Chapter 5 Fossil Fuel Characteristics and

Properties - Coal
 Coal formation
 Coal analysis: Proximate and Ultimate
 Coal Classification by rank, Parr formulas
 Coal properties
 Coal handling and storage
 Firing, combustion and burning methods
 Grinding theory and technology
 Ash handling systems
 Calculations

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 Coal formation Solar energy is converted to
chemical energy through photo-synthesis in plants

Cx (H2O)y (heat, pressure) Cx Hy

Carbohydrate Hydrocarbons
Coal is fossilized vegetation (300-400 million y)
6m of compacted vegetation 30 cm seam
of coal peat brown coal lignite
sub-bituminous coal bituminous coal
anthracite coal

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 Hilt’s law
in a small area the deeper coals are of higher rank than
those above them.

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 Types of coal

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 Coal analysis 1
 Proximate (ASTM D5142) and ultimate (ASTM D5373)
• Proximate analysis: gives the mass fraction of fixed
carbon (FC), volatile matter (VM), moisture (M), ash (A)
in the coal. Separately the sulfur (S) and the higher
heating value (HHV) are given
• Ultimate analysis: gives the mass fraction of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), sulfur (S), and nitrogen
(N2). Moisture , ash and HHV are also given
• Ultimate analysis are useful to determine
combustion air requirements – lab analyses
N.B. Ash – inorganic salts: AL2O3, SiO2, CaO, MgO,
Na2O, FeO, Fe2O3 …

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 Coal analysis 2

 As-burned mass fraction = (1-M-A) Dry-ash-free

mass fraction
 As-burned HHV = (1-M-A) Dry-ash-free HHV
 Dulong’s formula for HHV determination (O2 less
than 10 %)
HHV = 33950 C + 144200 (H2 – O2/8) + 9400 S
Based on mass fraction of elements in the fuel
 Relation between HHV and LHV
HHV – LHV = 2400 (M + 9 H2)

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 Coal analyses (US Bureau of mines
bulletins)

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 Coal classification by rank ASTM D388

•The classification is
according to their degree
of metamorphism, or
progressive alteration, in
the natural series from
lignite to anthracite..
•The classification shall be
based on gradational
properties that depend on
the degree of
metamorphism.
•The classification shall
also be according to fixed
carbon and gross calorific
value calculated to the
mineral-matter-free basis.
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 Coal classification
Parr formulas
Calculation of Fixed Carbon and Calorific Value
For classification of coal according to rank, calculate
fixed carbon and gross calorific value to the mineral-
matter-free (Mm-free) basis in accordance with the
Parr formulas
Parr Formulas
• Dry, Mm-free FC = 100(FC−0.15S)/(100 − (M + 1.08A +
0.55S)
• Dry, Mm-free VM = 100 − Dry, Mm-free FC
• Moist, Mm-free Btu = 100(Btu − 50S)/(100 − (1.08A +
0.55S)

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 Coal properties 1

 Volatile Matter
• Easy ignition with high volatile matter
• Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal
 Sulfur content (air pollution, 1-3 %)
 Moisture content
• Reduces heating value of fuel
• Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered
raw coal
 HHV and LHV in KJ/Kg

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 Coal properties 2

Weather ability (storage)

Grindability (crusher, pulverizer selection)
Ash-softening temperature (ash handling
system)

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 Coal handling 1

Delivery The coal from supply points is

delivered by ships or boats to power stations
situated near to sea or river whereas coal is
supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations
which are situated away from sea or river. The
transportation of coal by trucks is used if the
railway facilities are not available.

Unloading depends on how coal is received at the power

station. If coal is delivered by trucks, there is no need of
unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the
outdoor storage.
In case the coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or
boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary
car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators.

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 Coal handling 2

• Preparation: When the coal delivered is in the

form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the
preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by
crushers, breakers, sizers, driers and magnetic
separators.
• Transfer: After preparation coal is transferred to
the dead storage by means of the following
systems :
1. Belt conveyors. 2. Screw conveyors.
3. Bucket elevators. 4. Grab bucket elevators.
5. Skip hoists. 6. Flight conveyor.
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 Coal handling 3
Conveyer systems

Screw conveyer

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Bucket elevator 14
 Coal handling 4
Conveyer systems

Flight conveyor consists of one or two

strands of chain to which steel scraper
Skip hoist. It consists of a vertical or inclined or flights are Attached, which scrap
hoist way, a bucket or a car guided by a frame the coal through a trough having
and a cable for hoisting the bucket. The bucket identical shape. This coal is discharged
is held in up right position. It is simple and in the bottom of trough. It has low
compact method of elevating coal or ash. fixed cost but large energy
consumption.

