DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Manuel and Medel define descriptive research thus: Descriptive research describes what is. It involves
the description, recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes
of phenomena. The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how person, group, or thing behaves or
functions in the present. It often involves some type of comparison or contrast. (Manuel and Medel p.
25)

Aquino gives this definition, Descriptive research is fact-finding adequate interpretation. The descriptive
method is something more and beyond just data-gathering: the latter is not reflective thinking nor
research. The true meaning of the data collected should be reported from the point of view of the
objectives and the basic assumption of the project under way. This follows logically after careful
classification of data. Facts obtained may be accurate expressions of central tendency , or deviation, or
of correlation; but the report is not research unless discussion of those data is not carried up to the level
of adequate interpretation. Data must be subjected to the thinking process in terms of ordered
reasoning (Aquino, pp 7-8)

Descriptive research is defined by Best in the following way: Descriptive research describes and
interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevail;
beliefs, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt, or are being felt, or trends that are
developing.

The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering and tabulation of data. It involves the
elements or interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is described. Thus description is often
combined with comparison and contrast involving measurements, classifications, interpretation and
evaluation. (Cited by Sanchez, p. 83)

In other words, descriptive research may be defined as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing,
classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and
cause-effect relationships and then making adequate and accurate interpretations about such data with
or without the aid of statistical methods.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research has the following characteristics:

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case under study.

2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general characteristics of the
group or case under study.

3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.

4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress that took
place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.

5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine their similarities
and differences.
6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled.

7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies are generally cross-sectional, that is, it studies the different
sections belonging to the same group.

8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of verification and comparison.

Value, Importance, and Advantages of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of principles and generalizations in

behavioral sciences. This is especially true in causal-comparative and correlation studies.

When several inquiries register the same findings on a certain subject, then a principle or generalization
may be found about that subject.

2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of standard norms of conduct, behavior,
or performance. This is especially true in psychological testing, as for instance, norms in an intelligence
test. Normative standards are based on what are prevalent.

3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial measures may be
instituted. It reveals to us what we do not want, what we want, and how to acquire what we want.

4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on prevailing
conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain issues. For instance,
winning candidate in an election may be predicted on the basis of a survey.

5. Descriptive research gives a better and deeper understanding of a phenomenon on the basis of an in-
depth study of the phenomenon.

6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making. Business managers often base their
decisions upon business researches. Government policy makers usually rely upon descriptive
investigations for making the needed policies. In Education, the curriculum has been constructed based
upon descriptive researches in child and adolescent psychology.

7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with which we do research, such as, instruments
for the measurement of many things, instruments that are employed in all types of quantitative
research. These instruments include schedules, checklists, score cards, and rating scales. Descriptive
studies contribute to the development of these data-gathering devices in two ways— first through
creating a demand for them and second through providing the normative, standardizing procedures by
which the scales are evaluated and calibrated. (Good and Scates, pp. 258-259)

Techniques under the Descriptive Method of Research

There are three techniques under the descriptive method of research: (I) the survey, (2) the case study,
and (3) content analysis.
Survey, otherwise known as normative survey, is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate
interpretation. It is used to collect demographic data about people's behavior, practices, intentions,
beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments, interests, perceptions, and the like and then such data are
analyzed, organized, and interpreted.

Case study is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth study and analysis of an individual,
institution, group, or community.

Differences Between Survey and Case Study

Survey

1. The group surveyed is usually large.

2. The number of aspects or variables in the life of the group surveyed is limited.

3. Cause-effect relationships are not given emphasis. Aim of a study may only be to determine status.

4. Representativeness is important and is given emphasis.

5. Curiosity, interest, or just to determine norm or status may initiate a survey

6. Only conditions or practices present during the survey are considered except in comparative studies
when present conditions are compared with conditions in the past.

Case Study

1. Case study may involve and usually involves one person, family, small group, or small community.

2. Usually, all aspects or variables in the life cycle of the case under study are the case under study are
included.

3. Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always a part of a case study.

4. Representativeness is not important. The results of a single case study do not provide certainty that
the case is truly representative.

5. Abnormalities or undesirable traits usually initiate a case study.

6. Data about the case from birth or origin or even of the future are considered.

Advantages of the Survey Approach Over the Case Study Approach

1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the behavior or performance of an
individual can be judged or evaluated. For instance, if survey reveals that the typical kind of marriage is
monogamy, then a man with two wives deviates from the standard

2. The results of a survey may be used for prediction. This is especially true in correlation studies or even
in status studies. For example, studies show that there is a significant correlation between NCEE
percentile ranks and college grades. Hence, a student with a high NCEE percentile rank is expected to
have high grades in college work.
3. Survey makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the sample has a high degree of
representativeness. This is especially true if the sample is adequate and proper sampling procedures are
used in the selection of the samples.

4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures may be instituted.

5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey.

6. The instruments for gathering data are easy to determine, construct, validate, and administer. The
survey instruments are usually the interview schedule as well as the questionnaire and they are very
similar if not the same in structure.

Disadvantages of the Survey Approach or Technique. Although there are advantages of the survey
approach there are also disadvantages such as the following, the first three being given by Simon:
(Treece and Tseece Jr., p. 150)

1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables.

2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another of the independent variable to get
closer to the real cause.

3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of several independent variables when
there is multivariable causation, especially when two independent variables are themselves highly
associated.

4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is no control at all over extraneous variables

5. The instruments for gathering data may lack validity, reliability or adequacy.

Types of Survey Technique or Approach (Treece and Treece Jr.)

1. Total population survey- The entire population is involved in the survey.

2. Sample survey- Only a sample or portion of the population is involved in the survey.

3. Social survey- The investigator researches on the attitudes and behaviors of different groups of people

4. School survey- This is used to gather data for and about schools and to assess education achievement
and education itself. (Some or all aspects of the school may be surveyed: qualifications of teachers,
methods and techniques of teaching, facilities, achievements of the students in different subjects,
administration and supervision, curriculum, teacher-pupil ratio and the like.)

5. Public opinion survey- this is used to gauge the reactions of people towards certain issues or persons.
(For instance, people may be asked in a survey how much they agree with the way the President is
running the government.)

6. Poll survey- This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they are voting for a certain
candidate in an election.
7. Market survey- This is aimed at finding out what kinds of people purchases which products, and how
packaging, advertising, and displaying affect buying, prices, and so on. Allied to this is the motivation
survey in which the subjects are asked why they purchase certain commodities.

8. Evaluation survey- The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished and, with a critical
eye, evaluates the results whether they are satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making
improvements.

9. Comparative survey- In this survey, the results from two different groups, techniques, or procedures
are compared. This may be used also to compare the effectiveness of a new procedure with an old one
or with a standard, or two new procedures may be compared.

10. Short-term survey- In this survey, data are collected over a period of weeks, months, or even years
but the period should be less than five years.

11. Long-term survey- Any survey conducted for more than five years is a long-term survey.

12. Longitudinal survey- This is almost the same as the long-term survey. An example of this is the
practice of economists to use time-series analysis in which they compare data collected at present with
data collected sometime in the past. The researchers may carry out such studies by asking questions
about a past event and compare their responses to the present affair of things.

13. Cross-sectional survey- In this type of survey, several groups in various stages of involvement are
studied simultaneously. Allied to the cross-sectional survey is the cross-cultural survey. In this survey
groups of different cultural backgrounds may be studied.

Additionally, the following are other types according to Manuel and Medel:

14. Job analysis survey- This provides information on the general duties and responsibilities of workers,
their education, training, experiences, salaries, types of knowledge and skills, and others that help
administrators or managers in setting up training programs and recruitment policies.

15. Community survey- This survey provides information on the various aspects of the community:
health, employment, housing, education, economic resources, delinquency, family, population, other
social problems, and so on.

16. Correlation study- This is a study that shows the relationship between two or more variables, that is,
how a variable varies with positions. (Good defines correlation as the tendency of corresponding
observations in two or more series to vary together from the average of their respective series, that is,
to have similar relative positions.)

