© Canadian Standards Association Limit States Design of Steel Structures

∆ Contents
Technical Committee on Steel Structures for Buildings xiii

Preface xv

1. Scope and Application 1

1.1 General 1
1.2 Requirements 1
1.3 Application 1
1.4 Other Standards 1
2. Definitions and Symbols 2
2.1 Definitions 2
2.2 Symbols 4
2.3 Units 10
3. Reference Publications 10
4. Structural Documents 13
4.1 General 13
4.2 Structural Design Documents 13
4.3 Fabrication and Erection Documents 14
4.3.1 Connection Design Details 14
4.3.2 Shop Details 14
4.3.3 Erection Diagrams 14
4.3.4 Erection Procedures 14
4.3.5 Fieldwork Details 14
5. Material: Standards and Identification 15
5.1 Standards 15
5.1.1 General 15
5.1.2 Strength Levels 15
5.1.3 Structural Steel 15
5.1.4 Sheet Steel 15
5.1.5 Cast Steel 15
5.1.6 Forged Steel 15
5.1.7 Bolts/Bolt Assemblies 15
5.1.8 Welding Electrodes 15
5.1.9 Studs 15
5.2 Identification 15
5.2.1 Methods 15
5.2.2 Unidentified Structural Steel 16
5.2.3 Tests to Establish Identification 16
5.2.4 Affidavit 16
6. Design Requirements 16
6.1 General 16
6.1.1 Limit States 16

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6.1.2 Structural Integrity 16

6.2 Loads 17
6.2.1 Specified Loads 17
6.2.2 Importance Factors Based on Use and Occupancy 17
6.3 Requirements under Specified Loads 17
6.3.1 Deflection 17
6.3.2 Camber 17
6.3.3 Dynamic Effects 18
6.3.4 Resistance to Fatigue 18
6.4 Requirements under Factored Loads 18
6.4.1 Strength 18
6.4.2 Overturning 18
6.5 Expansion and Contraction 18
6.6 Corrosion Protection 18
7. Factored Loads and Safety Criterion 19
7.1 Safety during Erection and Construction 19
7.2 Safety Criterion and Effect of Factored Loads for the Ultimate Limit States 19

8. Analysis of Structure 20
8.1 General 20
8.2 Rigidly Connected and Continuous Construction 21
8.3 Simple Construction 21
8.4 Semi-Rigid (Partially Restrained) Construction 21
8.5 Elastic Analysis 21
8.6 Plastic Analysis 21
8.7 Stability Effects 22

9. Stability of Structures and Members 22

9.1 Stability of Structures 22
9.2 Stability of Members 22
9.2.1 Initial Misalignment at Brace Point 22
9.2.2 Displacement of Bracing Systems 22
9.2.3 Function of Bracing 22
9.2.4 Twisting and Lateral Displacements 23
9.2.5 Simplified Analysis 23
9.2.6 Detailed Analysis 23
9.2.7 Slabs or Decks 24
9.2.8 Accumulation of Forces 24
9.2.9 Torsion 24
10. Design Lengths and Slenderness Ratios 24
10.1 Simple Span Flexural Members 24
10.2 Continuous Span Flexural Members 24
10.3 Members in Compression 25
10.3.1 General 25
10.3.2 Failure Mode Involving Bending In-Plane 25
10.3.3 Failure Mode Involving Buckling 25
10.4 Slenderness Ratios 25
10.4.1 General 25
10.4.2 Maximum Slenderness Ratio 25

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11. Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Elements in Compression 25

11.1 Classification of Sections 25
11.2 Maximum Width-to-Thickness Ratios of Elements Subject to Compression 26
11.3 Width and Thickness 26
12. Gross and Net Areas 27
12.1 Application 27
12.2 Gross Area 27
12.3 Net Area 27
12.3.1 General 27
12.3.2 Allowance for Bolt Holes 27
12.3.3 Effective Net Area — Shear Lag 27
12.3.4 Angles 29
12.3.5 Plug or Slot Welds 29
12.4 Pin-Connected Members in Tension 29

