centers of learning also. Temples helped the

development of painting dance and music. Nambi Andar Nambi
compiled the hymns of Saiva saints Nathamunigal compiled the
hymns of Vaishnava saints. Scenes of Periyapuranam portraits of
Lord Siva were themes of the paintings on the walls of temples.
Bharatha natyam and Kathakali dances were performed in
temples at the time of festival times.
The economic prosperity and religious contributions increased
the standard of life and aloes of the Chola society. By building
many temples and mutts, the Chola kings contributed for the development of culture, art and
architecture. The royal patronage increased the influence of Hinduism more. The temples and
festivals of the Chola period will ever speak about the glory of the Cholas.
CONCLUSION

The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamil Nadu since the first century A.D. Towards the
middle of the ninth century, one of them conquered the region of Tanjore (the heart of Tamil-
nad), declared himself the ruler of an independent state, and sought to establish his status by
claiming descent from the Solar race.

With the passage of time because of weak successive rulers, the chola power rapidly
declined. The power of the Cholas declined around the twelfth century with the rise of the
Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end towards the end of the thirteenth
century. From the 4th to the 9th century, the cholas played a very marginal but effective part in
the South India’s history.

The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their
zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and
architecture. The Chola kings avidly built temples, envisioned them in their kingdoms not
only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a
centralized form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. They were known
for their trade practices and land surveys done by Rajaraja-I and Kulottunga-I. Also, their
administrative policies were known for their effectiveness at both the central and provincial
level. The local self government was known as the best part of Chola Administration. Chola
political system was the only one which still maintained contact with the cultivator on a wild
scale, and retained characteristics of a centrally organized administration.

The Chola government during the imperial period (850-1200 CE) was marked for its
uniqueness and innovativeness. Cholas were the first dynasty who tried to bring the entire
South India under a common rule and to a great extent succeeded in their efforts. Although
the form and protocols of that government cannot be compared to a contemporary form of
government, the history of the Chola empire belongs to a happy age in their history and great
things were achieved by the government and the people. Development of local self
government was one of the most striking features of administration of the Chola dynasty. The
villages were given autonomy despite centralised system of governance, elaborate and
complicated mechanisms were the attributes of Chola administration. Revenue, justice,
governance and military were given prior importance and supervised in a matured manner.
The Chola kingdoms witnessed a disciplined bureaucracy. Chola administrative system has
been well appreciated by many historians and rulers.

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the
Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive
and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire
period of Chola reign. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural
calamities.

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art,
religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of
movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in
the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before
achieved in India. Its remarkable sculptures and bronzes sets the Chola period apart. Among
the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may
be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi,
and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions
established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of that appears in
the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

In the Chola period too, caste remained the basis of social organisation and each caste
regulated the social and economic activities of its members. But, hereditary didn’t remained
as a bar there and people can do change their profession. Condition of women was good in
the society as upper class women did own property. In general, Cholas were the adherents of
Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and
Jainism. It was seen that there was a heavy burden of taxes imposed on the people as they
had to pay different taxes and custom tolls along with the land tax which was the main source
of revenue. Still the people were happy with the administration as the Chola period is
somewhere attributed as the golden period.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

List of sites-

1. http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html
2. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/chola_local_administration.php
3. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/chola_administration.php
4. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chola_Dynasty
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty

List of books-

1. ‘A History of South India’, K.A. Nilakanta Shastri

2. ‘Ancient India’, V.D. mahajan
3. ‘An advanced history of India’, R.C. Majumdar, H.C.Raychaudhuri & Kalinkinkar
Dutta
4. ‘A History of India’, Burton Stein
5. ‘India’s Ancient Past’, R.S. Sharma