Case Study and Case Work

Case study involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group, or
situation over a period of time (Mckee and Robertson, 1975). Young (1966) defines case study as a
“comprehensive study of a social unit -- be that unit a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or
community." (Cited by Sanchez, p. 43)
Good and Scates define case study as that method which takes account of all pertinent aspects of one
thing or situation, employing as the unit of study an individual, an institution, a community, or any group
considered as a unit. The case consists of the data relating to some phase of the life history of the unit or
relating to the entire life process, whether the unit is an individual, a family, a social group, an
institution, or it a community. The complex situation and a combination of factors involved in the given
behavior are examined to determine the existing status and to identify the causal factors operating.
(Good and Scares, p. 26)

Case study may be defined then, as an extensive and intensive investigation of a unit represented,
whether the unit is an individual, a social group, an institution, or a community, the aim of which is to
identify causal factors to some abnormality or deficiency and to find and recommend a solution, a
treatment, or developmental procedures.

Case work. Case work, on the other hand, refers especially to the developmental, adjustment, remedial,
or corrective procedures that appropriately follow diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or of
favorable development.

Case method. Case method has been employed to describe a plan organizing and presenting
instructional materials in law, medicine, social work, and even in education, psychology, and sociology,
where as a rule, the case materials used are the product of case study investigation.

Case history. Case history is a biography obtained by interview and other means, sometimes collected
over the years to enable us to understand the problems of an individual and to suggest ways of solving
them. Wolman (1973) defined case study as “the complete medical, psychological, and social history of a
patient.” It is most frequently utilized in psychopathology and social case work for diagnosis and
prognosis. (Sanchez)

Clinical method. Clinical method is defined by Peter as "a process by which we collect all available
evidence - social, psychological, educational, biographical, and medical, that promises to help us
understand an individual child. Every child who is referred for evaluation should receive careful
diagnosis before recommendations are made. This means that information about him is necessary so a
case history is drawn up. Then after the study of a number of cases, the clinician or sociologist may
formulate theoretical principles or generalizations about some aspects of behavior. In this way, the case
history method becomes a part the broader clinical method. (Sanchez, p. 44)

Who should be studied. Generally, children with some forms of abnormalities are the subjects of case
studies. These are children with exceptional abilities: very high I.Q., or children with problems or
deficiencies.

Social group, each taken as a unit, showing some kind of abnormalities or maladjustments may be
subjects to a case study.

Kinds of Information needed in Case Studies.

1. Identifying data- name, sex, date of birth, age, place of birth, telephone number if any.
2. Identification and statement of the problem- any symptoms of complaints about health, school, work,
family relationships, abnormal behavior, work, delinquencies, etc.

3. Health and developmental history- details of birth whether normal or caesarian; attended by doctor,
nurse, or midwife in a hospital or doctor, nurse, or midwife in a hospital or at home at home or by a
hilot, etc.

4. Family History- abnormalities among ancestors, parents, and siblings; health of family, transmitted
tendencies of some kind of sickness or physical deficiency; education of parents, brothers and sisters,
etc.

5. Educational history- cannot read, cannot do simple mathematical computations, low grades, no
interest in school work; delinquent behavior I school such as loafing, bullying, stealing, etc.

6. Social history- Church membership, attendance, and involvement; plays normally with others of his
own age; membership in civic organizations such as Boy or as Boy or Girl Scouts, etc.

7. Economic History- Economic status whether low, average or high; kind of job and size of r high; kind of
job and size of income; income; cannot stay long in a job; works willingly or cannot stay long in a job;
works willingly or grudgingly even in doing chores at home, etc.

8. Psychological history-personality traits such as mental ability, special talents, interests, skills, moods,
emotional patterns, desires, needs, extroversion and introversion, dominance-submission; how leisure is
spent and hobbies, etc.

Data-gathering instruments. Almost all data-gathering devices are used in collecting data for a case
study. The interview is very important. All persons who may be able to shed light on the problem are
interviewed. Long probing interviews may be conducted especially with the patient himself.

Another important tool is observation. This involves observing the patient's behavior for an adequate
length of time and some other observable conditions that might have contributed something to the
maladjustment of the patient. The person making the case study may act as a participant-observer to be
more effective in his observation.

The questionnaire is another instrument. This is given to the patient himself and to some people who
may be able to contribute something to the discovery of important data about the case.

Psychological tests are also administered to the patient for information about his problem. Mental
ability tests and other psychological tests especially the projective tests like the thematic apperception
test and the Rorschach test are administered to the patient in order to discover the psychological causal
factors.

Anecdotal records are also useful. These are records of significant aspects of the patient's behavior
when he finds himself in different situations and in his unguarded moments. These are, of course, the
results of observation.

Autobiographies, too, are rich sources of information about the patient and his problem. When the
patient writes the story of his life, he usually includes those incidents that have great impact or
consequence upon his life and these may reveal at once the cause of the problem. Little incidents may
also have some cumulative effect which may create a problem which cannot be ignored later on.
Other devices employed are the checklists, score cards and rating scales. Letters and notes to and from
the patient and his diaries may also help in diagnosing a case. Cumulative records in school and in
guidance and counseling offices are valuable sources of information.

Needless to say, all pieces of information are carefully and accurately recorded. Statistical procedures
are then applied to analyze and organize or summarize the data in which case frequencies, types,
trends, uniformities, or patterns of behavior are revealed. These serve as the basis for solving the
problem or conflict. This is interpreting the evidence available.

Characteristics of a satisfactory case study.

1. Continuity- There is a desirable continuity of information.

2. Completeness of data- The potential range of information includes symptoms, examinations results,
educational, mental, and history health, school, family and social aspects.

3. Validity of data- For instance, a doubtful birth should be verified through the birth registry, and
employment record by reference to employers.

4. Confidential recording- Educational workers have something to learn from medicine with respect to
the confidential nature of professional records; the difficulties of individual teachers or pupils in relation
to discipline, failure, achievement, or mentality should be regarded as professional problems to be
treated in a confidential manner.

5. Scientific synthesis- This is an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere enumeration of
data secured; it embraces diagnosis it embraces diagnosis in identifying causal in identifying causal
factors, and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedures.

Social skills of case work. The social skills of case work, with particular reference to adjustmental
procedures, include: (Strode and Strode as cited by Good and Scates, p. 732):

 Social insight — a complex concept of great importance in meeting administrative, supervisory,

teaching, and organizational problems in welfare agencies and social services
 Empathy — social understanding as to how other people feel
 Sociality — positive behavior of defineness and spontaneity in friendly relations with others
 Communication — the process by which we transmit experience or share a common experience
 Cooperation — acting or working jointly with others
 Participation — social interaction within a group directed to some end, or sharing a common
experience
 Organization — the process of systematically uniting in a group the persons who participate and
cooperate in working toward a common end
 Social Counseling — assisting the client to formulate and analyze his problem, explore
resources, determine a course of action, and secure needed services
 Guidance for creative achievement — to liberate the powers of individuals for their own
happiness and for contributions of social value.

The cycle of case study and casework. Case study and case work are complementary. They go together
usually and help each other. Analyzed in specific terms, the complementary steps in the cycle of case
study and case work are as follows: (Good and Scates, pp. 732-733)
1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon: for example, reading disability.

2. Collection of data relating to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon;
factors associated with learning difficulty or reading disability may be physical, intellectual, pedagogical.
emotional, social, or environmental

3. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment;

defective vision may be the cause of difficulty in reading.

4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures: correctly fitted eye glasses may remove the cause of
poor performance in reading.

5. Subsequent follow-ups to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or developmental measures

applied.

Content Analysis

Content analysis as a research technique deals with documentary materials that are already existing and
available. It has been defined as follows: "Content analysis is a research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication." (Berelson, p. 18)
Since content analysis deals with documentary materials, content analysis and documentary analysis are
one and the same thing.