13. Member and Connection Resistance 29

13.1 Resistance Factors 29
13.2 Axial Tension Member and Connection Resistance 30
13.3 Axial Compression 30
13.3.1 Flexural Buckling 30
13.3.2 Torsional or Torsional-Flexural Buckling 30
13.3.3 Class 4 Members in Compression 31
13.4 Shear 31
13.4.1 Webs of Flexural Members with Two Flanges 31
13.4.2 Webs of Flexural Members Not Having Two Flanges 33
13.4.3 Pins 33
13.5 Bending — Laterally Supported Members 33
13.6 Bending — Laterally Unsupported Members 34
13.7 Lateral Bracing for Members in Structures Analyzed Plastically 35
13.8 Axial Compression and Bending 35
13.8.1 General 35
13.8.2 Member Strength and Stability — Class 1 and Class 2 Sections of I-Shaped Members 35
13.8.3 Member Strength and Stability — All Classes of Sections Except Class 1 and Class 2 Sections of
I-Shaped Members 36
13.8.4 Value of U1 36
13.8.5 Values of ω1 37
13.9 Axial Tension and Bending 37
13.10 Load Bearing 37
13.11 Tension and Shear Block Failure 38
13.12 Bolts 38
13.12.1 Bolts in Bearing-Type Connections 38
13.12.2 Bolts in Slip-Critical Connections 39
13.13 Welds 40
13.13.1 General 40
13.13.2 Shear 40
13.13.3 Tension Normal to Axis of Weld 41
13.13.4 Compression Normal to Axis of Weld 41

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14. Beams and Girders 41

14.1 Proportioning 41
14.2 Flanges 42
14.3 Webs 43
14.3.1 Maximum Slenderness 43
14.3.2 Web Crippling and Yielding 43
14.3.3 Openings 43
14.3.4 Effect of Thin Webs on Moment Resistance 44
14.4 Bearing Stiffeners 44
14.5 Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners 45
14.6 Combined Shear and Moment 46
14.7 Rotational Restraint at Points of Support 46
14.8 Copes 46
14.9 Lateral Forces 46
14.10 Torsion 46

15. Trusses 47
15.1 Analysis 47
15.1.1 Simplified Method 47
15.1.2 Detailed Method 47
15.2 General Requirements 47
15.2.1 Effective Lengths of Compression Members 47
15.2.2 Joint Eccentricities 47
15.2.3 Stability 48
15.2.4 Web Members 48
15.2.5 Compression Chord Supports 48
15.2.6 Maximum Slenderness Ratio of Tension Chords 48
15.2.7 Deflection and Camber 48
15.3 Composite Trusses 48

16. Open-Web Steel Joists 48

16.1 Scope 48
16.2 General 48
16.3 Materials 49
16.4 Design Documents 49
16.4.1 Building Structural Design Documents 49
16.4.2 Joist Design Documents 49
16.5 Design 49
16.5.1 Loading for Open-Web Steel Joists 49
16.5.2 Design Assumptions 50
16.5.3 Verification of Joist Manufacturer’s Design 50
16.5.4 Member and Connection Resistance 50
16.5.5 Width-to-Thickness Ratios 50
16.5.6 Bottom Chord 50
16.5.7 Top Chord 51
16.5.8 Webs 52
16.5.9 Spacers and Battens 52
16.5.10 Connections and Splices 52
16.5.11 Bearings 53
16.5.12 Anchorage 53

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16.5.13 Deflection 54
16.5.14 Camber 54
16.5.15 Vibration 54
16.5.16 Welding 54
16.6 Stability during Construction 54
16.7 Bridging 55
16.7.1 General 55
16.7.2 Installation 55
16.7.3 Types 55
16.7.4 Diagonal Bridging 55
16.7.5 Horizontal Bridging 55
16.7.6 Attachment of Bridging 55
16.7.7 Anchorage of Bridging 55
16.7.8 Bridging Systems 55
16.7.9 Spacing of Bridging 55
16.8 Decking 56
16.8.1 Decking to Provide Lateral Support 56
16.8.2 Deck Attachments 56
16.8.3 Diaphragm Action 56
16.8.4 Cast-in-Place Slabs 56
16.8.5 Installation of Steel Deck 56
16.9 Shop Coating 57
16.10 Manufacturing Tolerances 57
16.11 Inspection and Quality Control 58
16.11.1 Inspection 58
16.11.2 Identification and Control of Steel 58
16.11.3 Quality Control 58
16.12 Handling and Erection 58
16.12.1 General 58
16.12.2 Erection Tolerances 58

17. Composite Beams, Trusses, and Joists 59

17.1 Application 59
17.2 Definitions 59
17.3 General 60
17.3.1 Deflections 60
17.3.2 Vertical Shear 61
17.3.3 End Connections 61
17.4 Design Effective Width of Concrete 61
17.5 Slab Reinforcement 61
17.5.1 General 61
17.5.2 Parallel Reinforcement 61
17.5.3 Transverse Reinforcement, Solid Slabs 61
17.5.4 Transverse Reinforcement, Ribbed Slabs 62
17.6 Interconnection 62
17.7 Shear Connectors 62
17.7.1 General 62
17.7.2 End-Welded Studs 63
17.7.3 Channel Connectors 64
17.8 Ties 64

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17.9 Design of Composite Beams with Shear Connectors 64