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 Coal handling 5
(preparation process)

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 Coal handling 6
storage
 Coal handling including bunkering and unloading
is called ‘Out-plant Coal Handling’ and handling
excluding bunkering and unloading known as ‘In-
plant Coal Handling’. During out-plant coal
handling, coal quality may get affected as it tends
to absorb moisture and oxygen of air.
 This problem losing coal quality can be eliminated
by coal storage: dead and live storage

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 Coal handling 7
storage

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 Coal handling 8
In-Plant-Handling and weighing
• In-Plant-Handling: From the dead storage the coal
is brought to covered storage (Live storage) (bins
or bunkers)
• In-Plant-Handling may include equipment such as
belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators
etc. to transfer the coal
• Weigh lorries hoppers and automatic scales are
used to record the quantity of coal delivered to
the furnace, (mechanical, pneumatic and
electronic)
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 Coal burning and firing methods and systems

There are mainly two methods of firing steam

boiler with coal as fuel. One is solid fuel firing
other is pulverized fuel firing.
• Hand-fired
• Mechanical firing(underfeed and
overfeed stokers) solid
• Cyclone
• Fluidized bed combustion FBC
• Pulverized coal firing

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 Selection consideration of combustion
systems and equipment for coal
• Initial cost of equipment
• Sufficient combustion space and its liability to
withstand high flame temp
• Area of grate
• Operating cost
• Minimum smoke nuisance
• Flexibility of operation
• Arrangements for through mixing of air with fuel
for efficient combustion

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 General classification of fuel burning methods

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 Hand fired system

• Manual feeding system

• Very old system
• Suitable for small power plants
• Used in small scale applications. Low
combustion efficiency
• Grate is used to support the fuels and the
openings are provided for air to enter on the
grate for the combustion of fuel.
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 Overfeed and underfeed coal burning

The principal difference between overfeed stoker and underfeed stoker is in the entry
of coal. Overfeed stoker is the type of stoker in which the coal is fed from the top and air is
blown from below. Underfeed stoker is one where coal is fed from underneath and the air is
fed from top

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 1

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 2

• The fuel bed section receives fresh coal from

top surfaces
• The ignition plane lies between green coal and
incandescent coke
• The air enters the bottom of the grate under
pressure
• In flowing through the grate opening the air is
heated while it cools the grate.

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 3

• The warm air then passes through a layer of

hot ashes and picks up the heat energy
• The region immediately above the ashes
contains a mixture of incandescent coke and
ash, coke content increasing upward direction
• As the air comes in contact with incandescent
coke, the O2 reacts with carbon to form CO2

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 4

• Water vapor entering with the air reacts with

coke to form CO2 , CO and free H2
• Upon further travel through the incandescent
region some of CO2 reacts with coke to form CO
• Hence no free O2 will be present in the gases
leaving the incandescent region
• Fresh fuel undergoing distillation of its volatile
matter forms the top-most layer of the fuel bed

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 5

• Heat for distillation and eventually ignition

comes from
1.By conduction from the incandescent coke
below
2.From high temperature gases diffusing
through the surface of the bed
3.By radiation from flames and hot gases in the
furnace 4.From the hot furnace walls

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 Overfeed burning mechanism 6

• The ignition zone lies directly below the raw fuel

undergoing distillation
• To burn gases additional secondary air must be
fed into the furnace to supply the needed oxygen
• The secondary air must be injected at
considerable speed to create turbulence and to
penetrate to all parts of the area above the fuel
bed
• The combustible gases then completely burn in
the furnace
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 Overfeed burning mechanism 7

• Fuel, coke and ash in the fuel bed move in the

direction opposite to that of air and gases
• Raw fuel continually drops on the surface of
the bed
• The rising air feed cools the ash until it finally
rests in a plane immediately adjacent to the
grate

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 Types of overfeed Stokers

Chain (bar and traveling) grate stokers

Spreader stokers
Vibrating-grate stockers (effective ash
removal)

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 Chain grate and travel grate stokers 1
A chain grate stoker consists of flexible endless chain which forms a support for
the fuel bed. The chain travels over sprocket wheels one at the front and one at
the rear of furnace. The front sprocket is connected to a variable speed drive
mechanism. The grate should be saved from being overheated, for this, coal
should have sufficient ash content which will form a layer on grate

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 Chain grate and travel grate stokers 2