Characteristics of Content Analysis

From its definition, content analysis has the following characteristics:

1. It is objective. Like other research techniques, content analysis must be objective. There should be no
bias involved in the selection and classification of content to be analyzed, in its sampling design, and in
the interpretation of results. To be objective, as much as possible, all items and aspects in the content to
be analyzed must be included and all must be placed under appropriate categories. When there is a
large volume of documentary materials to be analyzed and sampling is necessary, the valid principles of
sampling must be applied. Otherwise, the materials selected for investigation may have some
tendencies toward certain conditions that may adversely affect the true findings of the investigation.
Also interpreting the results, objectivity must be observed as much as possible. The perceptions of the
researcher must not be influenced by factors other than the true outcomes or the true frequency counts
of the variables being inquired into.

2. It is systematic. Content analysis must be systematic and so it must follow the steps of the scientific
method as follows: recognizing and determining the problem, forming the hypothesis or hypotheses,
doing library work, designing the study, developing the instruments, collecting the data, analyzing the
data, making conclusions and recommendations. These will be shown in the illustration of content
analysis to be made.

3. It is quantitative. Content analysis of documentary materials is quantitative because interpretations

and conclusions from the findings have to depend almost entirely on the frequency counts of the items
or aspects studied. The occurrences of the item, aspect, or phenomenon to be studied have to be tallied
one by one and, upon the frequency of the occurrences depend the analysis and interpretation.

Steps in Content Analysis

As has been mentioned above, content analysis of documentary materials must be systematic. Hence, it
must follow the scientific method of research. The steps follow:

1. Recognizing the problem. Suppose the problem recognized is the commission of errors of
students in composition writing in the first year high school.
2. Forming the hypotheses. In non-experimental research, the hypotheses are written in question
form. Hence, the questions that may be asked are: (a) What are the most common errors
committed by first year high school students in composition writing? (b) What might be the
possible causes of the commission of such errors? (c) What measures may be adopted to
minimize the commission of such errors?
3. Doing library work. One purpose of library search is to look for some guides in conducting the
study. If other studies of the same nature have already been conducted before, the procedures
used may as well be the guides of the researcher in conducting his research. The second
purpose is to find out if the same findings will result, and if so, generalizations based on a wider
basis can be formulated. There third purpose of library search is to avoid duplication of other
studies. There is duplication of a study has been made in the same place and using the same
materials. To avoid this, library search is necessary.
4. Designing the study. This is determining the different procedures to be followed in the study.
The instruments for collecting data must be determined. If there is a large volume of
documentary materials, say five hundred compositions to be examined, then sampling must be
applied in the selection of compositions to be included in the study. Needless to say, sampling is
to be done properly. The statistical treatment to be applied must also be decided upon. The
method of data presentation must also be designed, be it textual, tabular, graphical, or all of the
three.
5. Developing the instrument. This is for collecting data. In content analysis, a tally sheet or
checklist may be prepared. The instrument must contain all the items or aspects to be studied.
6. Collecting the data. To reiterate, content analysis is quantitative and so tallies have to be made
for each type of error committed. If there are fifty compositions to be studied, they are
examined one by one and the types of errors committed and tallied one by one in the tally sheet
or checklist. When all the compositions have been examined and all the types of errors have
been tallied, then the tallies for each type of error are counted to determine the frequency of
each type of error.
7. Analyzing the data. In analyzing the data, the types of errors may be ranked to determine what
types of errors were committed foremost, or frequency percents may computed to determine
the greatest portions of errors committed.
8. Making conclusions. Generally, conclusions are answers to the questions raised at the beginning
of the investigation. Besides, they are based upon the findings of the study.
 9. Making recommendations. Making recommendations are made to solve or help solve the
problems discovered in the study. Besides, recommendations are also made for further research
on the same study just finished.

Applications of Content Analysis of Documentary Materials

1. Analyzing to determine the educational, political, sociological, philosophical, psychological and other
ideas of great authors and thinkers, based upon their books, essays, poems, diaries, navels, plays.
speeches, and other writings.

2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional materials as a basis for the selection
curriculum construction and development and as a basis for the selection of textbooks and other
instructional materials for the different curricular years of the educational ladder.

3. Analyzing the achievements of students in the different subjects to determine the types of errors they
committed as a basis for making remedial teaching progress and for curriculum development.

4. Analyzing the different writings of students such as essays, compositions, poems, stories, laws, etc. to
determine their writing aptitudes, levels of their vocabulary and spelling as bases for designing programs
for further development.

5. Analyzing school records such as class records, report cards, enrollment lists, grading sheets,
cumulative records etc. of different schools and school systems with the end in view of adopting the
common, practical, economical, and useful school records.

6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and school systems with the end in view of
adopting more valid and practical objectives and practices to attain the same ends.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The experimental method of research is defined by Good as a method or procedure involving the
control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the relative effects of various
treatments applied to members of a sample, or of the same treatment applied to members of different
samples. (Good, p. 216)

Manuel and Medel explain the experimental method of research in the following way. The basic purpose
of experimental research is to discover the influence of one or more factors upon a condition, group, or
situation, purpose of which is to discover "what will be." It describes and analyzes variables in carefully
controlled conditions as a basis for inferring or concluding. An experimental research, therefore, consists
of manipulating an experimental variable under highly controlled conditions to determine how and why
a particular event occurs. (Manuel and Medel, p. 37)

In other words, experimental research is a highly controlled procedure in which manipulated treatments
or actions from a factor or condition, called the experimental or independent variable, are applied upon
another factor or condition, called the dependent variable, to determine the effect of the former upon
the latter, all other factors or variables being kept constant or equal so that any change in the
dependent variable is attributable only to the experimental or independent variable.

A variable is anything that may change or may be changed from one condition to another, either
qualitatively or quantitatively. Examples are age, height, weight, method of teaching, language, time,
etc.

An independent variable is anything, condition, or process which is controlled and manipulated by the
experimenter and applied on another thing, condition, or process (dependent variable) intended to have
or produce a change in or reaction from the latter.

A dependent variable is anything, a condition, or process exposed to or upon which treatments or

actions from the independent variable are applied. The response of or change in the dependent variable
is measured and some statistical methods are applied to determine the effects of the independent or
experimental variable.

Here is a very simple illustration. Suppose Student A and Student B are in the same grade level and have
the same level of mental ability. Student A is given three hours to study a certain lesson and Student B is
given two hours to study the same lesson. Then they are given the same test on the lesson. When the
test papers of the two students are scored, Student A gets a higher score than Student B. The
independent variable which is manipulated by the experimenter is time and the dependent variable is
achievement. The result of the experiment infers that the longer the time one is given to study a
material, the higher his achievement is on the material in terms test scores.

Concepts on Causation

According to Estolas and Boquiren, there are three concepts of causation as follows: (Estolas and
Boquiren, pp. 142-143)
 1. One-to-One Relationship. According to this concept of causation, for every particular cause there
is a corresponding particular effect. One independent variable causes an effect upon one
dependent variable. This one-to-one relationship especially exists in the physical science field.
For example, when one stands on the platform of a weighing scale, the balancing scale pointer is
raised. The weight of the person is the cause and the raising of the balancing scale pointer is the
effect. Another example is when a glass pitcher is filled with ice, moisture gathers on the outside
part of the pitcher. The cold emitted by the ice is the cause and the condensation of the water
molecules on the outside part of the pitcher is the effect.
2. Two-variable relationship. This involves two variables causing an effect upon one variable. A
glass container as well as a wooden one have the same size and amount of water. When stones
of the same size are each dropped into each container, the water in the glass container rises
higher than the water in the wooden container because of the porosity of the latter. The stones
cause the water to rise in both containers but the porosity of wood retards the rise of water in
the wooden container.
Another example is the hand water pump. The rising of the water, the effect, depends upon two
factors, amount of air pressure and the tightness of the rubber ring around the piston's base, as
causes.
3. Complex Relationship. This is a case where two or more variables cause a single effect. For
instance, behavior, which is an effect, is caused by cultural background, socio-economic stuff,
residential area, ethnic origin, and many others. Achievement in school is affected by several
factors such as intelligence, adequacy of facilities, effectiveness of teaching, environmental
conditions, and some others.