17.10 Design of Composite Beams without Shear Connectors 67
17.11 Unshored Beams 67
17.12 Beams during Construction 67

18. Composite Columns 67

18.1 Resistance Prior to Composite Action 67
18.2 Concrete-Filled Hollow Structural Sections 67
18.2.1 General 67
18.2.2 Compressive Resistance 68
18.2.3 Bending Resistance 69
18.2.4 Axial Compression and Bending 70
18.3 Partially Encased Composite Columns 70
18.3.1 Scope 70
18.3.2 Compressive Resistance 71
18.3.3 Special Reinforcement for Seismic Zones 71
18.4 Encased Composite Columns 72
18.4.1 Scope 72
18.4.2 Compressive Resistance 72
18.4.3 Reinforcement 72
18.4.4 Columns with Multiple Steel Shapes 73
18.4.5 Load Transfer 73
18.4.6 Bending Resistance 73
19. General Requirements for Built-up Members 73
19.1 Members in Compression 73
19.2 Members in Tension 76
19.3 Open Box-Type Beams and Grillages 76

20. Plate Walls 77

20.1 General 77
20.2 Preliminary Proportioning 77
20.3 Angle of Inclination 77
20.4 Limits on Angle of Inclination and Column Flexibility 78
20.5 Detailed Analysis 78
20.6 Web Plates 78
20.7 Beams 78
20.8 Columns 78
20.9 Anchorage of Web Plates 79
20.10 Connections 79
21. Connections 79
21.1 Alignment of Members 79
21.2 Unrestrained Members 79
21.3 Restrained Members 79
21.4 Connections of Tension or Compression Members 80
21.5 Bearing Joints in Compression Members 80
21.6 Lamellar Tearing 80
21.7 Placement of Fasteners and Welds 80
21.8 Fillers 81
21.8.1 Fillers in Bolted Connections 81
21.8.2 Fillers in Welded Connections 81
21.9 Welds in Combination 81

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21.10 Fasteners and Welds in Combination 81

21.10.1 New Connections 81
21.10.2 Existing Connections 81
21.11 High-Strength Bolts (in Slip-Critical Joints) and Rivets in Combination 81
22. Design and Detailing of Bolted Connections 81
22.1 General 81
22.2 Design of Bolted Connections 82
22.2.1 Use of Snug-Tightened High-Strength Bolts 82
22.2.2 Use of Pretensioned High-Strength Bolts 82
22.2.3 Joints Subject to Fatigue Loading 82
22.2.4 Effective Bearing Area 82
22.2.5 Fastener Components 82
22.3 Detailing of Bolted Connections 82
22.3.1 Minimum Pitch 82
22.3.2 Minimum Edge Distance 82
22.3.3 Maximum Edge Distance 83
22.3.4 Minimum End Distance 83
22.3.5 Bolt Holes 83

23. Installation and Inspection of Bolted Joints 84

23.1 A 307 Bolts 84
23.2 Connection Fit-up 84
23.3 Surface Conditions for Slip-Critical Connections 84
23.4 Minimum Bolt Length 84
23.5 Use of Washers 84
23.6 Storage of Fastener Components for Pretensioned Bolt Assemblies 85
23.7 Snug-Tightened High-Strength Bolts 85
23.8 Pretensioned High-Strength Bolts 85
23.8.1 Installation Procedure 85
23.8.2 Turn-of-Nut Method 85
23.8.3 Use of ASTM F 959 Washers 86
23.8.4 Use of ASTM F 1852 Bolts 86
23.9 Inspection Procedures 86
24. Welding 87
24.1 Arc Welding 87
24.2 Resistance Welding 87
24.3 Fabricator and Erector Qualification 87
25. Column Bases and Anchor Rods 87
25.1 Loads 87
25.2 Resistance 87
25.2.1 Concrete in Compression 87
25.2.2 Tension 87
25.2.3 Shear 88
25.2.4 Anchor Rods in Shear and Tension 88
25.2.5 Anchor Rods in Tension and Bending 89
25.2.6 Moment on Column Base 89

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25.3 Fabrication and Erection 89