Burning progresses as the belt moves from front to back of

furnace.
Combustion is essentially complete at the back end of belt,
and ash is dumped off into an ash pit there

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 Advantages of chain grate stokers

• Simple in construction
• Initial cost low
• Low Maintenance charges
• Self-cleaning stoker
• Giving high release rates per unit volume of
the furnace
• Heat release rates can be controlled just by
controlling the speed of the chain
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 Disadvantages of chain grate stokers

• Preheated air temperatures are limited to

1800C maximum
• The clinker troubles are very common
• There is always some loss of coal in the form
of fine particles through riddlings
• Ignition arches are required This cannot be
used for high capacity boilers

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 Spreader stocker mechanism 1
steam production up to 150 MT/h
In this type of stoker the coal is not fed into furnace by means of
grate. The function of the grate is only to support a bed of ash and
move it out of the furnace. From the coal hopper, coal is fed into
the path of a rotor by means of a conveyor. And it is thrown into
the furnace by the rotor and burnt in suspension. The air for
combustion is supplied through the holes in the grate.

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 Spreader stoker mechanism 2

• The secondary air to create turbulence and

supply oxygen for thorough combustion of
coal is supplied through nozzles located
directly above the ignition arch
• Unburnt coal and ash are deposited on the
grate which can be moved periodically to
remove ash out of the furnace

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 Advantages of spreader stokers 1

• A wide variety of coal can be burnt

• This stoker is simple to operate, easy to light
up and bring into commission
• The use of high temperature preheated air is
possible
• Operation cost is considerably low
• The clinking difficulties are reduced even with
the coal having high clinkering tendency.
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 Advantages of spreader stokers 2

• Volatile matter is easily burnt

• Fire arches etc. are generally not required with
this type of stokers
• Slag is molten ash and incombustible by products
that remain following coal combustion. When the
material cools to a certain temperature, it can
stick to furnace components, such as waterwalls,
which is called slagging.
• Clinker: the ash and partially fused residues from
a coal-fired furnace or fire
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 Disadvantages of spreader stokers

• It is difficult to operate spreader with varying

sizes of coal with varying moisture content
• Fly-ash is much more
• No remedy for clinker troubles
• There is a possibility of some fuel loss in the
cinders up the stack because of the thin fuel
bed and suspension burning

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 Underfeed stokers (mechanism) 1
In Underfeed Stokers the coal is admitted into the furnace below the
point of air admission. Actually both air and fuel entering in the same
direction. Air entering through the holes in the grate comes in
contact with the raw coal. Then it passes through the incandescent
coke where reactions similar to overfeed system takes place. The
gases produced then pass through a layer of ash.

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 Underfeed stokers (mechanism) 2
Coal is forced into the fire from below by a power ram or screw
and moves out to the sides as it burns. The secondary air is
supplied to burn combustible gases The underfeed principle is
suitable for burning the sub-bituminous and bituminous coal

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 Underfeed stokers mechanism 3

The main advantage is that volatile matter passes through the

oxidation zone, thus ensuring its complete combustion. The
grate is usually inclined and thus the burned fuel and the ash
move outwards as the fresh fuel is supplied. The air for
combustion is supplied through tuyeres.

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 Advantages of underfeed stokers 1
• High thermal efficiency as compared to chain grate
stokers
• Combustion rate is considerably higher
• The grate is self cleaning
• Part load efficiency is high particularly with multi retort
type
• Different variety of coal can be used
• Much higher steaming rates are possible with this type
of stoker
• Grate bars, tuyeres and retorts are not subjected to
high temp as they remain contact with fresh coal

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 Advantages of underfeed stokers 2

• Overload capacity of the boiler is high as large amount

of coal is carried on the grate
• Smokeless operation is possible even at very light load
• With use of clinker grinder, more heat can be liberated
out of the fuel.
• Substantial amount of coal always remains on the grate
so that boiler may remain in service in the event of
temporary breakdown of the coal supply system
• It can be used with all refractory furnaces because of
non-exposure of stoker mechanism to the furnace

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 Disadvantages of underfeed stokers
• High initial cost
• Require large building space
• The clinker troubles are usually present
• Low grade fuels with high ash content cannot be burnt
economically
N.B Clinkers, also known as slag, and in coal fired
boilers consist of the noncombustible elements and
minerals found in coal that melt and fuse together as
lumpy ashes from coal combustion. They occur in the
high-temperature furnace area of the boiler. The most
common cause of clinker in a boiler is inferior fuel
sources.