In addition to those relationships given by Estolas and Boquiren, there are also cases where one variable
causes two or more effects. Take the case of sunlight. Sunlight helps plants manufacture food through
photosynthesis but it also causes evaporation which kills plants unless sufficiently watered. Liquor
satisfies a man's certain desire but it also makes him drunk weakening his mental faculties and capacity
for inhibition making him prone to committing violent acts. Water does several things to the body
among which are supplying liquid to body cells, helping in digesting food, helping in the excretion of
wastes from the body, satisfying thirsts, and some others.

General Distinguishing Features of Experiments

The general distinguishing features (characteristics) of experiments are as follows: (Estolas and
Boquiren, pp. 141-142)

1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities.

2. Observations are done under controlled conditions.
3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.
4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, or in the field.
5. Laboratory experiments are intensive and exacting.
6. Most often experiments are limited to a small number of cases.
7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.
Experimental Designs

The following are the more commonly used experimental designs in the educational, social,
psychological, biological, or even in the agro-industrial fields:

A. Single Factor Experimental Designs

1. Single group with only a post test design. This involves a thing, person, or group
subjected or exposed to a certain experimental factor for a certain period of time. Then,
after the experimental period, the subjects or students exposed to the experimental
factor are given a post test. The achievement of this experimental group is then
compared with the achievement of another group with similar characteristics and
studying the same subject matter under customary instructional methods but
unexposed to the experimental factor. Any excess of the achievement of the
experimental group over the achievement of the normal group is considered due to the
experimental factor.
For example, a teacher uses praise in one but not in another of her two classes who
were not sectioned on any selective basis and are making the same lessons. At the end a
grading period, she compares the achievements of the two classes. Any excess of the
achievement of the class with praise over the achievement of the class without praise is
considered due to the use of praise.
Another example may be in farming. A farmer has two plots of equal size and having
almost the same characteristics. He plants the two plots with the same variety of rice
and he uses fertilizer in one plot but not in the other. At the end of the farming period,
he compares the productions from the two plots. Any excess of the produce in the
fertilized plot over produce of the unfertilized plot is considered due to the fertilizer.
In biology, if a rat is fed with a certain kind of drug, any abnormality in its behavior
which differs markedly with the behavior of a rat fed with its normal food is considered
caused by the drug.
The defect of this design is the absence of control over the variables involved. This is
why, when interpretation is made of the result, variables that may have undue influence
in the experiment should be given due consideration.
2. Single group with a pre-test and a post-test design. In this design, the group is exposed
to a certain experimental factor. However, before the start of the experiment, the group
is given a pre-test about the subject matter to be covered in the experiment. Then after
the experimental period, the group is given the same pre-test but in a different form to
avoid the effect of practice. This is the post-test. The excess of the results of the post-
test over the results of the pre-test is considered caused by the experimental factor.
Example: Suppose a new technique of teaching how to solve verbal problems in
mathematics is to be tested. Before the start of the experiment, the group to be used is
given an achievement test about the problems to be covered. After the experimental
period, the same test in another form is given to the group as a post-test. The difference
between the means of the scores of the two tests after applying some statistical
methods will reveal if the new technique is effective.
Suppose that in animal production, a new swine feed is to be tested for its nutrition
value. A group of piglets is used. Before feeding the piglets with the new feed, their
 weights are taken. Then they are fed with the new feed. After the experimental period
of feeding, the weights of the piglets are taken again. The means of the two sets of
weights are computed. After the application of certain statistical methods, it will be
known whether the increase in weights of the piglets is significant or not, that is,
whether the new feed has a great nutrition value.
3. Matched groups design. In this design, two groups are matched in age, sex, grade level,
mental ability, etc. One group, called the experimental group, is exposed to the
experimental or independent variable while the other group, called the control group, is
not exposed to the experimental variable. After the experimental period, the two
groups are given the same test covering the subject matter studied during the period. It
must be noted that all other variables except the independent variable are kept
constant or equal during the experimental period. Any excess of the achievement of the
experimental group over the achievement of the control group is attributed to the
experimental factor. (Garrett, pp. 213-217 for statistical treatment)
Example. A candidate for the master's degree conducted an experiment to find out the
effect of guidance and counseling upon the learning process. She formed two groups of
pupils in which one pupil in one group was paired with another pupil in the other group
having the same sex, age, mental ability, and economic status, One group, called the
experimental group, was given guidance and counseling during the experimental period
while the other group, called the control group, was not exposed to guidance and
counseling. All other variables such as lessons, tests, time spent for study, method of
teaching, etc. were kept equal. After the experimental period, the two groups were
given the same test on the subject matter covered by the two groups. The result was
that, there was a significant excess of the achievement of the experimental group over
the achievement of the control group and this excess was considered attributable to
guidance and counseling.
Another example is in agriculture. A farmer wanted to test the effectiveness of a
fertilizer. So he prepared two plots of the same size with four replications in each plot.
He planted the same variety of rice and kept all other agricultural practices equal such
as weeding, irrigation, preparation of the soil, etc. He also saw to it that the fertility of
the two plots was the same. After the harvest, it was found out that the average of the
four replications in the experimental plot had a significant excess over the average
production of the four replications of the control plot. This was due to the effectiveness
of the fertilizer.
In both experiments, the two-tailed test was applied.
4. Randomized multigroup with a post-test design. In this design, there are two or more
experimental variables to be tested. So groups are formed equal to the number of
experimental variables. The members of each group are assigned randomly to their
respective groups. Each experimental factor is applied on the group to which it is
assigned. All other variables, whatever activities they are, are kept equal in all the
groups. After the experimental period, the same test on the lessons taken by all the
groups is given to all of them. The experimental factor assigned to the group with the
highest achievement is considered the most effective, the experimental factor assigned
 to the group with the second highest achievement is the next most effective, and so on.
(Garnett, pp. 276-295 for statistical treatment)
Example: Suppose three methods of teaching mathematics are to be tested, Methods A,
B, and C. Three groups whose members are assigned randomly are formed. The
numbers of members in the groups may be unequal but for convenience they should be
made equal as much as possible. The three groups, studying the same topic, are taught
under the three different methods, one method assigned to one group. After the
experimental period, the three groups are given the same test. The results of the tests
are subjected to some statistical procedures, usually analysis of variance, and the
relative effectiveness of the methods will be known.
In agriculture, suppose three kinds of fertilizer are to be tested for their relative
effectiveness. Three blocks of land with the same fertility are prepared with four
replication plots in each block. All other farming practices such as preparation of the
soil, irrigation, weeding, application of the same insecticide, etc. are kept equal The
blocks are planted with the same variety of rice and the three kinds of fertilizer in the
same amount are applied each to one block. The productions from the blocks with their
replications are subjected to analysis of variance and the results of the computation will
show the relative effectiveness of the three kinds of fertilizer. (Gomez and Gomez, pp. 9-
24)
5. Randomized multigroup with a pre-test and a post-test design. This is the same as the
design in No. 4. The only difference is that, there is a pre-test. After the experiment, the
results of the pre-test and those of the post-test are subjected to some statistical
methods, usually the analysis of covariance, and the relative effectiveness of the three
methods will be revealed. (Garrett, pp. 295-303)

B. Two Factor Experiment

1. Factorial design. A factorial experimental design is a two factor experiment in which
there are two experimental factors involved. For instance, we want to know the
performance of a group of males and females in a learning situation under the effects of
varying amounts of the same drug. In this experiment, there are two factors — sex, male
or female, and dosage, the amount of the drug measured in milligrams. In our analysis,
we are concerned with differences in learning related to (1) sex, (2) the amount of the
drug taken, and (3) the interaction effect of sex and drug. In this experiment, we have to
make a two-way classification: classification of data according to sex, and classification
of the same data according the drug dosage. The achievement scores of the two groups
after they have taken a post-test are subjected to analysis of variance which will reveal
whether there is a significant difference between the learning capacity of males and that
of females when under the effects of varying amounts of the drug, and whether there is
a significant difference between the scores of the whole group under the effects of the
varying amounts of the drug, and also the interaction between sex and drug, that is, if
the two factors helped each other. (Downie and Heath, pp. 218-221)

The Experimental Plan

There is a definite procedure in conducting an experimental study in education, psychology, sociology,
industry, and in other fields. The steps follow:

1. Determining the experimental problem or topic. This is defining the problem. Is it determining
the effectiveness of a teaching technique? Is it finding the effect of staggered practice? Is it
finding the effect of maturation upon understanding? There are a lot of other things that can be
studied by means of experiment. Apply the guidelines in selecting a research problem.
2. Surveying related literature and studies. Reading about related literature and studies will give
the experimenter a better understanding of his problem and experimental design. The
formulation of hypothesis, methodology, selection of samples, experimental design, statistical
procedures, etc. utilized in related studies will serve. as guides in conducting his experimental
study.
3. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses. These are questions which are to be answered by the
study; they are tentative conclusions about the outcomes of the experiment. They must be
testable, that is, they may be accepted as true or rejected as not true. Hypotheses are usually
stated in the null form in experimental studies.
4. Identifying the experimental variables. The independent variable will be applied and expected to
cause a change or effect on the dependent variable. Both the independent and dependent
variables have to be identified. This will help the experimenter in making his experimental
design.
5. Select the appropriate experimental design. The selection of the experimental design depends
upon the expected outcomes or what the experimenter wants to find out. In other words, the
design that will best test the hypotheses should be selected. In the example, the experimental
designs selected and used were
a. For determining the effectiveness each individual method the single group with a pre-test and
post-test design was used,
b. For determining the comparative effectiveness of the five methods, the randomized
multigroup with a pre-test and a post-test design was selected and used.
6. Selecting the sample. The sample is composed of subjects or students to be used in the
experiment. The sample should be representative, large enough, and selected properly to be
able to give valid and reliable generalizations. In the example, the experimental designs require
that the assigning of students to the five methods of teaching Spanish must be randomized. The
experimenter used all the five sections of nursing students in a university taking Spanish 2. He
assumed that the distribution of the students to the five sections was random enough because
it was done on a first-come first-served basis and not on any selective basis. One section was
opened for enrolment and when this was filled up, the next section was opened for enrolment
and when this was filled up, the next section was opened and so on. The professor employed
the raffle in assigning the five methods to the sections.
7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results of the experiment.
Choose or construct instruments that will measure accurately the outcomes of the experiment.
Pretest the instruments to insure their validity and reliability. In the example, the experimenter
constructed a test in Spanish grammar and administered it to a group of students in another
college and correlated the scores of the students with their final grades. The coefficient of
correlation (validity coefficient) was .51 which was substantial. The reliability coefficient was .68
computed by using the split-half method.
8. Conducting the experiment. The experiment must be conducted according to the experimental
design. In the example, the experiment lasted one whole semester. To be sure that all the
proper procedures in carrying out an experiment were followed, the professor himself handled
all the five sections teaching Spanish 2 grammar by meand of the five methods, each method
was assigned to one section permanently. Since non-experimental factors may seriously affect
the results of an experiment, he saw to it that extraneous factors enumerated by Manuel and
Medel (Manuel and Medel, pp. 40.41) were taken care of:
a. History, specific events between the first and second measurement in addition to the
experimental variable. The dramatic landing on the moon could affect the measurement of a
new Physics course on the attitudes of the students.
b. Maturation, biological or psychological processes which operate with the passage of time,
regardless of events. Students grow older, hungrier, more bored and which may be mistaken as
the effect of the experimental stimulus.
c. Testing, the effects of taking a text upon the scores of a second test. In various types of tests,
the scores in the second test may be attributable to increased awareness of item design or
better insight on how to respond the second time around.
d. Biases in the selection of respondents in the comparison groups. Experimental group may
have volunteered for the experiment, exhibiting effects not attributable to the experimental
factor, also known as the Hawthorne effect.
e. Experimental mortality, loss of respondents from the comparison groups.
f. Interaction effects, which represent effects of the experimental factor and some other
variables such as experimental settings, reactive effect of testing, and prior treatment
interference. (The professor saw to it that all non-experimental variables that would adversely
affect the results had to be lx kept equal as practically as possible among the groups such as
time, conditions of the rooms, the giving of praise, keeping absences to the minimum, non-
scolding of students as much as possible, the giving of quizzes, and tests, and other classroom
practices.
9. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures. After the experiment, the results have
to be measured and statistical methods have to be applied to determine their significance. In
the example, to measure the results of the experiment, the experimenter administered a pre-
test to the subjects (students) and after the experiment he administered a post-test, the same
pre-test but in different form. Then he applied statistical procedures to the achievement scores
of the students.
To determine de effectiveness of each method of teaching Spanish grammar, he applied the so-
called one-tailed test or t-test. Since it is not within the scope of this book to show the complete
process of computing the t, a good statistical book should be consulted, preferably Garrett. pp.
134-139, 226-228.
To determine the comparative effectiveness of the five methods, the experimenter applied the
analysis of covariance. Again a good statistical book may be consulted preferably Garrett, pp.
295-303.
10. Writing the report of the experiment. Whatever the form, the report about the experiment must
be made, either in thesis form or otherwise. The results or findings, especially, are to be
reported. There should be a complete report of the experiment from the selection of the
problem to the reporting of the findings.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING CHAPTER 1
 CHAPTER 1 – PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Chapter 1 seeks to provide the reader with the background and rationale behind the study
and clarifies the position of the research study within the topic area. The research problem is
identified and refined to workable hypotheses, the objectives for the study are set, the theoretical
background of the research study is reviewed and available research is cited to substantiate the
theory. Throughout this chapter all concepts used in the research study are operationally defined
to ensure that the reader has the same understanding as the researcher of the concepts. (report
only)

The Chapter 1 of a research paper should contain a discussion of each of the following topics:

 Introduction
 Statement of the Problem
 Objectives of the Study (report only)
 Assumptions and Hypothesis
 Significance or Importance of the Study
 Definition of Terms
 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
 Conceptual Framework
 Theoretical Framework (report only)

THE INTRODUCTION

An introduction is the first paragraph of a written research paper. Without an introduction

it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what you are trying to say. The
introduction gives the reader the beginning of the piece of thread so they can follow it. It serves
the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It
establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding
and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the
hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining your rationale, methodological
approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and describing the
remaining structure of the paper. (REPORT ONLY)

Guidelines in Writing the introduction:

1. Presentation of the problem. The start of the introduction is the presentation of the
problem, that is, what the problem is all about. This will indicate what will be covered
by the study.

2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.

3. Rationale of the study. The reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the
study must be discussed.
 4. Historical background of the problem.

5. A desire to have deeper and cleared understanding of a situation,

circumstance, or phenomenon.

6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product.

7. A desire to discover something.

8. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary in anthropological and

economic studies.

9. A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. A sentence or two
should show the link between the introduction and the conducting of the researcher.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem is also called “purpose statement and research questions.” It is a
statement of the purpose of the study and a series of questions that will help in researching the topic.
It describes the main problem or issue of the research to be investigated, the focal point of any
research. It also serves as the bases of the research instrument. (report only)

There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions or
subproblems into which the general problem is broken up. These are already formulated at the
beginning of the study and so they should only be copied in this section.

Guidelines in Writing the Statement of the Problem (According to Calderon and Gonzales)
(report only)

1. The general statement of the problem and the specific sub-problems should be
formulated first before conducting the research.

2. The problem must be reflected in your title or the readers must know your problem
by just simply reading your topic.

3. The problem must not be answerable by yes or no and must be arranged in the flow of
your documentation or study

4. It is customary to state specific sub-problems in the interrogative form; hence, sub-

problems are also called "specific questions”.

5. Each specific research question should be clear and unequivocal in order to avoid
confusion.

6. Each research question should be researchable apart from the other questions
(i.e., separable).
 7. Each research question must be based upon known facts and phenomena.

8. Answers to each research question can be interpreted apart from the answers to the
other specific questions.

9. Answers to each research question must contribute to the development of the whole
research study.

10. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.

11. The number of research questions should be enough to cover the development of the
whole research study.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY (report only)

A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to

investigate the variables. Generally, research objectives focus on the ways to measure the
variables, such as to identify or describe them. Sometimes, objectives are directed towards
identifying the relationship or difference between two variables.