25.3.1 Finishing 89
25.3.2 Erection 89
26. Fatigue 89
26.1 General 89
26.2 Proportioning 89
26.3 Live Load-Induced Fatigue 89
26.3.1 Calculation of Stress Range 89
26.3.2 Design Criteria 90
26.3.3 Cumulative Fatigue Damage 90
26.3.4 Fatigue Constants and Detail Categories 90
26.3.5 Limited Number of Cycles 91
26.4 Distortion-Induced Fatigue 91
27. Seismic Design Requirements 91
27.1 General 91
27.2 Type D (Ductile) Moment-Resisting Frames, Rd = 5.0, Ro = 1.5 93
27.2.1 General 93
27.2.2 Beams 93
27.2.3 Columns 94
27.2.4 Column Joint Panel Zone 95
27.2.5 Beam-to-Column Joints and Connections 95
27.2.6 Bracing 96
27.2.7 Fasteners 96
27.2.8 Attachments in Hinging Areas 96
27.3 Type MD (Moderately Ductile) Moment-Resisting Frames, Rd = 3.5, Ro = 1.5 96
27.4 Type LD (Limited-Ductility) Moment-Resisting Frames, Rd = 2.0, Ro = 1.3 97
27.4.1 General 97
27.4.2 Beams and Columns 97
27.4.3 Column Joint Panel Zone 97
27.4.4 Beam-to-Column Connections 97
27.5 Type MD (Moderately Ductile) Concentrically Braced Frames, Rd = 3.0, Ro = 1.3 98
27.5.1 General 98
27.5.2 Bracing Systems 98
27.5.3 Diagonal Bracing Members 99
27.5.4 Brace Connections 100
27.5.5 Columns, Beams, and Other Connections 100
27.6 Type LD (Limited-Ductility) Concentrically Braced Frames, Rd = 2.0, Ro = 1.3 101
27.6.1 General 101
27.6.2 Bracing Systems 101
27.6.3 Diagonal Bracing Members 101
27.6.4 Bracing Connections 101
27.6.5 Columns, Beams, and Other Connections 102
27.7 Ductile Eccentrically Braced Frames, Rd = 4.0, Ro = 1.5 102
27.7.1 Link Beam 102
27.7.2 Link Resistance 102
27.7.3 Length of Link 102
27.7.4 Link Rotation 103
27.7.5 Link Stiffeners 103
27.7.6 Lateral Support for Link 104

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27.7.7 Link Beam-to-Column Connection 104

27.7.8 Link Beam Resistance 104
27.7.9 Diagonal Braces 104
27.7.10 Brace-to-Beam Connection 105
27.7.11 Columns 105
27.7.12 Roof Link Beam 105
27.8 Plate Walls 105
27.8.1 General 105
27.8.2 Type D (Ductile) Plate Walls, Rd = 5.0, Ro = 1.6 105
27.8.3 Type LD (Limited-Ductility) Plate Walls, Rd = 2.0, Ro = 1.5 106
27.9 Cantilever Column Structures 106
27.10 Conventional Construction, Rd = 1.5, Ro = 1.3 107
27.11 Special Seismic Construction 107

28. Shop and Field Fabrication and Coating 107

28.1 Cambering, Curving, and Straightening 107
28.2 Thermal Cutting 107
28.3 Sheared or Thermally Cut Edge Finish 107
28.4 Fastener Holes 108
28.4.1 Drilled and Punched Holes 108
28.4.2 Holes at Plastic Hinges 108
28.4.3 Thermally Cut Holes 108
28.4.4 Alignment 108
28.5 Joints in Contact Bearing 108
28.6 Member Tolerances 108
28.7 Steel Building Systems 109
28.8 Cleaning, Surface Preparation, and Shop Coating 109
28.8.1 General Requirements 109
28.8.2 Uncoated Steel 110
28.8.3 Coated Steel 110
28.8.4 Requirements for Special Surfaces 110
28.8.5 Surface Preparation 111
28.8.6 One-Coat Systems 111
28.8.7 Metallic Zinc Coatings 111

29. Erection 111

29.1 General 111
29.2 Temporary Loads 111
29.3 Adequacy of Temporary Connections 111
29.4 Alignment 112
29.5 Surface Preparation for Field Welding 112
29.6 Field Coating 112
29.7 Erection Tolerances 112
29.7.1 Elevation of Base Plates 112
29.7.2 Plumbness of Columns 112
29.7.3 Horizontal Alignment of Members 112
29.7.4 Elevations of Members 112
29.7.5 Crane Girders 113
29.7.6 Alignment of Braced Members 113
29.7.7 Members with Adjustable Connections 113

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29.7.8 Column Splices 113

29.7.9 Welded Joint Fit-up 113
29.7.10 Bolted Joint Fit-up 113
30. Inspection 114
30.1 General 114
30.2 Co-operation 114
30.3 Rejection 114
30.4 Inspection of High-Strength Bolted Joints 114
30.5 Third-Party Welding Inspection 114
30.6 Identification of Steel by Marking 114
Tables 115

Figures 124A
Appendices
A — Standard Practice for Structural Steel 129
B — Margins of Safety 130
C — Crane-Supporting Structures 132
D — Recommended Maximum Values for Deflection for Specified Design Live and Wind Loads 133
E — Guide for Floor Vibrations 135
F — Effective Lengths of Columns 136
G — Criteria for Estimating Effective Column Lengths in Continuous Frames 138
H — Deflections of Composite Beams Due to Shrinkage of Concrete 141
I — Arbitration Procedure for Pretensioning Connections 145
J — Ductile Moment-Resisting Connections 146

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