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 Schematic of multi-retort underfeed
stokers

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 Cyclone burning method
the process
• Small coal particles usually with a diameter less than 6mm
are burned in suspension with air.
• The fuel swirls forward into the main chamber where it
meets the high speed tangential stream of secondary air.
• Some tertiary air is supplied at the axis of the chamber to
ensure the burning of any fine coal particles.
• The whirling motion of air and coal results in large
volumetric heat release rates ranging from 4.7-8.3 MW/m3
• Temperature is high (1650 C) therefore ash melt away and
ash globules are carried to the wall by centrifugal force as
the furnace is inclined to permit molten ash to flow down.

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 Cyclone furnace (1940)

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 PC burning method (since 1920)
steam generation up to 2000 tonne/h

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 PC mechanism

• Coal is reduced to a fine powder (50-70

micrometer) with the help of grinding mill and
then projected into the combustion chamber
with the help of hot air current (primary air)
• The amount of air (secondary air) required to
complete the combustion is supplied separately
to the combustion chamber
• The resulting turbulence in the combustion
chamber helps for uniform mixing of fuel and air
• PC efficiency depends on particle size
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 PC advantages 1

• Any grade of coal can be used since coal is

powdered before use
• The rate of feed of the fuel can be regulated
properly resulting in the economy
• Since there is almost complete combustion of
the fuel there is increased rate of evaporation
and higher boiler efficiency

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 PC advantages 2

• Greater capacity to meet peak loads

• The system is practically free from sagging and
clinkering troubles
• No stand by losses due to banked fires
• Practically no ash handling problems
• No moving parts in the furnace is subjected to
high temperatures
• This system works successfully with or in
combination with gas or oil

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 PC advantages 3

• Much smaller quantity of air is required as

compared to that of stoker firing
• Practically free from clinker troubles
• The external heating surfaces are free from
corrosion
• It is possible to use highly preheated secondary
air which helps for rapid flame propagation
• The furnace volume required is considerably less

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 PC disadvantages 1

• High capital cost

• Lot of fly ash in the exhaust, which makes the
removing of fine dust uneconomical
• The possibility of explosion is more as coal
burns like a gas
• The maintenance of furnace brick work is
costly
• Special equipment is needed to start this
system
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 PC disadvantages 2

• Skilled operators are required

• A separate coal preparation plant is necessary
• High furnace temps cause rapid deterioration of
the refractory surfaces of the furnace
• Nuisance is created by the emission of very fine
particles of grit and dust
• Fine regular grinding of fuel and proper
distribution of burners is usually difficult to
achieve

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 Pulverized Coal firing systems
Unit or direct system

Bin or central system

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 PC burner system

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 Types of burners
• 1. Long Flame Burner (U-Flame Burner): In this burner
air and coal mixture travel a considerable distance thus
providing sufficient time for complete combustion
• 2. Short Flame Burner (Turbulent Burner):The burner is
fitted in the furnace wall and the flame enters the
furnace horizontally.
• 3. Tangential Burner: In this system burners are fitted
at the corners of the furnace. The inclination of the
burner is so made that the flame is tangential to an
imaginary circle at the centre.
• 4. Cyclone Burner: This burner uses crushed coal
instead of pulverized coal.

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 Types of Burners (Figures)

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 Fluidized bed combustion FBC (1950)
Schematic of FBC

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 Fluidized bed combustion method FBC

• Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable

alternative and has significant advantages over
conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits
such as:
compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher
combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious
pollutants such as SOx and NOx.
• The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery
rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other agricultural wastes.
• The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range.

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 Mechanism of FBC 1
• When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward
through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand
supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at
low velocity.
• As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached
when the individual particles are suspended in the
airstream – the bed is called “fluidized”.
• With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble
formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation
of dense defined bed surface.
• The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a
boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid –
“bubbling fluidized bed”.

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 Mechanism of FBC 2
• At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles
are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some amounts of
particles have to be recirculated to maintain a stable
system –“circulating fluidised bed”.
• Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the
air velocity.
• If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the
ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected
continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly
and bed attains a uniform temperature.
• The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at
about 840 C to 950 C.

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 Why call it a fluidized bed
A Bed of Solid Particles
exhibit the FLUIDISED
BED BOILER properties of
a FLUID namely:
-Lighter objects float,
heavier ones sink
-Pressure drop is
proportional to Bed
Height
-Horizontality maintained
hence termed as
Fluidized Bed
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 Advantages of FBC 1

• Since this temperature is much below the ash

fusion temperature, melting of ash and
associated problems are avoided.
• The lower combustion temperature is
achieved because of high coefficient of heat
transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized
bed and effective extraction of heat from the
bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and
walls of the bed.