Research objectives are the results sought by the researcher at the end of the research
process, i.e. what the researchers will be able to achieve at the end of the research study. The
objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study. Objectives
should be closely related to the statement of the problem.

Characteristics of Research Objectives

• Research objectives is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to

achieve. A well-worded objective will be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, & Time-bound)

• Research objectives should be Relevant, Feasible, Logical, Observable,

Unequivocal & Measurable.

• Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected

timeframe and with the available resources.

• The objective or research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.

• The research objectives are the specific accomplishment the researchers hopes to
achieve by the study.

• The objective include obtaining answers to research questions or testing the

research hypothesis
 Types of research objectives

1. General objective

General objectives are broad goals to be achieved. The general objectives of the study
state what the researcher expects to achieve by the study in general terms. General
objectives are usually less in number.

2. Specific objective

Specific objectives are short term & narrow in focus. General objectives can be broken
into small logically connected parts to form specific objectives. General objective is met
through accomplishing all the specific objectives. The specific objectives are more in
number and they systematically address various aspects of the problem as defined under
‘the statement of the problem’ and key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the
problem. They should specify what the researcher will do in the study, where, and for
what purpose.

Guidelines in Writing the Objectives of the Study

While stating objectives of the study, the following guidelines must be taken care of:

1. The objectives should be presented briefly concisely.

2. They cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent
way & in a logical sequence.

3. The objectives are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what
researcher is going to do, where, & for what purpose.

4. They are realistic considering local conditions.

5. Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.

Examples of action verbs are: to assess, to identify, to find out, to determine, to compare, to
find, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to analyze, to establish

ASSUMPTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

Historical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses and

assumptions. Only experimental studies need expressly written assumptions and hypotheses.
Since these are already formulated at the start of the experiment, they are just copied in this
section

Assumptions (report only)

 An assumption is a self-evident truth which is based on a known fact or phenomenon.
Oftentimes, especially in descriptive and historical researches, assumptions are not explicitly
expressed but left implicit, that is, they are unwritten. Generally, every specific question is
implicitly based upon an assumption. If there is no assumption, expressed or implicit, there can
not be a specific question.

Guidelines in the use of basic assumptions (report only)

The following are the guidelines in the use of basic assumptions (By Sugden as cited by
Manuel p. 81)

1. You cannot assume the value of your study. Such an argument should have been made
under the section, significance of the study.

2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose to use in your research.
Such rationale and defense should be made under methodology.

3. You cannot assume the validity of the basic data. Validity is established under
methodology.

4. You cannot assume that your population is typical. This point is to be made under
methodology.

5. An assumption is not tested, neither is it defended nor argued.

Hypothesis (report only)

A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the

beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question. It
is a specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general
proposition; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory. It
is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct.

Variables in a hypotheses

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Variables aren't always
'quantitative' or numerical. Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables.
An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent
variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

Forms of Hypothesis

1. Operational Form – stated in affirmative. It states that there is a difference between two
phenomena.
 2.Null Form – stated in the negative. It states that there is no difference between two
phenomena. It is more commonly used since the null form expresses equality between the
two phenomena.

Steps in Developing a hypothesis

1. Ask a question

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that is to be answered. The question
should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of the project.

2. Do some preliminary research

The initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the
topic. Looking for theories and previous studies help form educated assumptions about what
your research will find.

At this stage, constructing a conceptual framework helps identify which variables to

study and the relationships existing between them.

3. Formulate the hypothesis

Write the initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

4. Refine the hypothesis

The hypothesis must be specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a
hypothesis, but all the terms used should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should
contain:

✓ The relevant variables

✓ The specific group being studied

✓ The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

5. Phrase the hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, it can be written in a simple prediction if-then form. The first
part of the sentence states the independent variables, and the second part states the dependent
variable.

6. Write a null hypothesis

If a research involves statistical hypothesis testing, a null hypothesis must be written. The
null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The
null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha.
Guidelines in the formulation of explicit hypotheses

1. In experimental investigations, hypotheses have to be explicit, they have to be

expressed. They also have to be expressed in comparative and correlational studies.

2. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if not

entirely absent. The subproblems or specific questions raised before the start of the
investigation and stated under the statement of the problem serve as the hypotheses.
(Good and Scates, pp. 220-221) The specific question serves as the hypotheses. With
this fact, it is logical to presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and for that
matter all theses and dissertations have their own respective hypotheses. Consequently,
no research is conducted without hypotheses at all. Hypotheses are usually in the null
form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the operational
form. Testing a hypothesis simply means gathering data to answer it.

3. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which are they based.

IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Guidance in explaining the importance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must contain explanations or discussions of any or
all of the following:

1. The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study. The rationale, timeliness and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed.

2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.

3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited. It must be shown who
are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous
position on account of the study.

4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

5. Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the implications include the
possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the
remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good points of a
system which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1) Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are
defined.
 2) Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.

3) The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term defined.
This is also an operational definition.

4) Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper articles,
dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources.
Definitions taken from published materials are called conceptual or theoretical definitions.

5) Definitions should be brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.

6) Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it
is used for the first time.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Scope

The scope defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subjects were. It
sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study.

Limitation

Limitation is also known as the boundaries or weaknesses of the study beyond the control
of the researcher. These are any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned.

Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitations.

1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.

3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.

4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be large
enough to make generalizations significant.

5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were
gathered.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the
researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved are
uncountables or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency extent, etc. The
weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual framework describes the relationship between different variables. From the
review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a theoretical scheme for his
research problem. This scheme is a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon and serves as a
basis for the formulation research hypothesis.

The conceptual framework consists of the investigator’s own position on a problem after
his exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the researcher’s new
model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher has studied. It serves as a
guide in conducting investigation

A conceptual framework is also called the research paradigm.

From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a
theoretical scheme of his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical
explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of
research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the investigator’s own position
on a problem after his exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the
researcher’s new model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher has
studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)

The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the
study. It serves as a guide in conducting the investigation. Currently, however, most theses do
not have a discussion of their conceptual frameworks. Very few thesis writers endeavor to
include an explanation of their conceptual framework in their theses.

Paradigm. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It

depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey. A paradigm may
take different diagrammatic forms.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theoretical framework is the foundation of the research study that becomes the basis of
the research problem. These are highly related theories and principles that were established and
proven by authorities which are very useful to the present study. Almost all research studies that
were conducted in the past were based on universally accepted theories and principles.
 It refers to the set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and prepositions that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. The theoretical framework
becomes the basis of the research problem. It explains the phenomena upon which the thesis
investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge. It also explains what has been
done and what has been said on the topic or problem being investigated. Moreover, the body of
knowledge establishes relationships among the variables concerned. The present study is the
missing link to the body of knowledge. Accordingly, if and when the research study is
consummated, the gap of missing link disappears since the study will have closed the gap.

The theoretical framework is now more complete until another researcher discovers
another gap, inconsistency, or weakness which will be the object of another investigation. This
section asks you to situate your study in a conceptual or theoretical framework. The idea here is
to articulate the theoretical perspective(s) that underpin and inform your ideas, and, in particular,
to discuss how ‘theory’ relates to and/or directs your study.

As you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you wish to
investigate has its roots in a number of theories that have been developed from different
perspectives. This process of structuring a ‘network’ of these theories that directly or indirectly
has a bearing on your research topic. The information obtained from different books and journals
now needs to be sorted under the main themes and theories, highlighting agreements and
disagreements among the authors and identifying the unanswered questions or gaps. Without a
theoretical framework, you will get bogged down in a great deal of unnecessary reading and
note-taking that may not be relevant to your study.(Ranjit)

What data must be obtained from theories?

1. The name/s of author/s of the theory must be taken including the place and the time
/year when he or she postulated such principle or generalization.

2. Next, copy exactly the part or parts of the theory that are relevant to your study. Make
sure you will use a parenthetical reference to recognize the parts copied.

3. Finally, you will have to make a synthesis by relating to your findings what the theory
has to say about the phenomenon being studied. (Salvador et al.)

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2

When writing a research, Chapter 2 refers to the Review of Related Literature and
studies. Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles related to the
research being conducted by the researchers. On the other hand, related studies are studies,
inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or
has some nearing or similarity.
 Related Literature and studies can be classified as Local and Foreign. Local literature are
those that are printed in the Philippines while Foreign literature is printed in other lands. Local
studies are researches conducted in the Philippines; and Foreign studies are those conducted in
other lands.

Related literature and studies helps the researchers understand his topic better. It guides
them to locate more sources of related information thus it clarifies vague points about their
problems.

GUIDELINES IN CITING RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATERIALS CITED

• The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social,
political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical and
archaeological research have also changed some historical facts. Researchers in education
and psychology are also making great strides. So, findings fifteen years ago may have
little value today unless the study is a comparative inquiry about the past and the present.
Mathematical and statistical procedures, however, are a little more stable.

• Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are extremely
one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided.

3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that some similarity to or bearing
on the problem researched on, should be cited. It must be avoided to mention studies or
points that are unrelated to the topic and the research question(s) at hand. make sure that the
relevant points you mention about a study are also relevant to your sub-heading and research
question(s). Just because a study is important to your topic does not mean that all the details
within it are relevant to your task.

4. Materials must not be too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough to give
the researchers proper insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is
especially a problem with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are few related materials or
even none at all. Ordinarily, from fifteen to twenty-five may do for a master’s thesis from
twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation. Depending upon their availability and depth and
length of discussions. The numbers, however, are only suggestive but not imperative. These
are only the usual numbers observed in theses and dissertations surveyed. For an
undergraduate thesis, about ten may do.

Quiz: 5 to 10 undergraduate thesis, 10 to 15 master’s, 15 to 25 doctoral

B. WAYS OF CITING RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

When writing the Review of Related Literature of a given research paper, citations are a
must. This is largely in line with the idea to avoid plagiarism and to give the authors that
provided the necessary knowledge to the researchers the recognition they deserve. Commonly,
in-text citations are used when citing authors in chapter 2 of our research paper. To start, there
are two ways of in-text citation: narrative and parenthetical. Briefly explaining, a narrative
citation is when you cite the author while you are quoting or paraphrasing their work; hence the
term narrative.

Notice that the main difference between the narrative and parenthetical citations is that
parenthetical citations involves containing the author, date, and page number (or paragraph
number if there are no page numbers present), in that order, contained within parentheses and are
located at the end of a sentence or at the end of a given paragraph. This is the reason why it is
called a parenthetical citation.

As with anything that involves scholarly writing, citations also come with some rules to
remember. Not in any order, the following are expressed:

A work by two authors. Name both authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses each time you
cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use the
ampersand in parentheses.

Ex 1: Geankoplis and Van Ness (2020) stated that…

Ex 2: … for closed systems (Geankoplis & Van Ness, 2020).

A work by three or more authors. Here, we will list the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
in every citation, even the first, unless doing so would create confusion between different
sources. This is the case when citing multiple works with similar groups of authors, and when the
shortened “et al” citation is used, the two citations would then be identically the same. Thus, to
avoid ambiguity, the researcher must need to write out more names. Since et al. is plural, it
should always be a substitute for more than one name. In the case that et al. would stand in for
just one author, write the author’s name instead.

Ex. 1 (no ambiguity): …inert medium (Smith, et al., 2004, p. 420).

Smith et al. (2004) stated that steam, in a steam power…

Ex. 2 (with ambiguity): Given the two sets of authors below:

Smith, Van Ness, Barns, and Abbott (2004)

Smith, Van Ness, Bunyan, and Narayanan (2004)

Correct: (Smith, Van Ness, Barns, et al., 2004)

 (Smith, Van Ness, Bunyan, et al., 2004)

Incorrect: (Smith, Van Ness, et al., 2004)

(Smith, Van Ness, et al., 2004)

Unkown author. If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in sentence or
use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized; titles of
articles, chapters, and web pages are in quotation marks. The APA style prefers capitalizing
important words in titles when they are written in the text. However, they should not be when
they are written in reference lists. It should be noted that if "Anonymous" is used for the author,
we shall treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2020). For the reference list, use the name
Anonymous as the author.

Ex: The type of equipment used depends primarily on the heat transfer… (“Transport Processes,”
1978).

Organization as an author. If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention

the organization in sentence or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source; the
same as you would for an individual person. If the organization has a well-known abbreviation,
you may include the abbreviation in brackets (when used inside parentheses) or in parentheses
(for narrative ciations) the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later
citations. However, if you cite work from multiple organizations whose abbreviations are the
same, do not use abbreviations to avoid ambiguity. Abbreviations should not be used in reference
lists.

Ex 1: According to the Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers (2020) … According to

the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) (2020) …

Ex 2: First Citation - (Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers [PIChE], 2020)

Subsequent Citations - (PIChE, 2020)

Two or more works in the same parentheses. When your parenthetical citation includes two or
more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, which is alphabetically,
then separated by a semi-colon. Citing multiple works by the same author in the same
parenthetical citation only gives the author’s name once and then followed by dates. No date
citations go first, then years, then in-press citations.

Ex 1: (Narayanan, 2013; Smith, et al., 2004)

Ex 2: (Geankoplis, n.d., 1995, 2002, in press)

Authors with the same last name. To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names.
Ex: (J. Smith, 2004; M. Smith 2020)

Two or more works by the same author in the same year. When having two sources by the
same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in
the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.

Ex: Smith (2020a) in his research proved the existence of perpetual machines through complex
calculations and theories. However, applying the calculations for real life applications was
proved to be unattainable (Smith, 2020b).

Citing indirect sources. While researchers tend to cite from primary sources, there are times
where this is a difficult task. When using a source that was cited in another source, name the
original source in the sentence, then include the secondary source in the parentheses. List the
secondary source in your reference list. If you know the year of the original source, include it in
the citation.

Ex: Rajput stated that perpetual … (as cited in Narayanan, 2010, pp 7-8).

Unknown author and unknown date. If no author or date is given, use the title in the signal
phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." ("no
date").

Ex: The type of equipment used depends primarily on the heat transfer… (“Transport Processes,”
n.d.).

Sources without page numbers. There are instances where an electronic source lacks page
numbers, and it could be quite hard for the readers to find the part where it was cited. In this
case, we can use the heading or section name, an abbreviated heading or section name, a
paragraph number (para. 1), or a combination of these.

Ex: However, according to Smith et al. (2020b), applying the calculations for real life
applications was proved to be unattainable (Perpetual Motion Machines section, para. 2).

Some additional notes. Parenthetical citations, like (see, e.g., Naranayan, 2013; Smith, et al.,
2004), the word “see” is used when the researcher wants to list a few example sources of a large
body of work.

The above gives a rough idea on how to properly cite sources in the review of related
literature in APA 7th edition. With these in mind, the following are the ways of citing related
literature and studies.

1. By author or writer
In this method, the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have the same meaning, are
explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with their respective authors or
writers. The following are examples that explains how this is performed:

According to Narayanan (2013), internal energy is defined as (…). In the case for Smith et al.
(2004), for them, internal energy refers to energy of the molecules (…).

2. By topic

In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same topic, the topic
is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This is a summary of their
opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same topic. An example would
then be:

Internal energy can be defined as energy internal to a system by virtue of the configuration and
motion of a given set of molecules contained within (Narayanan, 2013; Smith, et al.. 2004).

3. Chronological

Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according to the year they were
written. Materials which were written earlier should be cited first before those which were
written later. This can be done especially when citation is by author or writer. If citation is by
topic, chronological citation can be done it the footnote.

C. WHAT TO CITE

In any academic writing, you are required to identify which ideas, facts, thoughts, and
concepts are yours and which are derived from the research and work of others. Whether you
summarize, paraphrase, or use direct quotes, if it's not your original idea, the source must be
acknowledged.

It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be discussed
in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions are
summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.