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 Advantages of FBC 2
• The gas velocity is maintained between minimum
fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity.
This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids
particle entrainment in the gas stream.
• Combustion process requires the three “T”s that is
Time, Temp. and Turbulence.
• In FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidization.
Improved mixing generates evenly distributed heat at
lower temperature.
• Residence time is many times greater than
conventional grate firing. Thus an FBC system releases
heat more efficiently at lower temps.

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 Advantages of FBC 3

• Low combustion temperature (below 900 C) lead

to less NOx emission.
• Sulphur present in coal can be recovered in-situ
by adding limestone. SOx emission can be
reduced more than 90 %
S + O2 SO2 and CaO + SO2 CaSO4
• Poor quality coal/lignite, coal washery rejects,
containing ash more than 70 % can be used
• Biomass fuel can be fired either independently or
in combination with fossil fuels

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 Advantages of FBC 4

• FBC Boilers can be operated in all loads without

sacrificing combustion efficiency.
• Fuel of size less than 6 mm. is used in FBC boilers
and hence need not be pulverized as does in PC
Boilers.
• No moving grate or burners in FBC boilers.
• Ash does not fuse at 900 Deg C and hence soot
blowers are not required.
• High combustion efficiency of fuel due to higher
residence time and entire surface area of fuel in
contact with air.
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 Technology comparison

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 Coal grinding

 Crushers, grinding mills and pulverizers are types

of grinding equipment used to transform or
reduce a coarse material such as stone, coal, or
slag into a smaller, finer material.
 Grinding equipment can be classified into to two
basic types, crushers and grinders. Industrial
crushers are the first level of size reducer; further
granularization occurs in grinding mills or
pulverizers.
 Forces applied during grinding may be
compressive, shear or impact.

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 Grinding theory 1

 Rittinger’s Law (1867) states that the energy

required in size reduction is proportional to
the new surface created by the particle
fragmentation.
• E = KRfc(1/L2– 1/L1)
• Where: E=Energy, KR=Rittinger’s Constant,
fc=crushing strength of the material, L1=initial
length, and L2=reduced length.

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 Grinding theory 2

Kick’s Law states that the energy is

proportional to the size reduction ratio. The
equation for Kick’s Law can be written as:
• E = KKfc loge(L1/L2)
• Where: E=Energy, KK=Kick’s Constant,
fc=crushing strength of the material, L1=initial
length, and L2=reduced length.

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 Hardgrove Grindability Index HGI

• HGI is a measure for the grindability of coal.

The smaller the HGI, the harder is coal texture
and less grindable is the coal.
• Grindability is an important factor for the
design a coal mill.

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 HGI test
ASTM D 409, DIN 51742 and ISO 5074
50 g of air dried coal featuring a grain size in the range
between 0.6 and 1.18 mm are filled into the sample
mill and a weight is put on the mill's grinding stone.
After 60 rounds the grinded coal is put on a sampling
sieve.
Factor D equals the fraction of the coal passing through
the sieve of 74 μm corresponding to 200 mesh.
HGI = 13 + 6.93 D
Typical HGI values lie between 30 (increased resistance
to pulverization) and 100 (more easily pulverized).

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 Types of pulverizing mills

There are basically four different

types of pulverizing mills which are
designed to reduce coal with a top
particle size of about 50 mm to the
necessary particle size range.
Ball -Tube Mill
Ball - Race Mill
Bowl Mill
Impact Mill
Each type has a different grinding
mechanism and different operating
characteristics.

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 Pulverizer parameters

• 10 tonnes of coal per hour with less than 5 %

moisture requires 25-30 tonnes of steel balls
• Energy consumption by the pulverizer equals 20-
25 KWh per tonne coal for ball mill and 10-15
KWh per tonne coal for bowl mill
• Range of the speed of rotation
low speed below 75 rpm (ball tube mill)
Medium speed 75 – 225 rpm (ball/roll race mill)
High speed above 225 rpm impact, hammer mill)
• Power up to 700 HP

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 Ash handling
bottom and flying ash

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 Coal calculations

1- For the Stark county, North Dakota coal with

A = 8 and M = 39, determine the as-received
proximate and ultimate analyses, the
estimated LHV from the listed HHV, HHV by
Dulong’s formula
2- Determine the ASTM classification of this coal
3- Estimate the HGI of this coal if D = 6

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