In general, you must document sources when you provide information that you ordinarily
would not have known before conducting your research, and when you provide information that
it cannot be assumed the reader knows. Whether you are quoting, paraphrasing, or just
referencing, it is important to cite:

 Anyone else's articulated ideas, arguments, opinions, or experiences. Example:

 According to Smith, Van Ness, and Abbott (2004), steam is considered as an inert medium,
when taken into context in a steam power plant, in which heat is transferred from a burning
fuel; but it is also quite possible to originate from a nuclear reactor instead of fuel (p. 302)

 Direct quotations of any words written or spoken by others. Example:

According to Wernher Von Braun, “research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m
doing.”

 Data, statistics, or facts produced or documented by others. Example:

According to the Philippines’ Sugar Regulatory Administration (2020), sugar production in

the Philippines for crop year 2019/2020 is projected to reach 2.1 million tons and around
95% of total production is consumed by domestic industries, in particular industrial users
such as beverage manufacturers.

There are certain things that do not need citation, including:

 Don’t cite when what you are saying is your own insight.

Research involves forming opinions and insights around what you learn. You may be citing
several sources that have helped you learn, but at some point you must integrate your own
opinion, conclusion, or insight into the work. The fact that you are not citing it helps the
reader understand that this portion of the work is your unique contribution developed through
your own research efforts.

 Don’t cite when you are stating common knowledge.

Information qualifies as common knowledge when it can be found in a significant number of

sources and is not considered to be controversial. General descriptions of social customs,
traditions, and observable world phenomena qualify as common knowledge, as well as
popular expressions and sayings. Common knowledge can vary between subject fields, so
think about your audience. If you have doubts about whether something is common
knowledge, ask your professor or another expert in the discipline.

For example:

a. Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H. (does not require citation)
b. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius. (does not require citation)

General Tips in Citing

 Be selective. When using an outside source, only include relevant information. Not
everything in the original text will pertain to the current paper, so be selective when
deciding which information should be included and which should be left out altogether.
 Sometimes only a sentence or two from the original source is relevant to the student’s
paper.

 Be concise. Stay focused and on-topic, making sure that all information ties back to the
research statement. The focus should not be on others’ thoughts but instead on the
researcher.

The purpose of using outside sources is to incorporate them into the paper as support.

 Do not overuse sources. While it is perfectly acceptable to use a source more than once
if there are multiple ideas or arguments that apply, do not use the same source too
frequently. A variety of sources should be included throughout the paper. The more
sources there are that back up an idea or argument, the more credible it will be. If one
source is overused, it can appear as though it is the only source that could be found to
support the position presented.

 Can use more than one source per paragraph. Some sources may cover similar
concepts or be on the same side of an argument and work well together, in which case it
could be best to include them in the same paragraph.

D. QUOTING A MATERIAL

Quoting means including the exact passage of someone else’s words and crediting the
source to your research. A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it
is controversial and it is not too long. In some disciplines, such as literary studies and history,
quoting is used frequently to support an argument. In most others, especially science and
technology, it is used sparingly. Make sure you understand how quoting is used in your
discipline. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right sides of the paper
but without any quotation marks.

Short Quotations

For quotations of fewer than 40 words, add quotation marks around the words and
incorporate the quote into your own text—there is no additional formatting needed. Do not insert
an ellipsis at the beginning and/or end of a quotation unless the original source includes an
ellipsis.

Example:

According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of

personality" (184).

Block Quotations
 Quotations that are 40 words or more are considered block quotations and are formatted
differently than regular quotations. The following is a list of the unique formatting that is needed
for block quotations:

1. Block quotations start on their own line.

2. The entire block quotation is indented 0.5 inches, the same as the indentation for a new
paragraph, and is double spaced.

3. Block quotations are not surrounded by any quotation marks.

4. The punctuation at the end of the block quotation goes before the citation.

5. The ending citation is included on the last line of the block quotation.

6. The text after the block quotation begins on its own line, with no indentation. You should
not end a paragraph with a block quotation because any quotation you use as evidence in
your writing should be followed by analysis in your own words as part of the same
paragraph.

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on a
designated part of the text. It elaborates as well as simplifies a particular point mentioned in the
body of text and also shows its accountability by acknowledging the source of information taken
out. Its presence shows the credibility of the piece of work present in the paper and also gives
convenience to the reader for looking into the details of the sources, illustrations without going
towards the end of the paper for endnotes or references. Example:

Karl Pearson writes,

“The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that
method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences
consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any
kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is
applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”8

Footnote: 8 Karl Pearson, The Grammar of Science, Part I, pp. 10–12.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry
may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that inspite of similar
studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in other places are
also true in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to continue with the present
investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problem
or topic so that generalizations or principles may be formulated. These generalizations and
principles would be the contributions of the present investigation together with other studies to
the fund of knowledge. This is one of the more important purposes of research: the contribution
that it can give to the fund of knowledge.

A research justification or rationale refers to the basis of investigation or the reason why
the study is being conducted. It should include a description or an explanation for the methods
used in the research. The researcher must address the rationale clearly that the conducted
research is authentic and not a duplicate of other existing researches.

There may also be a need to continue with the present study to affirm or negate the
findings of other inquiries about the same research problem or topic so that generalizations or
principles may be formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of
the present investigation together with other studies to the fund of knowledge. The justification
for the project is to try to explain why a solution to the problem described in the research needs
to be implemented. The rationale must be correctly addressed so that the entire research project
can be strong.

In an investigation one must justify virtually everything that is done. Each aspect of the
study design has an influence on what is learned from the study.

Critics may detract from the findings if they believe that there is something atypical about
the people who were selected for the study, some bias that makes certain people selected,
something unfair about the groups compared, something bad about the approach of the questions,
etc.

Therefore, you need to provide a reason for home aspect of the study. To see how a
foundation makes a difference, one must imagine that two different studies are being read with
similar designs and methods but with different reasons. Then one should ask what is considered
most persuasive; that will have the best justification.

Guidelines in Writing Research Justification

1. State the statement

A good narrative of justification must begin with a brief summary about what the researcher
wants to declare, this would be the main context of the rationale. The statement should state
what changes are believed to be imposed, what budget is needed, what policies should be
implemented, the problem at hand, etc.

Example: The researcher wants to conduct a study regarding the factors that the students of
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila considered in selecting their respective courses.
 2. Establish reasons

After establishing the statement, the researcher must explain the reason behind it. It should
answer the question, “Why is it important?”.

Example: The researcher could state that it is important to know since it could affect their
academic performance and their career in the future.

• Provide supporting details

In order to strengthen the justification, the researcher could include an argument to

support the statement. Any support should be provided in a form of statistics, other
related studies, or expert opinions. As far as possible, serious studies should be found to
support the argument. As long as more support is offered, the justification will be
stronger.

Example: The researcher could include graphs, charts, or statistics about the impact of
the students’ chosen course in college with their academic performance.

2. Discuss the budget problems

The research budget should be an important part of the justification. Relevant information
on the budget should be included, including the resources needed to conduct the research
and the impact it will have; the possible revenues that will be generated or what costs will
be saved.

Example: The researcher could include the expenses in the production of questionnaires,
the costs in the transportation for gathering relevant resources in the study, etc.

Difference between good and bad justification narratives

All aspects of a good project justification must be based on logical reasoning or

foundation. To see how good reasoning makes the difference, one could imagine that two studies
are being read with similar designs and methods but with different foundations.

The most logical, partial and professional narrative will be the most appropriate. In the
following cases it can be observed:

Research question

Example of bad justification: I was curious.

 Example of good justification: A discrepancy was noticed in the investigation and it was
wanted to put to the test.

Sample

Example of bad justification: I know these teachers.

Example of good justification: These teachers represent the population that other
researchers have been studying.

Comparison

Example of bad justification: We did not bother comparing them with other people
because we knew they were honest people.

Example of good justification: They were compared to another group that was similar to
them in all respects, except in their knowledge of this subject of particular interest.

Information Collection

Example of bad justification: It was easier to do it this way and / or had no time to do
anything else.

Example of good justification: The information we collected was directly relevant to the
discrepancy we wanted to know a little more.

Interpretation

Example of bad justification: The patterns we observe make sense and support my
personal experiences.

Example of good justification: The patterns we observed were consistent with one
version of this theory and not with the other. Therefore, questions arise about the second
version of this theory.